\r\n\tTo further unravel critical mechanisms triggering metastasis and spontaneous regression of neuroblastoma, the key players and associated signalling pathways that dominate these mechanisms should be fully characterized. The genomic alterations, oncogenes and tumour suppressors, which affect cellular pathways, such as cell growth, proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, apoptosis and differentiation, play a major role in determining tumoural behaviour of neuroblastoma. This book will focus on key players and mechanisms of metastasis and spontaneous regression of neuroblastoma.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"79a60ba88e02272c74e9c290e102cb99",bookSignature:"Dr. Nevim Aygun and Dr. Akira Nakagawara",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7697.jpg",keywords:"neuroblastoma, metastasis, spontaneous regression, mechanisms, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration, invasion, intravasation, extravasation, signalling pathways, MYCN amplification, 1p deletion, other deletions, other chromosomal abnormalities, chromothripsis, genomic alterations, oncogenes, tumour suppressors, proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, DNA repair, differentiation, epigenetic control, immunity, telomerase",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 1st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2018",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"195365",title:"Dr.",name:"Nevim",middleName:null,surname:"Aygun",slug:"nevim-aygun",fullName:"Nevim Aygun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195365/images/system/195365.jpeg",biography:"Nevim Aygun received her Medical Biology and Genetics Ph.D. in Health Sciences. 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1. Introduction
It has been said that the central nervous system (CNS) is the most complex among the fetal and adult systems. This is one of the most common sites of congenital malformation, both in fetuses with and without chromosomal abnormality. It is extremely difficult to diagnose structural abnormalities or mild ultrasound (US) abnormalities that have been linked to major functional problems. Just the opposite, major anatomic defects may not lead to significant malfunctioning of the system. It is extremely important to study the structure, in an attempt to understand the function of the normal and abnormal fetal central nervous system [1, 2]. The detection of CNS anomalies in fetal life is feasible using modern ultrasound equipment. Many anomalies of the central nervous system develop early, and nowadays, we have the tools to detect some conditions at 11–13 weeks [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8] or even earlier. The first-trimester detection of CNS anomalies is probably the most important advance in modern sonoembriology. Later in pregnancy, neurosonography is a powerful tool in diagnosing CNS pathology.
The following chapter is structured as follows:
Normal findings
Ventricular system (ventriculomegaly, aqueduct stenosis)
Some intracranial segments of CNS are seen on ultrasound extremely early in development, especially when using high-resolution probes and modern electronic tools. Although many features are indeed recognizable, the clinical utility of such studies is yet to be proven (Figures 1–3).
Figure 1.
Dating ultrasound scan at 8 weeks of amenorrhea (WA) and 3 days (d). Volumetric ultrasound: sectional planes in the multiplanar mode (a). Subsequently, OmniView facility was used, the line mode (b, c, and d). The embryonic central nervous primitive vesicles can be observed.
Figure 2.
The same case, at 10 WA 1d. The same technique was used, after acquiring a static 3D volume.
Figure 3.
The same case, at 10 WA 1d. The region of interest is placed inside the head, and HD (high-definition) inversion mode surface rendering is applied. This imaging technique acts like a matrix, or a “mold,” bringing forth fluid-filled cavities: the early ventricular system.
In the late first trimester, current guidelines recommend checking for present cranial bones, for normal midline falx, and for the presence of choroid plexus and filled ventricles [9]. The most recommended planes for assessing the head anatomy are the axial ones. In terms of spine assessment, the guidelines state that “longitudinal and axial views should be obtained to show normal vertebral alignment and integrity, and an attempt should be made to show intact overlying skin” [9] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
The thalamic plane (a and b), the third ventricle plane (c), and the longitudinal image of the spine, in a prone position (d). In b, the head biometry is represented (measurement of BPD and HC).
From the early second trimester onwards, the commendation is to obtain in standard assessment three standard axial planes (transventricular, transthalamic, and transcerebellar), and, if technically feasible, the fetal profile [10] (Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5.
The thalamic plane.
Figure 6.
The biventricular (transventricular) and the transcerebellar plane.
The measurements for fetal head biometry (the biparietal diameter—BPD and the head circumference—HC) are possible when using the transventricular (biventricular) and the transthalamic plane. In the most commonly used technique, the calipers are placed from the outer edge to the inner edge (the “leading edge” technique), at the widest part of the skull, using a perpendicular angle to the midline falx. The HC is measured on the external contour. The cranial bones describe on axial planes a regular ovoid shape. The midline must be continuous, having no deviations, and the intracranial structures must be symmetrical, mirroring each other’s half. Usually, the proximal hemisphere to the probe has a lower visibility, and only the distal one is described by the operator. On the transthalamic plane, the anatomic landmarks are (from anterior to posterior) the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles (LVs), the cavum septi pellucidi (CSP), located between them as a fluid-filled structure, the two thalami (resembling together a “heart image”), the third ventricle between them, and the hippocampal gyrus. The biventricular plane is found just above the previous one and allows the visualization of the lateral ventricles, with the choroid plexus inside them. The width of the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle must be measured using the exact mark of the parieto-occipital sulcus, inside the echoes generated by the ventricular walls, by a direction aligned perpendicularly to the long axis of the ventricle. Before 25 WA, the measurement must be smaller than 8 mm. The transcerebellar plane is obtained just below the transthalamic one, in an oblique fashion. The slight posterior tilting allows the visualization of the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles, CSP, thalami, cerebellum, and cisterna magna [1, 10]. The transversal diameter of the cerebellum (in mm) equals roughly the gestational age (in weeks). In the second half of gestation, the depth of the cisterna magna (measured between the cerebellar vermis and the intern margin of the occipital bone) is stable and should not exceed 10 mm.
The neurosonogram implies obtaining four more coronal planes and three sagittal/parasagittal planes and assessing the evolving cerebral fissures, gyrations, and circumvolutions [1]. The coronal planes are displayed in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
The transfrontal plane (the frontal-2), the transcaudate plane (mid-coronal-1), the transthalamic plane (mid-coronal-2), and the transcerebellar plane (occipital-1 and 2).
The transfrontal plane is obtained through the anterior fontanelle. The interhemispheric fissure (IEF) in the median plane and the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles on both sides can be seen. This plane passes anterior to the genu of the corpus callosum (CC), and this is why the IEF appears uninterrupted. The transcaudate plane passes at the level of caudate nuclei and the genu of the CC. It interrupts the continuity of the IEF. CSP appears as an anechogenic triangular structure under the CC. Lateral ventricles are seen, surrounded by the cortex. Also, the Sylvian fissures may be identified, laterally. In the transthalamic plane, the thalami are seen adjoining. In some cases, the third ventricle is seen in the median plane. In this plane, at the base of the skull, the vessels of the circle of Willis and the optic chiasma may be recognized. The transcerebellar plane is obtained through the posterior fontanelle. The occipital horns of the LV and IEF are seen, also the cerebellar hemispheres and the vermis.
The antero-posterior planes are displayed in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8.
The sagittal plane. The corpus callosum is highlighted in the middle image.
Figure 9.
The sagittal plane with HD flow applied, displaying the pericallosal artery (a), the measurement of the nasal bone and the fronto-maxillary facial angle, and the parasagittal or oblique plane-1 (c).
In the midsagittal (median) plane, all components of the CC (rostrum, genu, body, splenium) may be seen. Also, the CSP, the brain stem, pons, vermis, and posterior fossa. The parasagittal planes (right and left) depict the entire LV, the choroid plexus, the periventricular tissue, and the cortex.
2.1. The spine
In the sagittal and parasagittal planes, the ossification centers of the vertebral body and posterior arches form two parallel lines that converge in the sacrum, in the prone position of the fetus. Efforts must be made to demonstrate the integrity of the overlying skin.
In the second and third trimesters, these planes allow imaging of the spinal canal and of the spinal cord within it. The conus medullaris is usually found at the level of L2–L3 vertebrae (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
The imaging of the spine and the distal region of the spinal canal. Axial thoracic vertebrae.
In transverse planes or axial planes, the vertebrae have different shapes at different levels [1]. Fetal thoracic and lumbar vertebrae have a triangular shape, the first cervical vertebrae are quadrangular in shape, and sacral vertebrae are flat.
The normalcy of the vertebrae and ribs’ arches may be very easily demonstrated in the coronal plane, using the 3D technique, skeletal mode. Both can be readily numbered (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Imaging the spine in the coronal plane. In left image, a supernumerary lumbar rib case is shown.
In the prenatal scanning, many normal and abnormal structures may vary and evolve intensively. Thus, using descriptive terms is advisable. The observer may use a thorough detailed depiction of the visualized structures and features, may note the absent normal structure/structures, and may signalize an abnormal structure. This approach is preferred to issuing a specific diagnosis.
3. Abnormalities of the ventricular system
Ventriculomegaly is the most frequent abnormal CNS finding diagnosed in utero and is the most common indication for second-level neurosonography and fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [11].
Establishing its class of severity is based on the width of the atrium of the lateral ventricle measurement: ventriculomegaly is considered to be mild when the atrial width is 10–12 mm, moderate between12 and 15 mm, and severe if larger than 15 mm.
In rare cases, ventriculomegaly is accessible in early pregnancy (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Early ventriculomegaly cases.
Yet, this is usually a second- and third-trimester diagnosis. The prevalence of mild ventriculomegaly, based on current criteria, is estimated to be around 0.7% [12]. The finding of ventriculomegaly should trigger a thorough analysis of the fetal brain to investigate all associations (malformative, clastic, tumoral, and syndromic). If no underlying pathophysiology and etiology are found, ventriculomegaly is referred to as “isolated.” Melchiorre et al. [13] demonstrated the particularly difficult counseling in such cases. Aqueductal stenosis is the most common cause of ventriculomegaly and its extreme form—fetal hydrocephalus. Published studies of neonates with aqueductal stenosis have noted variable outcomes, with normal development seen in 24–86% of cases [14] (Figures 13–15).
Figure 13.
Severe obstructive ventriculomegaly, with unknown origin. Pathologic differentiation of diencephalon and mesencephalon. Conventional necropsy confirms the enlarged ventricles. Microscopy: marked astrocyte cell line proliferation, neuronal migration defects, and cortical fibrosis (stained with hematoxylin and eosin, ob. 40×).
Figure 14.
Different cases of unilateral borderline isolate ventriculomegaly, symmetric, and asymmetric.
Figure 15.
Twin monochorionic diamniotic pregnancy, with discordant major SNC anomaly: severe ventriculomegaly due to aqueductal stenosis. The images display comparatively the same planes: the transthalamic (a) and transcerebellar plane (b), the fetal profile (c) at 17 WA. The transthalamic plane at 25 WA (d). The long-term evolution of fetus B was favorable (after ventriculo-peritoneal shunt).
4. Neural tube defects
Neural tube defects (NTDs) are a frequent group of severe anomalies of the central nervous system. The most frequent conditions are anencephaly, spina bifida, and cephalocele [15]. The open NTDs occur as a result of a primary failure of the neural tube closure between the 17th and 30th postfertilization days. They have a rather stable prevalence. This highlights the importance of primary prevention by folic acid supplementation and the paramount meaning of accurate prenatal diagnosis. In rare cases, some forms of NTDs may be recognized very early in pregnancy (Figure 16).
Figure 16.
Early embryonic demise, in a case of suspected exencephaly.
Yet, the vast majority of cases are approached in the late first trimester (11–13 WA), due to the fact that the role of this scan has evolved [5, 7, 8, 16, 17, 18]. The technique has grown, no longer being a screening for aneuploidy tool [19, 20, 21, 22]—but a method to almost assess the complete fetal anatomy. This became the first anomaly scan in many units [4, 5, 18, 23, 24, 25].
In terms of central nervous system, the newest area of debate is the significance of posterior fossa ultrasound semiology. At 11–14 weeks of gestation, it is possible to visualize and measure many spaces in the posterior brain: the brainstem (BS), the fourth ventricle or intracranial translucency (IT), and the cisterna magna (CM). In some settings, such anatomical spaces are assessed routinely by ultrasound in parasagittal or oblique views of the fetal face, as part of the nuchal translucency (NT) scan [26, 27]. Abnormalities of the posterior brain spaces or deviations of their measurements have been proposed as markers of congenital malformations of the posterior fossa [26, 27, 28, 29]. Subsequently, the correlation between the decreased amount of intracranial fluid and open spina bifida (OSB) has been established [16, 30]. More recently, it has been suggested that increased fluid may indicate the presence of cystic posterior fossa anomalies such as Dandy-Walker malformation (DWM) and Blake’s pouch cyst (BPC) [31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
Also, the axial planes offer many indirect signs of OSB and have competed with the sagittal planes in the efficacy of first-trimester screening for OSB [36, 37, 38]. It seems that in experienced hands, OSB may reach 100% early detection rates, being reliably diagnosed at 11–14 weeks of screening [39].
In our view, both sagittal and axial planes of the fetal head may be used in OSB screening, depending on the operator’s skills and the equipment used. Also, the small BPD may be useful [40, 41].
2D planes and markers for fetal central nervous system (CNS) morphologic assessment at the first-trimester ultrasound scan are shown in Figure 17: left column, a normal fetus; right column, isolated OSB fetus.
Figure 17.
The transthalamic view of cranium in a normal (left) and an OSB case (right).
In the thalamic plane, the regularity of the skull and the bone ossification should be assessed. Also, measurements may be performed: the biparietal diameter (BPD), the head circumference (HC), and optional—the occipito-frontal diameter (OFD). Thalamus, the third ventricle (red arrow), and symmetry of the intracranial structures may be subjectively assessed. In this plane, the “crash sign” may be subjectively evaluated (the aqueduct of Sylvius position) or the distance between this feature and the occipital bone may be measured (the aqueduct—indicated by the blue quadrant, and mesencephalon—normal by the yellow contour and pathologic by the red contour).
In the lateral third-ventricle plane, aside from the regularity of the skull and the bone ossification assessment, the following structures should be visualized: the midline falx echo, the choroid plexuses, the interhemispheric fissure, the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles (LVs), the lateral walls of the anterior horns of the LV, and the thin brain mantle. In this plane, the “dry brain phenomenon” is usually present in OSB cases: the subjective large choroid plexus for the skull (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
The sagittal plane of cranium in a normal (left) and an OSB case (right).
In the sagittal plane (often called the mid-sagittal plane), many CNS structures may be identified and measured: the thalamus (T), the brain stem (BS), the medulla oblongata (MO), the midbrain (M), and the future cisterna magna (CM). In OSB cases, some mild signs may be found: the alteration of the BS (brainstem diameter)/BSOS (brainstem to occipital bone diameter) ratio and the decreased frontomaxillary facial (FMF) angle. The most valuable in screening seems to be the alteration of the cisterna magna (Figure 19).
Figure 19.
Rachischisis. Medical termination of pregnancy at 16 WA. 3D ultrasound in a surface-rendering mode (a), pathologic specimen (schisis of the lumbar skin, with exposing the meninges and the spinal canal structures) and MRI details of specimen, confirming the hemivertebra suspected on US.
Along with the mild early signs of spinal neural tube defects, other major malformations reach 100% detection rates in many reports. Figures 20–22 show several such cases, showing correlations between the ultrasound data and the specimen aspects.
Figure 20.
Exencephaly. Ultrasound images and the pathologic specimen at 12 WA.
Figure 21.
Encephalocele at 12 W. Conventional 2D ultrasound and 3D surface rendering.
Figure 22.
Complex lethal facial and cerebral anomaly. The red arrow indicates the single orbit. The pathologic specimen confirms ciclopy, proboscis, exencephaly (a). Second-trimester case of anencephaly: 2D conventional and 3D ultrasound (b).
5. Cortical formation abnormalities
The cerebral cortex development implies evolvement through three steps: neuronal precursor proliferation and differentiation; migration of immature neurons; and cortical maturation (the laminar organization and occurrence of synapsis). Neurons migrate from the ventricular zone (called the germinal matrix) toward the pial surface, along radially oriented glial scaffolds [42, 43, 44]. Gyration and sulcation occur afterword, beyond 32 WA. Disruption of any of these steps in cerebral development, due to inherited or acquired causes, can result in a wide spectrum of abnormalities.
Schizencephaly is a congenital cerebral defect in clefting, where clefts extend through the hemispheres from the ventricles to the pial surface [45]. Having two clinical types (open and closed), it seems to be caused by a primary failure of development of the cerebral mantle in early pregnancy. The condition is different from porencephaly, being characterized by the presence of heterotopic gray matter lining the cleft. Although primary, it has also been reported as a destructive process mediated by vascular injury also.
Lissencephaly means literally “smooth brain.” This is a rare brain malformation, gene-linked, characterized by the absence of normal convolutions in the cerebral cortex, leading to microcephaly. In most cases, neonates have usually a normal sized head at birth. The “cobblestone lissencephaly” is characterized by the irregular surface of the brain on the pathological specimen. This is due to aberrant neuroglial overmigration into the subarachnoid space. The formation of an extracortical agyric neuroglial layer occurs. It seems that the primary cause is the deficit of glycosylation of dystroglycans, resulting in neuroglial overmigration [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
The presence of neurons in any position other than the cortex is called neuronal heterotopia. This is caused by an abnormal phenomenon of migration during fetal development. The most frequent type is periventricular heterotopia, given by an abnormal development of the neuroependyma [44, 50]. It consists of groups of disorganized neurons and glial cells that are located along the walls of the lateral ventricles. They may be isolated (X-linked and non-X-linked forms) or associated with other CNS malformations. The prevalence in the general population is unknown, but it has been related with epilepsy, seizures, and/or developmental delay, with different grades of severity. The prenatal diagnosis has been reported, but the condition is underdiagnosed in the vast majority of screening settings. The true microcephaly is considered part of a complex disorder [48, 49, 50, 51], occurring in syndromes (with or without chromosomal anomalies). It may be associated exclusively with cerebral anomalies (due to either primary cerebral maldevelopment or clastic events like the ischemohemorrhagic ones) or infectious diseases; the latter has gained a particular interest lately, in light of the recent emergence of microcephaly related to Zika virus infection [48, 49, 50, 51]. Macrocephaly may result from macrocrania, hydrocephalus, or a major subarachnoid space abnormality. If not associated with other conditions, macrocephaly is synonymous with megalencephaly, meaning an increase in the weight and size of the brain [52] (Figure 23).
Figure 23.
Complex cortical anomaly. Nodular periventricular heterotopia seen. Cortical hypoplasia. Microcephaly. Periventricular leukomalacia. The postpartum image highlights the abnormal excessive ossification of the coronal suture and the dysmorphic facial features of the neonate.
6. Midline abnormalities
Holoprosencephaly is a congenital induction disorder, occurring extremely early in pregnancy (3–6 WA), with failing the segmentation of the neural tube [53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. This leads to incomplete separation of the prosencephalon. It has been classified into four subtypes: alobar, semilobar, lobar, and a middle interhemispheric fusion variant (syntelencephaly).
The alobar holoprosencephaly is the most severe type, having a complete lack of separation of the cerebral hemispheres; this lead to a single ventricle, absence of the CC and IEF, and fused thalami. In the semilobar type, the cerebral hemispheres are fused anteriorly. In lobar holoprosencephaly, the fusion of the cerebral hemispheres is present at the frontal lobes. The middle interhemispheric fusion variant results from nonseparation of posterior frontal and parietal lobes.
The corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain, and its development is accelerated between 8 and 20 WA. Any disturbance of this process may lead to CC agenesis or partial agenesis (hypogenesis or dysgenesis). Many CC abnormalities (in terms of dimensions and shape) are frequently diagnosed during pregnancy although their significance is still debated [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Abnormal CC has been described among patients assessed for mental retardation.
In a similar way, the absence of fluid in the CSP (with or without intact septum pellucidum and corpus callosum) may indicate subtle or severe midline brain abnormalities. All these conditions may have significant implications for postnatal neurological development [58, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68] (Figures 24 and 25).
Figure 24.
Different cases of holoprosencephaly in the first trimester (a,b). c. a case which associates proboscis.
Figure 25.
Second-trimester alobar holoprosencephaly (a and b). Short and thick corpus callosum (c).
7. Posterior fossa abnormalities
Posterior fossa abnormalities include the Dandy-Walker malformation (complete or partial agenesis of the cerebellar vermis, cystic dilatation of the fourth ventricle, and enlarged posterior fossa, with upward displacement of the tentorium, torcula, and transverse sinuses); the mega cisterna magna (a CM measuring more than 10 mm and a normal vermis); the Blake’s pouch cyst (the presence of an upwardly displaced normal cerebellar vermis, normal appearance of the fastigium, tentorium, and size of the cisterna magna); and isolated vermian hypoplasia (a normally formed vermis but of smaller size, with an otherwise normal size and anatomy of the posterior fossa) [69, 70]. It seems that the Dandy-Walker malformation, even if apparently isolated on ultrasound imaging, carries a high risk for chromosomal and associated structural anomalies. Isolated mega CM and Blake’s pouch cyst have a low risk for aneuploidy and associated structural anomalies. The isolated vermian hypoplasia is extremely rare; thus, the literature does not offer definite conclusions about its significance. This needs to be further assessed (Figure 26).
Figure 26.
Isolated mega cisterna magna. US and MRI images of the same third-trimester case.
8. Vascular abnormalities
Possible causes of hemorrhage include arteriovenous malformation, benign or malignant, intracranial tumors, fetal infection, drug toxicity, and clotting disorders, such as isoimmune or alloimmune thrombocytopenia [71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
Fetal hemorrhagic and hypoxic-ischemic insults can lead to antenatal brain damage and fetal stroke. These are associated with fetal death, postnatal seizures, mental retardation, psychomotor delays, and cerebral palsy [72]. Fetal intracranial hemorrhages and strokes can be prenatally diagnosed by ultrasound and MRI. The classification of intracranial hemorrhages includes five major types: intraventricular hemorrhage, cerebellar, subdural, primary subarachnoid hemorrhages, and other intraparenchymal hemorrhages. Intraventricular hemorrhage is the most common variety of neonatal intracranial hemorrhages and is characteristic of the immature brain. Intraventricular hemorrhages are subdivided according to their severity into four grades: the first three grades are limited to the ventricles, while the fourth grade includes parenchymal involvement.
The outcome of bleeding into the ventricles ranges from hemorrhage absorption and resolution without residual deficit, to brain damage, with neurological and mental deficits, epilepsy and in extreme cases to fetal or neonatal death. Different scoring systems have been developed to predict the prognostic significance of fetal intraventricular hemorrhage. They depend upon ventricular enlargement and the presence or absence of brain parenchymal damage [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
Spontaneous antenatal subdural hemorrhage is rare [71].
Vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation is a rare congenital malformation (1% of all abnormalities of the fetal cerebral arteriovenous system [80]. It occurs in isolation, although there have been reported cases related to cardiac abnormalities or cystic hygroma. The current hypothesis is the early occurrence (between the 6 and 11 WA), as a result of the persistence of an abnormal connection between the primitive choroidal vessels and the proximal region of the prosencephalic median vein. The persistence of the connection leads to the appearance of some abnormal arteriovenous shunts and the formation of the vein of Galen (Figures 27 and 28).
Figure 27.
Massive intraparenchymatous hemorrhage in a case of fetal/neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia.
Figure 28.
The same case. The fetus has had a complete normal neurosonogram in mid-trimester.
9. Destructive cerebral lesions
The destructive lesions may include an extremely wide range of conditions: hydranencephaly, tumors/mass lesions, cysts, periventricular leukomalacia, infections, dysplasias, intracranial hemorrhage, and other lesions. Identification of these abnormalities can be extremely helpful in providing the patients with management options. Moreover, it has the potential to modulate the neonatal therapy [81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
Hydranencephaly is a severe congenital condition: most of the cerebral hemispheres are replaced by a membranous sac. The pathogenic mechanism and the prognosis remain controversial. Still, fetal and postnatal neuroimaging data and histopathologic findings suggest an early bilateral internal carotid artery occlusion occurring at 8–12 WA [81].
Fetal brain tumors are rare and have a different histologic pattern [84]. The definitive diagnosis relies on histopathology. The distinction between potentially curable tumors and tumors rapidly fatal after birth is extremely difficult. Moreover, some intracranial masses are not real tumors. Among the histological structure, we mention teratoma, glioblastoma, fetus-in-fetu, craniopharyngioma, and hemangioma.
The acronym TORCH is used to refer to congenital infections: toxoplasmosis, other infections (syphilis, varicella zoster, and parvovirus B19), cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus. Zika virus has emerged as an important worldwide congenital infection. Many maternal and fetal symptoms are common. All mentioned infections may cause neurologic damage (ventriculomegaly, intraventricular adhesions, subependymal cysts, intracerebral calcifications, and microcephaly). The Zika virus leads to a more severe spectrum of CNS abnormalities and affects mildly other organ systems [85]. All congenital infections have rather nonspecific ultrasound findings. For the imagist professional, the awareness of imaging features of common congenital infections may facilitate early diagnosis and may, at times, lead to prompt initiation of therapy.
Periventricular leukomalacia has been reported in preterm and growth-restricted fetuses and neonates, and in monochorionic complicated pregnancies. It manifests as punctate white matter lesions or focal white matter necrosis. In clinical settings, cranial US has a limited sensitivity in detecting them. MRI is a more useful tool [78, 86].
Unfortunately, cortical dysplasias, involved as an epileptogenic substrate, are the most subtle lesions to identify, diagnose, and characterize [87, 88]. Improved MRI techniques with a multimodality approach (magnetoencephalography, positron emission tomography) will probably increase sensitivity and specificity for identifying them.
The most used classification [88] tried to unify the terminology of cortical dysplasias, which are seen as a subset of all malformations of cortical development. This proposal is based on histopathologic data, clinical and imaging findings, being currently under review [87] (Figures 29–31).
Figure 29.
Benign, small dimensions, non-evolving intracerebral cyst: 28 WA (a and b), 30 WA (c), and postpartum, by means of transfontanellar ultrasound assessment (d).
Figure 30.
Porencephaly.
Figure 31.
Arachnoid cyst.
The above division of CNS congenital anomalies is an arbitrary one. In the most severe cases, several types of cortical malformation may be found simultaneously. Moreover, many types succed one another, or overlap in time.
Figures 32–34 show several examples of such associated abnormalities.
Figure 32.
Midline abnormality and unilateral asymmetric borderline ventriculomegaly.
Figure 33.
Complete agenesis of the corpus callosum. Unilateral voluminous intracerebral cyst. Severe unilateral asymmetric ventriculomegaly. Subsequently, the short-term and long-term evolution was completely normal.
Figure 34.
Complete agenesis of the corpus callosum. Cystic dilatation of the fourth ventricle and enlarged posterior fossa, with upward displacement of the tentorium, torcula, and transverse sinuses. Confirmation of the absence of CC by means of conventional autopsy.
\n',keywords:"cortex, spine, cerebellum, brain stem, malformations, development",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60546.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60546.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60546",totalDownloads:2147,totalViews:396,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:67,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 5th 2018",datePrePublished:"April 6th 2018",datePublished:"May 2nd 2018",dateFinished:"April 6th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Central nervous system (CNS) is one of the most frequent sites for prenatal diagnosed congenital abnormalities (10 per 1000 live births, much higher than the heart—eight per 1000, kidneys—four per 1000, and other fetal systems). Due to the evolving pattern, ultrasound screening for fetal brain malformations is usually performed at 19–22 weeks’ gestation, but severe congenital anomalies can be diagnosed much earlier. This chapter is a short review, structured in eight subchapters: the first one is dedicated to the normal ultrasound aspect of different CNS segments, and the following ones are to detect pathology in prenatal life. We used many ultrasound images and tried to correlate the prenatal findings with the ones obtained postpartum/postabortum for each case, by means of pathology/imaging techniques.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60546",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60546",book:{id:"6307",slug:"congenital-anomalies-from-the-embryo-to-the-neonate"},signatures:"Andreea Ceausescu, Andreea Docea, Marina Dinu, Stefan\nDegeratu, Dominic Iliescu and Monica Cara",authors:[{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",email:"dominic.iliescu@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"244664",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",middleName:"Elena",surname:"Ceausescu",fullName:"Andreea Ceausescu",slug:"andreea-ceausescu",email:"and_deea2006@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247842",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Docea",fullName:"Andreea Docea",slug:"andreea-docea",email:"andreea.docea@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247843",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu",fullName:"Marina Dinu",slug:"marina-dinu",email:"bulmez.marina@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247844",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Degeratu",fullName:"Stefan Degeratu",slug:"stefan-degeratu",email:"sdegeratu90@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"247846",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cara",fullName:"Monica Cara",slug:"monica-cara",email:"daimoniquelle@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Normal findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. The spine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Abnormalities of the ventricular system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Neural tube defects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Cortical formation abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Midline abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"7. Posterior fossa abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"8. Vascular abnormalities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"9. Destructive cerebral lesions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sonographic examination of the fetal central nervous system: Guidelines for performing the ‘basic examination’ and the ‘fetal neurosonogram’. International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology Education Committee. 2007;29:109-116'},{id:"B2",body:'Kurjak A, Antsaklis P, Stanojevic M, Vladareanu R, Vladareanu S, Neto RM, Barisic LS, Porovic S, Delic T. 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Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2015;46(4):452-459'},{id:"B79",body:'Buca D, Pagani G, Rizzo G, Familiari A, Flacco ME, Manzoli L, Liberati M, Fanfani F, Scambia G, D’Antonio F. Outcome of monochorionic twin pregnancy with selective intrauterine growth restriction according to umbilical artery Doppler flow pattern of smaller twin: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2017;50(5):559-568'},{id:"B80",body:'Herghelegiu D, Ionescu CA, Pacu I, Bohiltea R, Herghelegiu C, Vladareanu S. Antenatal diagnosis and prognostic factors of aneurysmal malformation of the vein of Galen: A case report and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(30):e7483'},{id:"B81",body:'Cecchetto G, Milanese L, Giordano R, Viero A, Suma V, Manara R. Looking at the missing brain: Hydranencephaly case series and literature review. Pediatric Neurology. 2013;48(2):152-158'},{id:"B82",body:'Scher MS, Belfar H, Martin J, Painter MJ. Destructive brain lesions of presumed fetal onset: Antepartum causes of cerebral palsy. Pediatrics. 1991;88(5):898-906'},{id:"B83",body:'Pretorius DH, Russ PD, Rumack CM, Manco-Johnson ML. Diagnosis of brain neuropathology in utero. Neuroradiology. 1986;28(5-6):386-397'},{id:"B84",body:'Desvignes F, Beaufrère AM, Biard M, Déchelotte P, Laurichesse-Delmas H, Lemery D, Gallot D. Prenatal diagnosis of cerebral tumors and differential diagnosis. Journal de Gynécologie, Obstétrique et Biologie de la Reproduction. 2013;42(3):290-296'},{id:"B85",body:'Levine D, Jani JC, Castro-Aragon I, Cannie M. How does imaging of congenital Zika compare with imaging of other TORCH infections? Radiology. 2017;285(3):744-761'},{id:"B86",body:'Panigrahy A, Wisnowski JL, Furtado A, Lepore N, Paquette L, Bluml S. Neuroimaging biomarkers of preterm brain injury: Toward developing the preterm connectome. Pediatric Radiology. 2012;42(Suppl 1):S33-S61'},{id:"B87",body:'Madan N, Grant PE. New directions in clinical imaging of cortical dysplasias. Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl. 9):9-18'},{id:"B88",body:'Palmini A, Najm I, Avanzini G, Babb T, Guerrini R, Foldvary-Schaefer N, Jackson G, L_ders HO, Prayson R, Spreafico R, Vinters HV. Terminology and classification of the cortical dysplasias. Neurology. 2004;62(6 suppl 3):S2-S8'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andreea Ceausescu",address:"and_deea2006@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Emergency University Hospital, Romania
Department of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania
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1. Introduction
Climate change in the form of increasing temperature and increasingly variable rainfall patterns threatens the production of the crop [1, 2]. Therefore, elevated CO2 (eCO2) absorption may indorse plant growth, whereas increased temperature is repressive for C3 plants. Both CO2 and temperature caused significant changes in crop productivity. The collaborative properties of eCO2 and increased temperatures on the crop growth and carbon metabolism are not well known.
The fluctuating climatic surroundings are predictable to upsurge the atmospheric CO2 (aCO2) meditation, temperatures and modify the rainfall outline. The aCO2 meditation is prophesied to range 550 ppm by 2050, and possibly surpass 700 ppm by the end of the present century [3]. These fluctuations are expected to disturb the creation and output of cultivated crops, and stimulus the upcoming food safety. The influence analysis of climate alteration on worldwide food construction reveals a 0.5% failure by 2020 and 2.3% by 2050 [4]. The progress of climate arranged germplasm to counterbalance these wounded is of the highest reputation [5].
The eCO2 is significant abiotic stress and has a noteworthy fertilization encouragement on crops. Widespread preceding educations have described that eCO2 meaningfully enhanced the water use efficiency (WUE), reduced transpiration frequency, abridged maize growth rate, and augmented plant height, leaf number, leaf area, growth frequency, and overall yield [6]. Furthermore, the cumulative of aCO2 disturbs precipitation equilibrium, which can alter the periodic precipitation circulation [7]. It has been predicted that this result would carry about a 10% upsurge or decline in water capitals in several areas [8]. The raised temperature, i.e., heat stress (HS) damage growth and physiological ailments, and consequentially reduce yield [9]. Increased temperature due to eCO2 has a primary effect on the food grain invention reliant on the places. With the rising temperature by 1.0–2.0°C in tropical and subtropical states and the food grain manufacture in India is predictable to decline up to 30% [9].
The C4 grass maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most vital food crop worldwide in the relation of the invention, and its claim is prophesied to rise by 45% from 1997 to 2020 [10]. Educations with maize retort to dual the ambient CO2 presented variable possessions on growth fluctuating from no inspiration of yield [11] to 50% stimulation [12]. The growth and productivity of maize are expected to be pretentious by raised aCO2 and temperature. Raised temperature severely disturbs the growth, and yield of maize plants [13]. There is unpredictable information on the properties of eCO2 on the vintage of maize changing from slight positive consequence [14], no consequence [15] to rice harvest by 50% [16].
Record of the experimentations on the influences of eCO2 and temperature on the crop yield, though, used measured atmosphere amenities like phytotron and plant growth cavities or crop growth reproduction models [13, 17]. Determination of the impact of raised CO2 on the photosynthesis tolerance to severe HS is vital to expect the plant replies for universal warming since photosynthesis is sensitive to severe HS and aCO2 upsurges slightly [18, 19]. Further, flowering is a critical element for plant generative achievement and seed-set. The increase in temperature and eCO2 is the main climate revolution issues that might influence plant suitability and associated flowering actions. Resolving the influence of these ecological issues on the flowering actions like time of days to anthesis and flowering (duration from germination till flowering) is serious to appreciate the acclimatization of crops in altering climate [20].
2. Interaction of eCO2 with high-temperature stress and other factors to climate change
The impacts of eCO2 and stress factors on crops have been made using controlled atmosphere amenities like plant growth cavities or crop growth reproduction models in many studies [13]. The eCO2 contributes to global warming, causing alterations in the precipitations, water scarcity and changes at temperatures in several regions affecting the growth and development of crop plants [3]. However, the interactive effects of eCO2 and environmental stress conditions on the crop growth and carbon metabolism are not well predictable. The interactions between eCO2 and stress factors are critical to photosynthesis performance. It has been reported how stomata react to eCO2 levels, but the effects on photosynthesis performance of other environmental factors are poorly understood [21].
Numerous studies showed the combining impacts of eCO2 and drought and revealed that the machines are different from singular eCO2 and drought. The impact of combined eCO2 and drought are varying with crop stage such as during vegetative stage, and it restricted the shoot development, decreased leaf area, diminished mobilization of nutrients due to weak root growth, reduced stomatal closure, transpiration, and relative water contents (RWC). However, it enhances the resource use efficiencies of the plant, including WUE, light use efficiency (LUE), and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) at a certain level [22, 23]. Similarly, eCO2 and drought affect reproductive growth severely such as the impacts on the pollen abortion, pollination, flower formation, panicle length, panicle weight, seed formation, seed size and, yield potential of important agriculture crops [22].
Altering climate, counting eCO2, increasing temperatures, changing precipitation designs have influenced terrestrial environment assembly and function, carbon and water balance, and finally production of crops [24, 25]. Several experiments have described the biological replies to CO2 enhancement and their communication with ecological alteration at different levels [26]. The temperature has an important role in plant growth and development and regulates the several functions and enzymatic reactions in plants. Although, the increased value of temperature causes several abnormalities in plants such as reduces the chlorophyll contents, leaf growth, fresh and dry biomass, photosynthesis, and stomata limitations, inhibits the functions of several temperature-sensitive enzymes such as ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO). Impacts of eCO2 and temperature combined stresses are very destructive at the reproductive phase. They may cause reduced pollination, spike sterility, less filling of grain, reduction of grain size and number, test weight, and yield potential of major crops [22].
It has been reported that eCO2 promotes an initial stimulation of photosynthesis by an increase of substrate or RuBisCO carboxylation activity and self-consciousness of RuBisCO oxygenation, which might ultimately underwrite for advanced biomass in cereal crops [27, 28]. Nevertheless, growth responses over the long-standing under eCO2 conditions include a reduction of photosynthesis measurements and several regulatory mechanisms to avoid potential damage by this condition. A regulatory mechanism to maintain the growth and expansion of plants consists of the equilibrium among manufacture and removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at the intracellular level. This balance is continued by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems [29, 30, 31].
The enzymatic machinery involves numerous antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), guaiacol peroxidase (POX), peroxiredoxins (Prxs), and enzymes of the ascorbate-glutathione (AsAGSH) cycle. The AsAGSH includes different enzymes like ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR) [30, 32]. Modifications of this enzymatic antioxidant component have been reported in studies of cereal crops under eCO2 conditions with contradictory results. Thus, the response of these antioxidants components is unclear with studies that find to increase [33], decreases [34], or no consistent alterations [35].
Besides, plant cells have non-enzymatic components that involve ascorbate and glutathione (GSH) along with phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids anthocyanins, and phenolic composites. The free hydroxyl groups on the phenolic rings or the chromanol rings of these non-enzymatic compounds are responsible for their antioxidant properties [36]. The ring hydrogen atom can be given to free radicals, dropping and counteracting ROS. The phenolic compounds can lose a hydrogen atom which develops a free radical that is directly non-reactive by character delocalization in the entire ring assembly [28, 37]. Several studies reported only an increase in some of the individual phenolic compounds in cereal crops under high CO2 conditions [38].
Furthermore, crop growth responses to eCO2 rely on the tissue category, developmental stage as well as strength and duration of these conditions which also depend on the diversity of apparatuses of construction and purification of ROS, and the result of free radicals on antioxidants [39]. Several studies have reported a high production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) after exposure of crops to eCO2, and the concentration of H2O2 is dependent on the duration of these conditions. Besides, H2O2 production differed among various cellular compartments [40]. The outcome of elevated aCO2 meditation on growth and various antioxidant actions is superior in C3 plants to C4 plants [41, 42]. For example, rice as a C3 plant is further sensitive to the variations of the aCO2. However, there are inconsistent studies on the impacts of eCO2 on the antioxidant responses and yield of rice changing from the reduction of the growth responses [43] to increment of antioxidants components and enhancement of growth [44, 45].
Kumar et al. [46] reported that rice plants under eCO2 conditions showed modifications in electrolyte leakage, leaf water potential, proline, CAT, and POD activity as compared to ambient CO2, which assisted the plant to battle contrary effects of stressful environments. Thus, these authors suggest that undesirable possessions on rice yield subsequent from abiotic stress conditions may be moderated by the eCO2 meditations [46]. In agreement, leaves of a susceptible wheat cultivar (Triticum aestivum L.cv. Yitpi) infected with Barley yellow dwarf virus-PAV (PadiAvenae virus) and grown under eCO2 presented that the eCO2 conditions may decrease the oxidative stress caused by virus infection [47]. Nevertheless, more evidence for direct communicating possessions of eCO2 and biotic and abiotic stress conditions in cereal crops is necessary.
3. eCO2 mitigates oxidative stress in plants
Various environmental stresses induce the production of ROS, which triggers oxidative stress in plants [30, 48, 49]. The most common ROS are O2•−, •OH, and H2O2. In response to stressful conditions, H2O2 is mainly synthesized by photorespiration, beta (β)-oxidation, or due to the activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase [30, 50]. The eCO2 can efficiently reduce the ROS level by increasing RuBisCO carboxylation along with reducing photorespiratory H2O2 production. Several reports have provided indications regarding the eCO2 influences on the mitigation of abiotic stress in plants [30, 51, 52]. Elevated CO2 known to be induced plant growth by supplying additional Carbon (C) sources, subsequently alleviates abiotic stress in plants. Although the elevated CO2 mediated particular physiological and molecular mechanisms related to abiotic stress alleviation are still to be explored. In the physiological aspect, supplying extra C by eCO2 leads to induce stomatal closing, improves WUE that protect drought stress in plants [53]. However, abiotic stress-induced ROS (e.g., O2•−, •OH, and H2O2) and cellular oxidative damages (e.g., protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation) are involved in non-stomatal factors with metabolic changes [30, 54].
A systematic study of recently published articles addressed the two major hypotheses such as enhancement of antioxidant (antioxidant hypothesis) and reduction of stress impact (relaxation hypothesis) by reducing ROS generation in the plant under stressful conditions [30, 51, 55]. Several reports have been found in favor of the relaxation hypothesis in plants in response to eCO2 under stressful conditions. The ROS level was found to be reduced by eCO2 in plants under drought, and heat stresses through increasing RuBisCO carboxylation as well as reducing the level of photorespiratory H2O2 [51]. In the same study, glycine/serine (Gly/Ser) ration, glycolate oxidase (GO), and hydroxypiruvate reductase (HPR) level were evaluated as an indicator of photorespiration, which was found to be decreased in response to eCO2 under drought and heat stresses. In barley, these all parameters were found at a lower level in response to eCO2 [56]. Moreover, reduced photorespiration is correlated to the decreased level of NADPH oxidase. Therefore, a combined effect of lower photorespiration and NADPH oxidase responses may lead to reduce H2O2 in plants.
According to the antioxidant approach, the availability of additional C by eCO2 enhances antioxidant molecules, which increase ROS scavenging activity as well as protects grapevine and tomato plants from abiotic stress induced-oxidative damages [57, 58]. More specifically, higher C availability due to eCO2 may enhance the supply of defense molecules, which improve protection against oxidative injury (antioxidant hypothesis) under stressful conditions in plant cells. However, changes in antioxidant levels are not specific, or C3 or C4 based metabolism, or not for a particular group of species. It has been reported in C4 plants that photorespiration mildly active, in which eCO2 reduces ROS level as well as oxidative injury without alteration of antioxidants level. It suggests a distinct non-stomatal process that except antioxidant defense or reduces photorespiration processes. Besides, several reports have provided the evidence regarding eCO2 reduces NADPH oxidase activity and ROS formation in mitochondria and chloroplast in plants [59, 60], but the activity of beta (β)-oxidation is still to be explored.
The ascorbate-glutathione (ASC-GSH) cycle is one of the major mechanisms for stress-induced H2O2 regulation. However, only limited reports have been found concerning eCO2 mediated changes of ASC-GSH cycle components in plants under stress conditions. For example, HS alleviated through enhancement of DHAR, MDHAR, APX, and GR in tomato [58]. Similarly, GR and APX were found to be increased by eCO2 in wheat under ozone stress [61]. Also, responses of ASC-GSH cycle components varied based on the plant species and experimental set-up. Therefore, additional studies are needed concerning the eCO2 mediated oxidative stress alleviation as well as enhancement of ASC-GSH cycle components in plants under abiotic stresses.
4. eCO2 improves photosynthesis under high temperature
Several researchers on the consequences of eCO2 and stress factors on crops have been made using monitored situation amenities like plant growth chambers, free-air concentration enrichment (FACE) experiment, open-top chamber (OTC) or stimulated crop growth models [13]. The eCO2 contributes to global warming causing alterations in the precipitations patterns, water scarcity, flood, and changes at extreme temperatures in several regions affecting the growth and development of plants [3]. However, the interactive effects of eCO2 and environmental stress conditions on the development of crops and metabolism are not well documented. It has been shown the average reduction of stomatal conductance (20–30%), stomatal density (5–7%), stomatal developments, and increment in WUE (8–18%) under eCO2 conditions. However, these changes vary with the crop species, developmental stages, nature of stressors and duration, surrounding environments, and plant attributes [62]. Likewise, the interactions between an eCO2 with stress factors are crucial to understanding the photosynthesis performance. Therefore, there is a considerable deviation in the light-saturated photosynthetic assimilation rate under eCO2 rely upon the plant type, plant functional traits, micro or surrounding environment, and resource availability. For instance, the stimulation in photosynthetic assimilation rate under eCO2 is varied from 30 to 80% (strong stimulations in C3 species as compared to C4) in FACE experiment or pot conditions but diminished in field conditions because of the integration of other multiple stressors such as drought, heat, flood and nutrient deficiencies.
In this regard, several studies were conducted to observe the combining effects of eCO2 and drought and reveals that the growth mechanisms are distinct to the singular eCO2 or drought. The combined stress resulted in the longer retention time of dissolved organic carbon (accumulation of soil organic C), induce invertase and catalase activity in the soil, and ameliorate stress conditions via improving plant physiological traits and activates feedback mechanisms [63]. Further, it limits the activity of some antioxidant enzymes such as proline and MDA content and stimulates others such as SOD, CAT, and GPX [46, 64]. Abscisic acid, calcium-dependent protein kinase and glutathione S-transferase (GST) play an important role in the amelioration of drought stress responses by inducing signaling mechanisms under the combined form. Conclusively, it is suggested that drought and HS generate ROS, and affect the antioxidant defense mechanism of plants, which might be ameliorated by the eCO2 via stimulation of antioxidant defense enzymes [51, 62]. Similarly, eCO2 combined with drought and HS regulates the sugars (starch, sucrose) and amino acids (alanine, pyruvate, arginine, glutamate) and secondary metabolites (coumaric acid, salicylic acid) metabolism, protective proteins and readjusted the metabolic, redox, and osmotic equilibrium of plants under combined eCO2 and drought [65, 66].
The impact of combined eCO2 and drought are varied with crop stage such as during the vegetative phase decreased the shoot elongation and leaf area, diminished mobilization of nutrients due to weak root growth, reduced stomatal conductance by increasing stomatal resistance and stomatal movements, plant hydraulic conductance, aquaporins, and reduce transpiration and RWC. However, at certain levels, it enhances the biomass allocations to the reproductive part, improves resource use efficiencies of plants including WUE, LUE, and NUE [67]. Similarly, eCO2 and drought affect reproductive growth severely such as its impacts on the assimilate partitioning, pollen abortion, pollination, flower formation, panicle length, panicle weight, productive tiller number, seed formation, seed size, and yield potential of important crops [22, 68]. Besides the yield potential, eCO2 decreased the grain quality via affecting macro- and micro-nutrients content such as phosphorus (P), Sulphur (S), and Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn) contents of dryland legumes, which further associated with yield dilutions [23].
Several findings have stated the biological responses to CO2 enhancement and their communication with conservation alteration at diverse levels [26]. In these aspects, the temperature has an important role in plant growth and development and regulates the several functions and enzymatic reactions in plants. Although, the increased value of temperature cause several abnormalities in plants such as change the emission of volatile organic compounds, reduce nitrogen uptake, chlorophyll contents, leaf growth, fresh and dry biomass, photosynthesis, and stomata limitations (by membrane damage and photosystem II (PSII) activity), enhance the activity of mitochondrial electron transport, stress proteins and plant growth regulators, limitation of several temperature-sensitive enzymes such as RuBisCO. The combined effects of eCO2 and temperature stresses are very destructive at the reproductive phase. They may cause changes in flowering time, pollination, spike sterility, less filling of grain, reduction of grain size and number, test weight, grain quality, and yield potential of major crops [20, 22, 69].
Besides the drought and HS (major), other stressors also interact with the eCO2 under field conditions and influence the plant growth and development. For instance, eCO2 and salt stress conditions influence the nitrogen metabolism, water balance, photosynthetic inhibitions, nutrient deficiency or toxicity, stomatal conductance, carbohydrate metabolism, phenolic enrichments, and generation of secondary metabolites [63, 70]. Similarly, limited nitrogen supply under eCO2 modifies the C/N ratio, nitrogen metabolism, protein supply, protein structure, gene expression, sugar metabolism, and decreases antioxidant enzyme, amino acid synthesis, photosynthetic pigments, and elevated ROS, which influence the redox equilibrium and leads to early senescence in plants [71]. Likewise, under N limitations, the photosynthetic rate is more affected in C3 species (because of more N requirement for RuBisCO synthesis), and eCO2 could help in mitigation of N limitations by reducing photorespiration, elevating starch level, increase chloroplast size, higher stomatal resistance, mitochondrial respiration, metabolites and dilution of chlorophyll concentrations [62]. Therefore, the eCO2 and stressors impacts have differed than singular stress, and up to a certain level of eCO2 try to recover plants via inducing defense machinery, feedback mechanisms, activating secondary messenger signaling, and expression of stress proteins.
5. eCO2 improves yield under high temperature
By the end of the 21st century, CO2 is expected to rise from the current level 370 μmol·mol−1 to 540–970 μmol·mol−1, and about to grasp 550 μmol·mol−1 near 2050 and 750 μmol·mol−1 in 2100. In the meantime, Earth’s global temperature will rise by about 2–4°C [72]. The increased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere would increase the temperature of Earth that is why global heating will develop, the most important aspect of upcoming climate variation. The relations between the temperature and CO2 will have an intense effect on global agricultural production and the Earth’s environment [73]. The rise in the atmospheric temperature and CO2 would also accelerate the procedure of growth in plants [58, 74].
Climate change impacts on crop growth are becoming global concerns. They are particularly important for food supply and sustainable agricultural development [75, 76]. CO2 concentration and temperature are two key factors affecting crop growth, development and yield [77]. Combined or individual possessions of temperature increase and eCO2 meditation change on crop growth and yield during the recent decades have been observed [78]. For instance, the modeled improvements in soybean absorption of CO2 with an increase in the growing season temperature, and aCO2 hindered the photorespiration by 23–48%, which depends on the future climatic conditions [79].
The growth and distribution of crops are reduced by environmental factors like CO2 and temperature. The production of the biomass of modern C3 plants was decreased by 50% when it was grown at a low concentration of CO2 (180–220 ppm), while the other conditions were optimal. Crops need the almost dual amount of water at 2°C increase in temperatures at a higher elevation of agricultural plains. Elevated CO2 concentration increases the yield of the crop once the substrate for the photosynthesis process of leaf and the incline of CO2 absorption of air increases. C3 plants are more benefitted at eCO2 than C4 plants [80]. However, the doubling of CO2 does not deteriorate the adverse effects of high temperature on the reproductive growth of crops or fiber quality. Therefore, increased CO2 concentration is associated with higher temperatures, crop yield, and quality that reduce particularly in areas where current temperatures are near to optimal [81].
Elevated CO2 resulted in major changes in morpho-physiological restrictions. Besides, eCO2 along with atmospheric temperatures during the phenological stages of rice cultivars showed contrasting results of the time of flowering and maturation such as eCO2 in combination with the lower atmospheric temperature that stopped flowering g in the CR-1014 cultivar while with the higher temperature increased grain yield the in Naveen cultivar [82].
Growth and photosynthesis of C3 crops are enhanced when it is grown at a high level of CO2, although, the degree of stimulation differs with temperature among cultivars as well as species. The probable decline in the transpiration process due to the partial closure of stomata in the eCO2 level is largely invalid by the energy balance between the crop and its environment, which could result in total water use in similar climate conditions. The yield of seeds is increased by an increase in the CO2 under the ideal temperature. On the other hand, at supra-optimal temperature, the yield of seeds is decreased under both raised and ambient CO2. The yield of kidney bean decreased in that region where temperatures are at or above optimal conditions in combination with increased CO2 concentration [83].
The effects of HS on the grain and biomass yield of plants depend on the duration and magnitude of HS. HS at the vegetative phase decreased the grain and biomass yield mostly by increasing plant growth and dropping the time obtainable to capture possessions, and also by dropping the rate of photosynthesis [84]. At the anthesis or flowering phase, HS decreases the amount of grain due to pollen abortion. In contrast, at the grain-filling phase, HS decreases the heaviness of grain by restraining the translocation of integrating, and margarine the period of grain-filling [85, 86].
Notably, eCO2 may lessen the harmful influence of heat stress on the grain and biomass yield by inspiration of photosynthesis, defense of the photosynthetic devices from HS injury, and improvement in the water status of plants owing to reduced transpiration. Moreover, high levels of hexoses and sucrose in plants with eCO2 are related to increase fertile florets and dry spike mass [87], and osmotic modification [88], which can develop heat stress tolerance [89]. It is hypothesized that HS at anthesis has a drastic impact on the grain yield and plant biomass, but it has a less impact eCO2 than ambient CO2 [90].
6. Conclusion
It is very important to know that the impacts of climate change on crop growth are becoming global concerns. Interactive effects of eCO2 and environmental stress conditions on crop growth and carbon metabolism are not well predictable. The influence of eCO2 with the connection of temperature is considerable on crops under stress environments. The CO2 concentration improves the productivity of crops because of improved carbon exchange rates, and superior vegetative and reproductive growth. In contrast, crop productivity is decreased with increased temperatures. Hence, there is a need to develop genotypes that are different intolerant to various environments or to identify genotypes that perform better under predicted climate change. In this review, cereal genotypes have been characterized by differing responses to eCO2 and HS and identified the mechanisms of tolerance to HS. It can promote the crop potential to assist the breeding program for the development of new genotypes tolerance to HS.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Disclosure statement
Authors declare that no conflict of interest could arise.
\n',keywords:"elevated CO2, heat stress, physio-biochemical mechanisms",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73636.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73636.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73636",totalDownloads:672,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"May 31st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"October 28th 2020",datePublished:"July 21st 2021",dateFinished:"October 16th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The rising concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (aCO2) and increasing temperature are the main reasons for climate change, which are significantly affecting crop production systems in this world. However, the elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration can improve the growth and development of crop plants by increasing photosynthetic rate (higher availability of photoassimilates). The combined effects of elevated CO2 (eCO2) and temperature on crop growth and carbon metabolism are not adequately recognized, while both eCO2 and temperature triggered noteworthy changes in crop production. Therefore, to increase crop yields, it is important to identify the physiological mechanisms and genetic traits of crop plants which play a vital role in stress tolerance under the prevailing conditions. The eCO2 and temperature stress effects on physiological aspects as well as biochemical profile to characterize genotypes that differ in their response to stress conditions. The aim of this review is directed the open-top cavities to regulate the properties like physiological, biochemical, and yield of crops under increasing aCO2, and temperature. Overall, the extent of the effect of eCO2 and temperature response to biochemical components and antioxidants remains unclear, and therefore further studies are required to promote an unperturbed production system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73636",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73636",signatures:"Ayman EL Sabagh, Akbar Hossain, Mohammad Sohidul Islam, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Ali Raza, Çetin Karademir, Emine Karademir, Abdul Rehman, Md Atikur Rahman, Rajesh Kumar Singhal, Analía Llanes, Muhammad Ali Raza, Muhammad Mubeen, Wajid Nasim, Celaleddin Barutçular, Ram Swaroop Meena and Hirofumi Saneoka",book:{id:"10363",type:"book",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",bookSignature:"Shah Fahad, Shah Saud, Yajun Chen, Chao Wu and Depeng Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10363.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-062-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-055-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-063-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"215584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",middleName:null,surname:"EL Sabagh",fullName:"Ayman EL Sabagh",slug:"ayman-el-sabagh",email:"aymanelsabagh@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Kafrelsheikh University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",email:"akbarhossainwrc@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280755/images/system/280755.jpeg",institution:null},{id:"309311",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad 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Atikur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Md. Atikur Rahman",slug:"md.-atikur-rahman",email:"atikbt@korea.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Rural Development Administration",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"329983",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Raza",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Raza",slug:"muhammad-ali-raza",email:"razaali0784@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Sichuan Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Interaction of eCO2 with high-temperature stress and other factors to climate change",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. eCO2 mitigates oxidative stress in plants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. eCO2 improves photosynthesis under high temperature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. eCO2 improves yield under high temperature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflicts of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Disclosure statement",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Raza A, Razzaq A, Mehmood SS, Zou X, Zhang X, Lv Y, Xu J. Impact of climate change on crops adaptation and strategies to tackle its outcome: A review. Plants. 2019;8:34'},{id:"B2",body:'Hossain A, Farooq M, EL Sabagh A, Hasanuzzaman M, Erman M, Islam T. Morphological, Physiobiochemical and Molecular Adaptability of Legumes of Fabaceae to Drought Stress, with Special Reference to Medicago sativa L. In: Hasanuzzaman M, Araújo S, Gill S. (eds) The Plant Family Fabaceae. 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Scientific Reports. 2018;8:1-9'},{id:"B76",body:'EL Sabagh A, Hossain A, Barutçular C, Gormus O, Ahmad Z, Hussain S, Islam MS, Alharby H, Bamagoos A, Kumar N, Akdeniz A, Fahad S, Meena RS, Abdelhamid M, Wasaya A, Hasanuzzaman M, Sorour S, Saneoka H. Effects of drought stress on the quality of major oilseed crops: implications and possible mitigation strategies–a review. Appllied Ecology and Environmental Research. 2019;17:4019-4043. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1702_40194043'},{id:"B77",body:'Mubeen M. et al. Evaluating the climate change impact on crop water requirement of cotton- wheat in semi-arid conditions using DSSAT model. Journal of Water and Climate Change. 2019; 201979. doi: 10.2166/wcc.2019.179.'},{id:"B78",body:'Hatfield JL, Boote KJ, Kimball B, Ziska L, Izaurralde RC, Ort D, … Wolfe D. Climate impacts on agriculture: implications for crop production. Agronomy Journal. 2011;103:351-370'},{id:"B79",body:'Walker BJ, VanLoocke A, Bernacchi CJ, Ort DR. The costs of photorespiration to food production now and in the future. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2016;67:107-129.'},{id:"B80",body:'Madan P, Jagadish S, Craufurd P, Fitzgerald M, Lafarge T, Wheeler T. Effect of elevated CO2 and high temperature on seed-set and grain quality of rice. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2012;63:3843-3852'},{id:"B81",body:'Reddy KR, Vara Prasad P, Kakani VG. Crop responses to elevated carbon dioxide and interactions with temperature: cotton. Journal of Crop Improvement. 2005;13:157-191'},{id:"B82",body:'Ziska LH. et al. Food security and climate change: on the potential to adapt global crop production by active selection to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2012;279:4097-4105 http://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1005'},{id:"B83",body:'Prasad PV, Boote KJ, Allen Jr LH, Thomas JM. Effects of elevated temperature and carbon dioxide on seed-set and yield of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Global Change Biology. 2002;8:710-721'},{id:"B84",body:'Lobell DB, Gourdji SM. The influence of climate change on global crop productivity. Plant Physiology. 2012;160:1686-1697. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.112.208298'},{id:"B85",body:'Farooq M, Bramley H, Palta JA, Siddique KHM. Heat stress in wheat during reproductive and grain-filling phases. Critical Reviewsin Plant Sciences. 2011;30:491-507.DOI: 10.1080/ 07352689.2011.615687'},{id:"B86",body:'Prasad PVV, Djanaguiraman M. Response of floret fertility and individual grain weight of wheat to high temperature stress: sensitive stages and thresholds for temperature and duration. Functional Plant Biology. 2014;41:1261-1269.http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/FP14061'},{id:"B87",body:'Dreccer MF, Wockner KB, Palta JA, McIntyre CL, Borgognone MG, Bourgault M, Reynolds M, Miralles DJ. More fertile florets and grains per spike can be achieved at higher temperature in wheat lines with high spike biomass and sugar content at booting. Functional Plant Biology 2014;41:482-495.http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/FP13232.'},{id:"B88",body:'Wahid A, Gelani S, Ashraf M, Foolad MR. Heat tolerance in plants: an overview. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 2007;61:199-223'},{id:"B89",body:'Shanmugam S, Kjaer KH, Ottosen CO, Rosenqvist E, Kumari Sharma D, Wollenweber B. The alleviating effect of elevated CO2 on heat stress susceptibility of two wheat (Triticumaestivum L.) cultivars. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 2013;199:340-350'},{id:"B90",body:'Chavan SG, Duursma RA, Tausz M, Ghannoum O. ECO2alleviates the negative impact of heat stress on wheat physiology but not on grain yield. Journal of Experimental Botany.2019;70:6447-6459. doi:10.1093/jxb/erz386'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ayman EL Sabagh",address:"aymanelsabagh@agr.kfs.edu.eg",affiliation:'
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt
Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, Siirt University, Turkey
Plant Physiology Laboratory, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (UNRC)-Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrobiotecnológicas (INIAB), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Río Cuarto, Argentina
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Muhammad Ali Raza",address:null,affiliation:'
College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, P.R. China
Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Japan
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"
\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Prof.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Tanzania",institution:{name:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}},{id:"70530",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",middleName:"Campos",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"marcio-oliveira",fullName:"Márcio Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRm0AQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-08-01T12:34:46.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Feira de Santana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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