Oil composition of castor and other vegetable oil.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10729",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Infections and Sepsis Development",title:"Infections and Sepsis Development",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Infection is a common clinical condition that may cause local inflammation but, in some cases, can lead to systemic inflammation, with sepsis and organ dysfunction. Septic shock is a condition of inadequate tissue perfusion and cellular use of oxygen due to the cytotoxic action of bacterial toxins. There is no relationship between the pathological characteristics and the severity of the primary septic outbreak and the development of septic shock, and the time that elapses until the start of the shock is not predictable. Thus, knowledge of the pathophysiology of septic shock is fundamental for treatment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of infectious agents and their therapeutic control, pathological conditions with infective etiology such as diabetic foot osteomyelitis and infections in neurosurgery, and the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of sepsis.",isbn:"978-1-83969-458-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-457-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-459-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94701",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"infections-and-sepsis-development",numberOfPages:394,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"de8b1d035f242a8038f99d48b9069edf",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri, Lixing Huang and Jie Li",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10729.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3892,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170938/images/system/170938.jpeg",biography:"Vincenzo Neri is a former Professor of General Surgery (retired), Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Italy. He also held positions such as Director of Division of General Surgery, Director of Residency School of General Surgery, Director of Department of Surgical Sciences, and President of Course of Degree of Medicine and Surgery at the same university. He also served as an assistant professor (1974–1982) and associate professor (1982–2001) at the School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Bari, Italy, where he obtained a degree in Medicine and Surgery and completed postgraduate training in General Surgery and Emergency Surgery. He obtained a diploma of 'Maitrise Universitaire en Pedagogie des Sciences de la Santè” from the University Paris-Nord Bobigny in 1995. Dr. Neri’s research interests include hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery, acute pancreatitis, and treatment of pancreatic and liver tumors. He has published research papers, reviews, congress proceedings, and book chapters. In the period 1991–2016, he attended the Hepatobiliarypancreatic Surgery Service of Beaujon Hospital, Universitè de Paris, Clichy. As part of the 2010–2011 ERASMUS Program, Dr. Neri developed a seminar on 'Cystic Tumours of the Pancreas” at Ghent University, Belgium. He is a member of several scientific associations including Società Italiana di Chirurgia (SIC), International Hepato-Pancreato Biliary Association (IHPBA), European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), New European Surgical Academy (NESA), and Society of Laparoscopic and Robotic Surgeons (SLS).",institutionString:"University of Foggia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333148/images/system/333148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Lixing Huang is an associate professor at Jimei University, China. He is engaged in research of molecular mechanisms of bacterial pathogen-host interaction, including but not limited to applying dual RNA-seq and dual iTRAQ approaches to complex infection settings comprising bacterial pathogens, their hosts, and resident gut microbiota; the interplay between host cell microRNAs/proteins and bacterial infection; the impact of bacterial pathogens on host cell RNA metabolism; the effect of bacterial non-coding RNAs/proteins on key host intracellular pathways; and nutritional immunity, the struggle for nutrient metals between hosts and pathogens. He is the author of more than sixty research articles. He is also a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF) and the Chinese Society of Toxicology (CST).",institutionString:"Jimei University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jimei University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"336590",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jie-li",fullName:"Jie Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336590/images/system/336590.png",biography:"Dr. Jie Li is an Associate Professor and Research Fellow of the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. He completed a Ph.D. at the Institute of Oceanology, the Chinese Academy of Science. His research is directed at the epidemiology and immunology of bacterial pathogens in farming fish, including but not limited to fish disease control, fish vaccine development, and pathogenicity mechanisms of fish pathogens. He is the author of ten research articles and a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF).",institutionString:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"78345",title:"Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Antibiotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99546",slug:"bactericidal-and-bacteriostatic-antibiotics",totalDownloads:322,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Of all the medications available to physicians worldwide, antibiotics play an essential role in inpatient and outpatient settings. Discovered in the early nineteenth century by Alexander Fleming, penicillin was the first antibiotic isolated from a mold. Dr. Gerhard Domagk developed synthetic sulfa drugs by altering the red dye used in chemical industries. Since then, multiple antibiotic classes have been discovered with varying antimicrobial effects enabling their use empirically or in specific clinical scenarios. Antibiotics with different mechanisms of action could be either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. However, no clinical significance has been observed between cidal and static antibiotics in multiple trials. Their presence has led to safer deep invasive surgeries, advanced chemotherapy in cancer, and organ transplantation. Indiscriminate usage of antibiotics has resulted in severe hospital-acquired infections, including nosocomial pneumonia, Clostridioides difficile infection, multidrug-resistant invasive bacterial infections, allergic reactions, and other significant side effects. Antibiotic stewardship is an essential process in the modern era to advocate judicial use of antibiotics for an appropriate duration. They play a vital role in medical and surgical intensive care units to address the various complications seen in these patients. Antibiotics are crucial in severe acute infections to improve overall mortality and morbidity.",signatures:"Sachin M. Patil and Parag Patel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78345",authors:[{id:"352750",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin M.",surname:"Patil",slug:"sachin-m.-patil",fullName:"Sachin M. Patil"},{id:"424644",title:"Dr.",name:"Parag",surname:"Patel",slug:"parag-patel",fullName:"Parag Patel"}],corrections:null},{id:"77292",title:"Distribution and Molecular Detection of Methicilin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98655",slug:"distribution-and-molecular-detection-of-methicilin-resistant-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-",totalDownloads:191,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus is quite common in both the general population and hospital environment. The heterogeneity of the disease and the unique ability of S. aureus to develop resistance to the most recently discovered antibacterial drugs points to its ability to adapt and survive in different conditions. CA-MRSA is different from hospital strains of MRSA by its epidemiological, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. The emergence of MRSA in the community suggests the need for a new approach to managing the indications and the certification of staphylococcal infections, with special emphasis on the selection of empiric antibiotic therapy. In the study, we analised of MRSA from 4341 samples taken from patients from the general population of Sarajevo Canton in the six-month period of follow-up processed at the Public Health Institute of Sarajevo Canton. We determined the epidemiological characteristics of the isolated strains. Methicillin resistance was determined by phenotypic methods. The following molecular methods were used for the confirmation of methicillin resistance: determination of the mecA gene, PFGE profile, genetic type of MRSA being determined by spa typing, the distribution of SCCmec types being examined, and the detected gene for PVL. The study stresses the need for national monitoring of spreading of the existing epidemic strains, as well as the monitoring of emergence of new strains which would enable the inclusion of our country in the international network of monitoring bacterial resistance.",signatures:"Velma Rebić, Mufida Aljičević, Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović and Damir Rebić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77292",authors:[{id:"335553",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Velma",surname:"Rebić",slug:"velma-rebic",fullName:"Velma Rebić"},{id:"349103",title:"Prof.",name:"Mufida",surname:"Aljičević",slug:"mufida-aljicevic",fullName:"Mufida Aljičević"},{id:"349104",title:"M.D.",name:"Sajra",surname:"Vinčević-Smajlović",slug:"sajra-vincevic-smajlovic",fullName:"Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović"},{id:"349107",title:"Prof.",name:"Damir",surname:"Rebić",slug:"damir-rebic",fullName:"Damir Rebić"}],corrections:null},{id:"77570",title:"Potential Natural Product from Tropical Fruits: A Mixture Young Coconut Fruit and Kaffir Lime Fruit as Immunonutrition for the Treatment of Sepsis by Lipopolysaccaride Escherichia coli (Infectious Disease)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99005",slug:"potential-natural-product-from-tropical-fruits-a-mixture-young-coconut-fruit-and-kaffir-lime-fruit-a",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The high number of cases reported of antibiotic resistance use and mortality due to gram-negative sepsis, triggered the development of natural agents to be used in the prevention and treatment of sepsis. Studies continue to be developed on the use of tropical fruits such as coconut fruit and kaffir lime fruit which contain high antioxidants and many potential compounds. Recent experimental data has proven that the high antioxidant activity found in the coconut fruit mixture, namely processed fruit flesh and coconut water and added kaffir lime juice, can be used as an immunonutrition agent that can improve body physiology and can increase the survival rate of test animals from endotoxemia lipopolysaccharide induced by Eschercia coli intraperitoneally. This chapter provides an overview of the potential of natural products that can be used as immunonutrition preparations. Finally, this provides information showing the importance of the intake of immunonutrition in conditions of sepsis infection.",signatures:"Rahmayati Rusnedy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77570",authors:[{id:"414194",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rahmayati",surname:"Rusnedy",slug:"rahmayati-rusnedy",fullName:"Rahmayati Rusnedy"}],corrections:null},{id:"76994",title:"Empiric Antimicrobial Therapy in Critically Ill Septic Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98327",slug:"empiric-antimicrobial-therapy-in-critically-ill-septic-patients",totalDownloads:162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is a medical emergency and life-threatening condition due to a dysregulated host response to infection, which is time-dependent and associated with unacceptably high mortality. At the bedside of a patient with sepsis or septic shock, clinician must make immediate life-saving decisions including empirical initiation of broad-spectrum antimicrobials; the most likely to be appropriate. The empiric regimen should be initiated within the first hour of diagnosis and determined by assessing patient and epidemiological risk factors, likely source of infection based on presenting signs and symptoms, and severity of illness. Optimizing antibiotic use is crucial to ensure successful outcomes and to reduce adverse antibiotic effects, as well as preventing drug resistance. All likely pathogens involved should be considered to provide an appropriate antibiotic coverage. Herein, we tried to make suggestions of empirical therapeutic regimens in sepsis/septic shock according to most likely pathogens in cause and sepsis source based on the recent recommendations of learned societies. Some suggestions were adapted to an environment of low-resource regions where the ecology of multi drug resistant organisms is of concern.",signatures:"Ahlem Trifi, Sami Abdellatif, Sameh Trabelsi and Salah Ben Lakhal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76994",authors:[{id:"352049",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahlem",surname:"Trifi",slug:"ahlem-trifi",fullName:"Ahlem Trifi"},{id:"416660",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",surname:"Abdellatif",slug:"sami-abdellatif",fullName:"Sami Abdellatif"},{id:"416661",title:"Prof.",name:"Salah",surname:"Ben Lakhal",slug:"salah-ben-lakhal",fullName:"Salah Ben Lakhal"},{id:"421061",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Trabelsi",slug:"sameh-trabelsi",fullName:"Sameh Trabelsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77791",title:"Specific Bacterial Immunotherapy in Treating Chronic Osteomyelitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98751",slug:"specific-bacterial-immunotherapy-in-treating-chronic-osteomyelitis",totalDownloads:142,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The immunological experience is treating osteomyelitis chronic forms at the Istituto Putti in Cortina starts in 1963 by introducing immunotherapy, applied by the progressive administration in growing doses of a staphylococci pool, that had been collected from some patients with bone infections by the same germ and then inactivated in an aqueous solution suspension. This therapy is coadjutant of antibiotics, surgical and hyperbaric therapy and not substitutive of these. This study ascertained indeed a reduction of the phagocytic activity as a whole, and especially the opsonisation activity It has been thought therefore that in immunotherapy more factors are involved; their principal property is to reduce the allergising effect and therefore to desensitise vs. the germ proteins and to increase the phagocytic activity. This condition, neither whose entity nor its lasting may be defined, does not appear to be unlimited. Obviously this desensitisation can be obtained also by the right antibiotic choice that, as already said mainly in acute forms, may develop their bactericidal properties and sterilise the focus. In the chronic forms it is possible to provoke this mechanism by carrying out a surgical toilette that restores the vascularization and stimulation conditions needed for a correct antibiotic action. Checks upon immuno-stimulation treatment termination clearly showed corresponding results between laboratory deficit corrected and clinical conditions bettering. The casuistry is based on 50 patients with hematogenic osteomyelitis, all under the age of 16, age at which the growth plate is still active, and 117 post-traumatic septic non-union, where this term was adopted for cases that showed a lack of non-solidification at 6 months after trauma. We have expressly made a distinction between hematogenic and post-traumatic forms, since the relationships between bacterial counts vs. host response do differ.",signatures:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77791",authors:[{id:"350650",title:"Prof.",name:"Ferdinando",surname:"Da Rin de Lorenzo",slug:"ferdinando-da-rin-de-lorenzo",fullName:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75640",title:"Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance and Pathogenicity of Non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in Suburban and Rural Groundwater Supplies of Marrakesh Area (Morocco)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96696",slug:"prevalence-antimicrobial-resistance-and-pathogenicity-of-non-o1-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-in-suburban-an",totalDownloads:168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This synthesis of research work considers the dynamic, antibiotic resistance, hemolytic, and hemagglutination activities of non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in comparison with those of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from suburban and rural groundwater supplies in a Marrakesh area (Morocco). In addition, it assesses the influence of some chemical factors on the distribution of all these bacterial groups. The obtained results showed that the prospected well waters contain them at varying abundance degrees while undergoing generally spatial and temporal fluctuations. The total occurrence of these bacteria during the period of study was 94%. Detectable non-O1 V. cholerae was present in 81% of the samples and the mean abundances ranged from 0 to 11100 MPN/100 ml. According to WHO standards for drinking water, they were heavily contaminated and could have significant health risks for the local population consuming them. Non-O1 V. cholerae and the other studied bacteria are virulent since most of them were found to be adhesive, producers of hemolysins and multi-resistant to antibiotics. Pollution activities around the wells lead to an increase of virulence and antimicrobial resistance in groundwater. This shows the role of these bacteria in several cases of gastro-enteric and systemic pathologies noted in Marrakech local population.",signatures:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui, Khalid Oufdou and Nour-Eddine Mezrioui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75640",authors:[{id:"343471",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Hafsa",surname:"Lamrani Alaoui",slug:"hafsa-lamrani-alaoui",fullName:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui"},{id:"347389",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Oufdou",slug:"khalid-oufdou",fullName:"Khalid Oufdou"},{id:"347390",title:"Prof.",name:"Nour-Eddine",surname:"Mezrioui",slug:"nour-eddine-mezrioui",fullName:"Nour-Eddine Mezrioui"}],corrections:null},{id:"75676",title:"Community Change and Pathogenicity of Vibrio",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96515",slug:"community-change-and-pathogenicity-of-em-vibrio-em-",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio is a rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria, which is widely distributed in marine and estuarine environments worldwide. It is an important component of the aquatic ecosystem and plays an important role in biogeochemical cycle. Its population dynamics are usually affected by climate and seasonal factors. Most of the Vibrios in the environment are not pathogenic, but some of them are pathogenic bacteria for human and animal, such as Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio anguillarum, etc., which are generally reported to be related to aquatic animal diseases and human food-borne diseases. Over the last couple of years, due to the influence of the rising seawater temperature and climate change, the incidence of diseases caused by Vibrio infection has increased significantly, which poses a great threat to human health and aquaculture. The research on pathogenic Vibrio has attracted more and more attention. The abundance and community changes of Vibrio in the environment are usually controlled by many biological and abiotic factors. The Vibrio pathogenicity is related to the virulence factors encoded by virulence genes. The process of Vibrio infecting the host and causing host disease is determined by multiple virulence factors acting together, instead of being determined by a single virulence factor. In this chapter, community changes of Vibrio, as well as the virulence factors of Vibrio and the related virulence genes of Vibiro are summarized, and their important roles in Vibrio infection are also discussed.",signatures:"Lixing Huang, Qiancheng Gao, Youyu Zhang, Wei Xu and Qingpi Yan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75676",authors:[{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang"},{id:"343504",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingpi",surname:"Yan",slug:"qingpi-yan",fullName:"Qingpi Yan"},{id:"343506",title:"Dr.",name:"Youyu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"youyu-zhang",fullName:"Youyu Zhang"},{id:"351789",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiancheng",surname:"Gao",slug:"qiancheng-gao",fullName:"Qiancheng Gao"},{id:"351791",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Xu",slug:"wei-xu",fullName:"Wei Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"75818",title:"The Secretome of Vibrio cholerae",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96803",slug:"the-secretome-of-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-",totalDownloads:286,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio cholerae is a facultative human pathogen responsible for the cholera disease which infects millions of people worldwide each year. V. cholerae is a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments and the infection usually occurs after ingestion of contaminated water or food. The virulence factors of V. cholerae have been extensively studied in the last decades and include the cholera toxin and the coregulated pilus. Most of the virulence factors of V. cholerae belong to the secretome, which corresponds to all the molecules secreted in the extracellular environment such as proteins, exopolysaccharides, extracellular DNA or membrane vesicles. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge of the secretome of V. cholerae and its role in virulence, colonization and resistance. In the first section, we focus on the proteins secreted through conventional secretion systems. The second and third sections emphasize on the membrane vesicles and on the secretome associated with biofilms.",signatures:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt, Sean Giacomucci and Marylise Duperthuy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75818",authors:[{id:"342286",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Marylise",surname:"Duperthuy",slug:"marylise-duperthuy",fullName:"Marylise Duperthuy"},{id:"343168",title:"Mrs.",name:"Annabelle",surname:"Mathieu-Denoncourt",slug:"annabelle-mathieu-denoncourt",fullName:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt"},{id:"343169",title:"Mr.",name:"Sean",surname:"Giacomucci",slug:"sean-giacomucci",fullName:"Sean Giacomucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"77674",title:"Challenges in Controlling Vibriosis in Shrimp Farms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97018",slug:"challenges-in-controlling-vibriosis-in-shrimp-farms",totalDownloads:305,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently the shrimp farming has blooming as a crucial counterpart in the aquaculture industry which contribute the remarkable role in sea food production as well economy of the country. However, this could be fluctuated every year through several circumstances such as unfavorable (Poor water and soil quality) environmental factors. The environmental factors includes disease causing bacterial pathogens in the soil and water which causes the bacterial diseases in the aquatic animals, like this hectic problems are prevented through bioaugmentation strategies. The pond environment plays a vital role in determining the healthy culture system, but there is high risk for manipulation by bacterial community which takes care of waste generated in the system through in situ bioremediation. Due to the impact of rapidly growing bacterial diseases of shrimps throughout the world, numerous studies have been carried out to find immunostimulants, immunomodulators and biotic component that can be used against vibrio causing pathogens, and can also be used as an alternative for antibiotics. Recent research focus towards the marine resources such as microalgae, seaweed, live feeds (like artemia, copepods, rotifers), bacteriophage, and probiotics have been found to have higher potential in reducing vibriosis. Eco-based shrimp farming includes green water technology, phage therapy bio-floc technology (BFT) and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), these methods hold a promising alternative to antibiotics in the near future. Bacterial diseases caused by vibrios have been reported in penaeid shrimp culture systems implicating at least 14 species and they are Vibrio harveyi, V. splendidus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus, V. anguillarum, V. vulnificuslogei etc.",signatures:"Hethesh Chellapandian, Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli, A. Vijay Anand and Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77674",authors:[{id:"347251",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hethesh",surname:"Chellapandian",slug:"hethesh-chellapandian",fullName:"Hethesh Chellapandian"},{id:"347284",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeyachandran",surname:"Sivakamavalli",slug:"jeyachandran-sivakamavalli",fullName:"Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli"},{id:"421444",title:"Dr.",name:"A. Vijay",surname:"Anand",slug:"a.-vijay-anand",fullName:"A. Vijay Anand"},{id:"421445",title:"Dr.",name:"Balamuralikrishnan",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"balamuralikrishnan-balasubramanian",fullName:"Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"76988",title:"Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis: Frequent Pathogens and Conservative Antibiotic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98328",slug:"diabetic-foot-osteomyelitis-frequent-pathogens-and-conservative-antibiotic-therapy",totalDownloads:199,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chronic diabetic foot osteomyelitis (DFO) is a frequent complication in adult polyneuropathy patients with long-standing diabetes mellitus. Regarding the conservative therapy, there are several crucial steps in adequate diagnosing and approaches. The management should be performed in a multidisciplinary approach following the findings of recent research, general principles of antibiotic therapy for bone; and according to (inter-)national guidance. In this chapter we emphasize the overview on the state-of-the-art management regarding the diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in DFO. In contrast, in this general narrative review and clinical recommendation, we skip the surgical, vascular and psychological aspects.",signatures:"Nicolas Vogel, Tanja Huber and Ilker Uçkay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76988",authors:[{id:"349987",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Vogel",slug:"nicolas-vogel",fullName:"Nicolas Vogel"},{id:"350000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilker",surname:"Uçkay",slug:"ilker-uckay",fullName:"Ilker Uçkay"},{id:"417116",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tanja",surname:"Huber",slug:"tanja-huber",fullName:"Tanja Huber"}],corrections:null},{id:"78056",title:"Infections in Neurosurgery and Their Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99115",slug:"infections-in-neurosurgery-and-their-management",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surgical site and postoperative infections are common problems in surgical wards and treating them can be challenging and very complicated. It is important to understand different types of postoperative infections and their best management. In this chapter we try to emphasis on infections which are occurring in neurosurgical units and how to approach them. Foreign body infection is another challenge that happens in neurosurgical units, and it is vital to recognize these infections in time and start the treatment as soon as possible. Atypical infections occurrence is low therefore this problem is not addressed often in textbooks or in the literature, therefore atypical infections will be discussed in this chapter too. By discussing the most common postoperative complications and their best management profile, the authors here will try to widen the perspective of readers on infections in neurosurgical units in order to understand this problem better. Untreated infections or poorly treated infections can lead to sepsis and catastrophic results.",signatures:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei, Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei, Zoltan Mencser and Pal Barzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78056",authors:[{id:"351819",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Arad",surname:"Senaobar Tahaei",slug:"seyed-arad-senaobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei"},{id:"353235",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltán",surname:"Mencser",slug:"zoltan-mencser",fullName:"Zoltán Mencser"},{id:"353236",title:"Prof.",name:"Pál",surname:"Barzó",slug:"pal-barzo",fullName:"Pál Barzó"},{id:"422719",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Ashkan",surname:"Senobar Tahaei",slug:"seyyed-ashkan-senobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"77653",title:"An Explainable Machine Learning Model for Early Prediction of Sepsis Using ICU Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98957",slug:"an-explainable-machine-learning-model-for-early-prediction-of-sepsis-using-icu-data",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Early identification of individuals with sepsis is very useful in assisting clinical triage and decision-making, resulting in early intervention and improved outcomes. This study aims to develop an explainable machine learning model with the clinical interpretability to predict sepsis onset before 6 hours and validate with improved prediction risk power for every time interval since admission to the ICU. The retrospective observational cohort study is carried out using PhysioNet Challenge 2019 ICU data from three distinct hospital systems, viz. A, B, and C. Data from A and B were shared publicly for training and validation while sequestered data from all three cohorts were used for scoring. However, this study is limited only to publicly available training data. Training data contains 15,52,210 patient records of 40,336 ICU patients with up to 40 clinical variables (sourced for each hour of their ICU stay) divided into two datasets, based on hospital systems A and B. The clinical feature exploration and interpretation for early prediction of sepsis is achieved using the proposed framework, viz. the explainable Machine Learning model for Early Prediction of Sepsis (xMLEPS). A total of 85 features comprising the given 40 clinical variables augmented with 10 derived physiological features and 35 time-lag difference features are fed to xMLEPS for the said prediction task of sepsis onset. A ten-fold cross-validation scheme is employed wherein an optimal prediction risk threshold is searched for each of the 10 LightGBM models. These optimum threshold values are later used by the corresponding models to refine the predictive power in terms of utility score for the prediction of labels in each fold. The entire framework is designed via Bayesian optimization and trained with the resultant feature set of 85 features, yielding an average normalized utility score of 0.4214 and area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.8591 on publicly available training data. This study establish a practical and explainable sepsis onset prediction model for ICU data using applied ML approach, mainly gradient boosting. The study highlights the clinical significance of physiological inter-relations among the given and proposed clinical signs via feature importance and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) plots for visualized interpretation.",signatures:"Naimahmed Nesaragi and Shivnarayan Patidar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77653",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77653",authors:[{id:"349984",title:"Dr.",name:"Shivnarayan",surname:"Patidar",slug:"shivnarayan-patidar",fullName:"Shivnarayan Patidar"},{id:"349994",title:"Mr.",name:"Naimahmed",surname:"Nesaragi",slug:"naimahmed-nesaragi",fullName:"Naimahmed Nesaragi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77002",title:"Organ Damage in Sepsis: Molecular Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98302",slug:"organ-damage-in-sepsis-molecular-mechanisms",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is one of the most common reasons for hospitalisation. This condition is characterised by systemic inflammatory response to infection. International definition of sepsis mainly points out a multi-organ dysfunction caused by a deregulated host response to infection. An uncontrolled inflammatory response, often referred to as “cytokine storm”, leads to an increase in oxidative stress as a result of the inhibition of cellular antioxidant systems. Oxidative stress, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, initiate vascular endothelial dysfunction and, in consequence, impair microcirculation. Microcirculation damage leads to adaptive modifications of cell metabolism. Moreover, mitochondrial dysfunction takes place which results in increased apoptosis and impaired autophagy. Non-coding RNA, especially miRNA and lncRNA molecules, may play an important role in the pathomechanism of sepsis. Altered expression of various ncRNAs in sepsis suggest, that these molecules can be used not only as diagnostics and prognostic markers but also as the target points in the pharmacotherapy of sepsis. The understanding of detailed molecular mechanisms leading to organ damage can contribute to the development of specific therapy methods thereby improving the prognosis of patients with sepsis.",signatures:"Grażyna Sygitowicz and Dariusz Sitkiewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77002",authors:[{id:"351353",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Grażyna",surname:"Sygitowicz",slug:"grazyna-sygitowicz",fullName:"Grażyna Sygitowicz"},{id:"351355",title:"Prof.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sitkiewicz",slug:"dariusz-sitkiewicz",fullName:"Dariusz Sitkiewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"78035",title:"Inflammatory Mediators Leading to Edema Formation through Plasma Membrane Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99230",slug:"inflammatory-mediators-leading-to-edema-formation-through-plasma-membrane-receptors",totalDownloads:140,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Edema is a swelling from liquid accumulation in body tissues. Injuries in tissues or organs may cause this disorder leading to chemical mediators releasing and triggering the inflammatory process. Inflammatory mediators, when released in response to injuries, promote biological reactions at the affected site. Furthermore, plasma membrane receptors modulate the inflammatory chemical agent synthesis and release. Pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll Like is an example of plasma membrane receptors associated with chemical agents recognizing and cascade amplification. Therefore, these plasma membrane proteins exhibit essential roles during injuries and immunologic response. Thus, this review discusses the plasma membrane receptors modulation in the inflammatory area, focusing on edema formation.",signatures:"Guilherme Teixeira and Robson Faria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78035",authors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"},{id:"345859",title:"Mr.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Teixeira",slug:"guilherme-teixeira",fullName:"Guilherme Teixeira"}],corrections:null},{id:"78075",title:"Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, Bacterial Translocation and Inflammation: Deathly Triad in Sepsis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99554",slug:"intestinal-barrier-dysfunction-bacterial-translocation-and-inflammation-deathly-triad-in-sepsis",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis, as a complex entity, comprises multiple pathophysiological mechanisms which bring about high morbidity and mortality. The previous studies showed that the gastrointestinal tract is damaged during sepsis, and its main symptoms include increased permeability, bacterial translocation (BT), and malabsorption. BT is the invasion of indigenous intestinal bacteria via the gut mucosa to other tissues. It occurs in pathological conditions such as disruption of the intestine’s ecological balance and mucosal barrier permeability, immunosuppression, and oxidative stress through transcellular/paracellular pathways and initiate an excessive systemic inflammatory response. Thereby, recent clinical and preclinical studies focus on the association between sepsis and intestinal barrier dysfunction. This chapter overviews the current knowledge about the molecular basis of BT of the intestine, its role in the progress of sepsis, detection of BT, and actual therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Bercis Imge Ucar and Gulberk Ucar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78075",authors:[{id:"251368",title:"Prof.",name:"Gulberk",surname:"Ucar",slug:"gulberk-ucar",fullName:"Gulberk Ucar"},{id:"415028",title:"Dr.",name:"Bercis Imge",surname:"Ucar",slug:"bercis-imge-ucar",fullName:"Bercis Imge Ucar"}],corrections:null},{id:"77454",title:"Assessment and Management of Hypoperfusion in Sepsis and Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98876",slug:"assessment-and-management-of-hypoperfusion-in-sepsis-and-septic-shock",totalDownloads:253,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Diagnosis of organ hypoperfusion in patient with sepsis is not always straightforward which makes septic shock definition, diagnosis, and early treatment are major challenges that emergency physicians and intensivist must deal with in their daily practice. Normal blood pressure does not always mean good organ perfusion, which means patient might develop septic shock, yet they are not hypotensive. There are several indices that could be used in combination to diagnose and manage hypoperfusion in patients with septic shock. Fluid resuscitation and vasopressor administration along with infection sources control are the cornerstones in septic shock management. This chapter will cover indices that can be used to diagnose hypoperfusion, type and amount of fluid and vasopressor that can be used in resuscitating septic shock patients.",signatures:"Zohair Al Aseri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77454",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77454",authors:[{id:"350564",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zohair",surname:"Al Aseri",slug:"zohair-al-aseri",fullName:"Zohair Al Aseri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76836",title:"Sepsis Associated Acute Kidney Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97609",slug:"sepsis-associated-acute-kidney-injury-1",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"AKI is a syndrome consisting of several clinical conditions, due to sudden kidney dysfunction. Sepsis and septic shock are the causes of AKI and are known as Sepsis-Associated AKI (SA-AKI) and accounted for more than 50% of cases of AKI in the ICU, with poor prognosis. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is characterized by a sudden decline in kidney function for several hours/day, which results in the accumulation of creatinine, urea and other waste products. The most recent definition was formulated in the Kidney Disease consensus: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO), published in 2012, where the AKI was established if the patient’s current clinical manifestation met several criteria: an increase in serum creatinine levels ≥0.3 mg/dL (26.5 μmol/L) within 48 hours, an increase in serum creatinine for at least 1.5 times the baseline value within the previous 7 days; or urine volume ≤ 0.5 ml/kg body weight for 6 hours. The AKI pathophysiology includes ischemic vasodilation, endothelial leakage, necrosis in nephrons and microtrombus in capillaries. The management of sepsis associated with AKI consisted of fluid therapy, vasopressors, antibiotics and nephrotoxic substances, Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) and diuretics. In the analysis of the BEST Kidney trial subgroup, the likelihood of hospital death was 50% higher in AKI sepsis compared to non-sepsis AKI. Understanding of sepsis and endotoxins that can cause SA-AKI is not yet fully known. Some evidence suggests that renal microcirculation hypoperfusion, lack of energy for cells, mitochondrial dysfunction, endothelial injury and cycle cell arrest can cause SA-AKI. Rapid identification of SA-AKI events, antibiotics and appropriate fluid therapy are crucial in the management of SA-AKI.",signatures:"Titik Setyawati, Ricky Aditya and Tinni Trihartini Maskoen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76836",authors:[{id:"352148",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tinni",surname:"Maskoen",slug:"tinni-maskoen",fullName:"Tinni Maskoen"},{id:"352152",title:"Dr.",name:"Titik",surname:"Setyawati",slug:"titik-setyawati",fullName:"Titik Setyawati"},{id:"352159",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricky",surname:"Aditya",slug:"ricky-aditya",fullName:"Ricky Aditya"}],corrections:null},{id:"78742",title:"Atrial Fibrillation during Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100317",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-during-septic-shock",totalDownloads:209,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is an early and common occurrence during septic shock, accounting for 25–30% of admissions. Conventional cardiovascular risk factors do not generally increase its incidence, especially in cases of new-onset AF. Inflammation during the sepsis process has been postulated as a possible trigger. Detrimental effects of AF result in prognosis worsening, even when the probability for a negative outcome has been adjusted for severity of illness. New-onset AF (NOAF) has been associated with greater mortality rate than preexisting chronic AF. Early cardioversion has not uniformly improved hospital outcomes. In this review, the incidence, prognosis and management of AF in septic shock patients are summarized.",signatures:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78742",authors:[{id:"415055",title:"M.D.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Vélez-Gimón",slug:"manuel-velez-gimon",fullName:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7920",title:"Infectious Process and Sepsis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15ab9e0f38bdfb589c1dd56f8211a860",slug:"infectious-process-and-sepsis",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7920.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6352",title:"Gastrointestinal Surgery",subtitle:"New Technical Proposals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f75fc66eb312d3a8a6be8256c5ffb279",slug:"gastrointestinal-surgery-new-technical-proposals",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8443",title:"Gastrointestinal Stomas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e8dfeaf7ef41c96a76cb124dccbac94",slug:"gastrointestinal-stomas",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10314",title:"Esophagitis and Gastritis",subtitle:"Recent Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"018c77c0b435770edd232fbdf706d573",slug:"esophagitis-and-gastritis-recent-updates",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri and Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206355/images/system/206355.jpeg",biography:"Monjur Ahmed, MD, FRCP, is an Associate Professor of Medicine, at the Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He has been a practicing gastroenterologist for twenty-four years. He has a special interest in biliary diseases, gastrointestinal bleeding, colon cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, gastrointestinal motility disorders, and dysphagia. He also serves as an editor-in-chief of the World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology.",institutionString:"Thomas Jefferson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Thomas Jefferson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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Castor (
Castor is generally distributed in tropical, subtropical, and warm-temperate regions of the world. It is very commonly found in fellow land, roadside, and compounds in rural and urban areas and also common along seasonally dry rivers in altitudes between 400 and 2700 m. The probable center of origin for castor is Northeastern Africa, i.e., Ethiopia and Somalia [5], and it has four centers of diversity, viz., (a) Ethiopian-Eastern African, (b) Northwest and Southwest Asia and Arabian peninsula (c), subcontinent of India, and (d) China [3]. It is currently naturalized across the African continent, the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea, Tunisia to South Africa, and islands in the Indian Ocean. It is also widely cultivated and naturalized in tropical and subtropical regions of America and Asia and temperate areas of Europe [6].
(a) Castor plant, (b) leaf, (c) inflorescence, (d) seedling, (e) root. Source: The above pictures were collected from Habiganj, Sylhet, Bangladesh.
Different leaf colors are observed in castor, which start off as dark reddish purple or bronze when young and turn into dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge as they mature. In some varieties, the leaves are really green from the start, whereas in others, a pigment suppresses the green color of all chlorophyll-bearing parts, leaves, stems, and young fruits so that they remain a dramatic purple to reddish brown color throughout the whole life of the plant.
Castor fruit and seeds, (a) spiny fruit, (b) spineless fruit. Source: the above pictures were collected from Habiganj, Sylhet, Bangladesh.
In angiosperms, the flowers are the reproductive structures which are most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in the methods of reproduction. It reproduces by following a mixed pollination system, which prefers selfing by geitonogamy and, at the same, outcrossing by anemophily and entomophily. Under natural condition more than 80% cross-pollination occurs. Flowering may occur within 6 months after seed germination. The flowers of castor are normal monoecious, i.e., it bears pistillate flower on the upper part of the raceme and staminate on the lower part [9]. The proportion of pistillate and staminate flowers among racemes can vary both within and among genotypes and also influenced by the environment. The percentage of pistillate flowers in normal monoecious varieties is highest on the first racemes and decreasing subsequently on developed racemes. The number of staminate flowers is proportionally increased with the decrease in pistillate flowers [10]. The probable cause of this variation is mainly temperature in different season. Moderate temperature in spring and early summer promotes female flower, while high temperature in mid and late summer promotes male flower. Femaleness is highest in young plants with a high level of nutrition, and maleness is highest in older plants with a low level of nutrition [11]. After opening, a male flower releases viable pollen grains for 1–2 days, and shedding of pollen occurs in the morning. The temperature between 26 and 29°C and relative humidity of 60% is the best environmental conditions for pollen dispersal which may vary according to cultivar. Before the opening of the female flowers, male flowers reach its maturity, and anthesis usually occurs in a short period of time [12]. Therefore, the pistillate flowers that open and become receptive get a large source of pollen. After the opening of the flower, the stigma remains fully receptive for few hours, but there is a difficulty for pollination to occur promptly after the opening of the flower. Depending on the environmental condition, the stigma may remain receptive for 5–10 days [13].
Castor, a ruderal species, can be grown in tropical and subtropical regions as a perennial plant and in temperate regions as annual plant. It is a long day plant, and for normal growth and development, a day length of about 12–18 hours is required. It is found from sea level to altitudes of about 2000 m with an optimum of 300–1500 m, and its cultivation is restricted to countries lying between 40°N and 40°S latitudes, but in Russia, a few varieties are grown even up to 52°N latitude [8], and in India it is being cultivated up to an altitude of 2500 m. Its cultivation is restricted up to 500 m where frost is common during cropping season. For obtaining better yield, a frost free-growing period of about 140–190 days is highly essential depending on variety. It is deep rooted and fairly drought-resistant crop which requires annual rainfall of 250–750 mm. A moderate temperature of 20–25°C [1] and low relative humidity with clear sunny days are highly favorable for better yield. For germination, a soil temperature of 12–18°C is suitable. It is sensitive to high relative humidity and temperature above 40°C and below 15°C, which yields a negative impact on yield [14].
Castor can be grown well on fairly deep, moderately fertile, slightly acidic, and well-drained sandy loam soils. Heavy clays with poor drainage and marshy soils are not suitable for castor cultivation. The soil with low water holding capacity, pH > 9 and pH < 4, electrical conductivity (EC) >4 dS/m, and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) >20% is not suitable for castor cultivation. Moderately fertile soils are preferable than excessive fertile because excessive fertility favors vegetative growth in the expense of seed yield [14].
Land preparation is an essential step to prepare soil favorable for cultivation, to control weed, and to conserve soil moisture. Castor requires moist and well-pulverized loose top soil for better seed germination and early growth. It is done by three to four deep plowings followed by two to three harrowing to break the clods and leveling the field. Ridging is recommended in dry areas where the total rainfall is low [8].
To cover one hectare of land, a seed rate of 10–12 kg is recommended, but it varied upon cultivars and sowing method. The seed rate will be 8–10 kg/ha for hand dibbling and for intercropping; it depends on sowing proportion component crops. The spacing of castor plantation varies with growth habit, duration of variety, and sowing time. Early and medium duration cultivars are sown at a closer spacing of 90 cm × 45 cm, and long duration cultivars are sown at a wider spacing of 90 cm × 60 cm under rainfed condition. 90 cm × 60 cm spacing is favorable under irrigated condition. However, under late sown situation, a narrow spacing (60 cm × 60 cm) is practiced to realize higher yields [14].
Castor is generally propagated through seeds and sown during June and July. However, it can be cultivated year-round under irrigated condition. Under rainfed conditions, the seeds are sown by plow furrow, and the seeds are dibbled by maintaining proper spacing under irrigated condition. The emergence of seedling is easy due to its epigeal seed germination behavior. Deep sowing (8–10 cm) is recommended in light soils under rainfed conditions, and shallow sowing (6–8 cm) is preferable under irrigated condition and heavy soils [14].
Although castor can tolerate moisture stress, it performs well to irrigation. If castor expertizes moisture stress during seedling to flowering stage, it shows poor performance. If irrigation facilities are available, two to three irrigations should be given during this critical stage. If only one irrigation is available, it should be given at flowering stage. No irrigation should be given during maturity stage because it delayed maturity and also influences new vegetative growth [14]. During the season of high rainfall, proper drainage facilities should be provided to avoid water stagnancy.
Weed management is the most important intercultural operation in any crop cultivation as it impacts on overall yield by competing for nutrients, fertilizer, manure, light, and water. The critical period of crop-weed competition is the 50–60 days after sowing (DAS). After land preparation by deep plowing followed by harrowing, the crop needs two weedings and hoeings either manually or mechanically at 25 and 50 days after sowing. Chemical control like weedicides is also effective in controlling weeds. Preplant incorporation of fluchloralin or preemergence application of pendimethalin at 1 kg/ha is an effective control measure of grasses and broad-leaved weeds. One of these weedicide along with one hoeing at 50 days after sowing may be effective in controlling weeds in castor [14].
As castor is a tall statured crop, it is being cultivated as shade crop for turmeric and also grown as trap crop for pests. It can be cultivated as sole crop in rotation with wheat and linseed. Groundnut, black gram, green gram, sorghum, pearl millet, cowpea, pigeon pea, and cotton can be grown along with castor. Intercropping of castor with pigeon pea extenuate the occurrence of
The application of manures and fertilizer in appropriate time and dose assured better crop growth and yield. More fertilizers are required for hybrids and irrigated crop than variety and rainfed crop. Before final land preparation 15–20 t/ha well-decomposed farm yard manure (FYM) should be applied in both irrigated and rainfed condition for supplying nutrients as well as for moisture conservation. Under rainfed condition, the recommended dose of both N and P2O5 fertilizers is 40 kg/ha. At the time of sowing, all P fertilizer with 50% N fertilizer should be applied, and the remaining N fertilizer should be top dressed after first weeding. Under irrigated condition, both P2O5 and K2O are required at a dose of 40 kg/ha, and N fertilizer may be required at 150 kg/ha. These N fertilizers should be applied at three splits at sowing, first hoeing and preflowering stages. As a source of P fertilizer, single superphosphate is more preferable because Ca and S fertilizers are also applied [14].
Capsule borer (
The annual type of castor requires about 4–9 months to mature depending on the variety, and the perennial type may continue bearing for 10–15 years. Improved varieties with non-shattering capsule should be harvested as soon they are fully dry, but shattering type capsules are harvested when the capsule turn greenish to yellowish [8]. The central spike on the main rachis matures first than the spike on side branches start maturing. Therefore, two to three pickings may be needed for harvesting the crop because all the spikes do not mature at the same time. Harvesting of immature capsules should be avoided as it has negative impacts on oil content. After harvesting, the capsule should be sun dried for 4–5 days, and finally threshing and winnowing are done by manually or mechanically [14].
The yield of castor may vary from 1 to 3 tons of seed/ha depending on agroclimatic conditions, crop management practices, and the hybrid or variety used [8]. The percentage of oil is 37% and seed cake 63%.
Naturally all forms of castor are diploid and its chromosome number is 2n = 2x = 20 [15]. In nature, crossing of castor occurs freely and produce fertile progeny. Commonly 5–50% outcrossing occurs naturally, but in some dwarf cultivars, it may be ranged 90–100%. Male-sterile and female-sterile lines have been also identified which have a great value in breeding improved varieties [7]. Due to highly outcrossing nature, a great phenotypic variation is observed in characters such as stem color, epicuticular wax (bloom wax), plant height, presence of spines in capsules, branching behavior, leaf shape, sex expression, seed color, and response to environmental condition [16, 17]. It is also possible to exploit genetic polymorphism for quantitative traits in breeding programs [18, 19]. Mass selection of castor is effective when the traits under selection are highly heritable. This selection technique performs more effectively with self-fertilization of selected plants to impede cross-pollination and controlled selection technique to minimize environmental variation [20]. It is also an effective technique for increasing the frequency of pistillate castor plants of the NES type [21]. Cultivars developed by mass selection are Kavkazskaya (in the former USSR), IAC-38 and BRS Energia (in Brazil), and Conver and Kansas (in the United States) [22, 23]. Back cross method has been used to transfer monogenic traits such as dwarf plant stature, spineless capsules, stem color, bloom, non-shattering, plant height, and resistant to wilt. Pedigree selection has been used to select high-yielding families and individual plant within the families. Subsequent progeny test for oil content and resistant to
Castor oil is the mostly used and economically important seed oil in the world. Castor seed comprises about 40–55% oil, and kernel contains 64–71% oil which is the highest among all cultivated oil crops (Table 1). Castor oil is a unique vegetable oil due to high ricinoleic acid content (84.2–94%) which is a monounsaturated and 18-carbon fatty acid. Ricinoleic acid is exceptional from other fatty acids because it has a hydroxyl functional group on the 12th carbon that makes it more polar than other fats. The chemical reactive capacity of the alcohol group also approbates chemical derivatization that is almost impossible with other seed oils. Castor oil is a valuable chemical in feedstock due to its ricinoleic acid content and underling a high price than other seed oils. Besides ricinoleic acid content, some other fatty acids are present in castor oil, which are presented in Table 2.
Crops | Average seed oil percentage | Oleic acid | Linoleic acid | Linolenic acid | Ricinoleic acid |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Castor | 40–55% | 2–6% | 1–5% | 0.5–1% | 85–95% |
35–40% | 21.8–44.7% | 31.49–47.8% | 0.2% | — | |
30–40% | 44.5–71.3% | 10.8–24.75% | 2.9–6.3% | — | |
Canola | 42% | 57.59–61.41% | 15.3–22.3% | 10.8–13% | — |
Linseed | 38% | 20.6–23.6% | 19–22% | 41.9–53.1% | — |
Sunflower | 48% | 27–36% | 52–67% | — | — |
Soybean | 18% | 27.3–29.7% | 43–56% | 4.6–11.4% | — |
Palm | 52% | 20.3–24.7% | 0.7–1.8% | — | — |
Name of acids | Carbon number | Average percentage range |
---|---|---|
Saturated fatty acid | — | 1–2.5% |
Unsaturated fatty acid | — | 97.5–98.3% |
Ricinoleic acid | 18:1 | 84.2–95% |
Oleic acid | 18:1 | 2.8–5.5% |
Linoleic acid | 18:2 | 4.3–7.3% |
Linolenic acid | 18:3 | 0.2–0.5% |
Stearic acid | 18:0 | 0.9–1.2% |
Palmitic acid | 16:0 | 0.7–1.3% |
Dihydroxystearic acid | 18:0 | 0.3–0.5% |
Others | — | 0.2–0.5% |
Salimon et al. [34] identified five major triacylglycerol in castor seed oil. These were triricinolein (RRR), diricinoleoylstearoylglycerol (RRS), diricinoleoyloleoylglycerol (RRO), diricinoleoyllinoleoylglycerol (RRL), and diricinoleoylpalmitoyl-glycerol (RRP). They also first reported the per cent composition of triacylglycerol present in castor seed oil (Table 3) by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD).
Triacylglycerol | Composition (%) |
---|---|
Triricinolein (RRR) | 84.1 |
Diricinoleoylstearoylglycerol (RRS) | 8.2 |
Diricinoleoyloleoylglycerol (RRO) | 5.6 |
Diricinoleoyllinoleoylglycerol (RRL) | 1.2 |
Diricinoleoylpalmitoyl-glycerol (RRP) | 0.9 |
Major triacylglycerols and their composition in castor seed oil.
Source: Salimon et al. [34].
The physical and chemical properties of castor oil includes moisture content, density, refractive index, fire point, flash point, smoke point, cloud point, pour point, viscosity, color, pH, turbidity, lipid content, free fatty acids, acid value, saponification value, unsaponifiable matter, peroxide value, iodine value, cetane number, and calorific value, and their probable range is presented in Table 4. The difference in the value of these properties may be due to environmental factor which influences the growth and productivity of the seed. The moisture content of the crude oil lies between 0.2 and 0.31%, which indicates low moisture content that is the characteristics of good shelf life. The density ranges between 0.946 and 0.950 g/cm3, which can be further reduced by esterification for application as biodiesel. The refractive index indicates the level saturation of the oil. The fire point, flash point, smoke point, cloud point, and pour point give evidence of good combustion quality as biofuel. The viscosity range (0.305–0.545 cps) indicates that the oil is light and highly unsaturated. The low levels of pH (5.8) notify the presence of modest amount of free fatty acid in the oil, which is a good indicator for utilization of oil in soap making. The free acids and acid value express the level of oxidative deterioration of the oil through enzymatic or chemical oxidation. However, the fatty acids can be transformed to edible oil through refining of crude oil and will also improve its quality for industrial use. The saponification value (182.9–327.4 mgKOH/g) expresses the relative length of fatty acid chain.
Properties | Average value range |
---|---|
Moisture (%) | 0.2–0.31 |
Density (g/cm3) | 0.946–0.950 |
Refractive index at 25 C | 1.47 |
Fire point (°C) | 254.8–257.2 |
Flash point (°C) | 222.9–227.1 |
Smoke point (°C) | 214–216 |
Cloud point (°C) | 3 |
Pour point (°C) | 2 |
Viscosity (cps) | 0.305–0.545 |
pH | 5.8 |
Turbidity | 4–6 |
Lipid content (%) | 43.3–47.8 |
Free fatty acids | 3.4–7.21 |
Acid value (mg/g) | 4.9–14.42 |
Saponification value (mgKOH/g oil) | 182.9–327.4 |
Unsaponifiable matter | 3.4 |
Peroxide value (meq/kg) | 10.2 |
Iodine value (wijj’s value) | 57.93–59.35 |
Cetane number | 55.9 |
Calorific value (MJ/Kg) | 36.25 |
Abayeh et al. [40] reported that oil with high saponification value could be used as raw materials for soaps and cosmetics. Iodide value could be used to determine the total number of double bond present in the oil, which indicates the susceptibility of oil to oxidation. The peroxide value appraises the rancidity of the oil during storage process. Cetane number indicates the ignition quality, and calorific value represents the measures of available energy of fuel. All of these physical and chemical properties of castor oil established it as a good source of lubricant and biofuel and to be used for industrial purpose.
The endosperm of castor seed contains a group of closely related toxic glycoproteins (ricin), ricinoleic acid, and the alkaloid ricinin. The seed cake of castor contains the toxic compound ricin, but castor oil does not contain ricin because it is insoluble in oil, and if remains it can be expelled in the refining process [3]. The toxic properties of castor seeds had been noticed since ancient times and its toxicity to human has recently been reported [41, 42]. Castor seed were used in classical Egyptian and Greek medicine and were delineated in Sanskrit medicine (Sushruta Ayurveda) from the sixth century BC [41]. More than 750 cases of accidental or deliberate intoxication have been reported in human [43]. The lethal dose in adults may be considered as four to eight seeds, but children are susceptible to small amount of seeds. An acceptable rate (0–0.7 mg/kg body weight) of daily castor oil consume for man has been established by the combined Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives. Ricin creates health problem by damaging the ribosomes, which produce all of the protein needed by a cell and if the proteins cannot be produced cell may dies [4]. The symptom of ricin ingestion may be appeared up to 36 hours but generally start within 2–4 hours. This symptom includes a burning sensation in the mouth and throat, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, incoordination, drowsiness, and hematuria. Severe dehydration, drop in blood pressure, and reduced urination have occurred within several days. If immediate treatment is not taken, vascular collapse and death may occur within 3–5 days; however, in most patients, full recovery can be possible [43].
The other toxic protein in castor seed is RCA (
It is concluded that seed extract of castor shows significant antioxidant activity by using lipid peroxidation method by ferric thiocyanate and free radical scavenging effect on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) and hydroxyl radicle produced from hydrogen peroxide. Those diseases which are caused by oxidative stress can be reduced by high antioxidant function of
The oil that is extracted from the seed of
Ethanolic extract of root of
The methanolic extract of castor root possesses anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activity. It was studied in Wistar albino rats in which oral administration of methanolic extract at a dose of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight showed significant (p < 0.001) anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenin-induced hind paw edema model. The oral administration of the extract at the dose 500 mg/kg body weight also showed significant (p < 0.001) anti-inflammatory activity in cotton pellet granuloma model. The methanolic extract also showed free radical scavenging activity by suppressing lipid peroxidation initiated by carbon tetrachloride and ferrous sulfate in rat liver and kidney homogenates. The extract augments the free radical scavenging activity of stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), nitric oxide, and hydroxyl radical in in vitro assay methods [52].
The crude extract of root bark of castor possesses analgesic activity in tail flick response model to radiant heat at a dose of 250 mg/kg [53]. The ethanolic extract of fruit pericarp of castor contains typical CNS stimulant and neuroleptic effects. The stimulant effects such as exophthalmus, hyperreactivity (evidence by tremors or by the pinna and grip strength reaction), memory improvement, and clonic seizures seem to be due to the presence of alkaloid ricinine, which is considered as a main toxic compound in the extract. Animals that died after being treated with extract showed similar signs; they all died by clonic seizures, which were followed by apparent breathing arrest. On the other hand, compounds other than ricinine may cause neuroleptic-like effects of extract because ricinine is not responsible for reducing locomotor function or catalepsy in mice [54].
In spite of being a poisonous compound, ricin possesses the potentiality to prevent tumor and has been used in cancer research and chemotherapy during recent years. One of the most important uses of ricin is in the manufacturing of immunotoxins where the protein ricin is jointed to monoclonal antibodies. In vitro technique was used to produce these antibodies which have a protein receptor site that identify the specific target cells in the tumor. The protein antibody joined together and resulting compound is known as immunotoxin. For the treatment of a cancer patient, the deadly toxin can be carried at the site of tumor by arming these antibodies with ricin. Thus, castor has the most significant use in the treatment of tumor or cancer cell due to the presence of ricin. It kills only the target tumor cell without damaging other in the patient [55].
The methanolic extract of seeds of castor plant has a positive preliminarily phytochemical test for steroid as well as alkaloids. The pituitary gland releases gonadotropins by both positive and negative feedback mechanism due to sex hormones, and also the pituitary gland inhibits the release of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone. This is due to estrogen and progesterone fall a cumulative effect in luteal phase of menstrual cycle. Thus, it helps the inhibition of maturation follicle in the ovary and prevents ovulation. As sex hormone is a steroidal compound, methanol extract of castor seed contains steroids; it produces antifertility effect [56, 57].
The compound ricin show lipolytic function by using different substrates such as (a) one analogue of triacylglycerol, BAL-TC4 (b), different chromogenic substrates such as
The ethanolic leaf extract of castor at 250/500 mg/kg body weight possesses hepatoprotective activities. This is because of their inhibitory activities of an increase in the function of serum transaminase, level of liver lipid per oxidation, protein, and glycogen, and the activities of acid and alkaline phosphatase in the liver initiated by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) are increased. The extract also treated the depletion of glutathione level and adenosine triphosphatase functions in the CCl4-induced rat liver. Flavonoids are present in the ethanolic extract which possess membrane-stabilizing and antiperoxidative effects.
Castor oil is effective for injury healing. It produces antioxidant activity and inhibits lipid peroxidation. The compound, which is responsible for inhibiting lipid per oxidation, is supposed to increase viability of collagen fibrils by increasing the strength of collagen fibers, increasing the circulation, and preventing cell damage by promoting DNA synthesis. Tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, and sesquiterpenes have astringent and antimicrobial properties, which repair wound portion and increase the epithelialization. An observation showed that castor oil healed the wound area by reducing the scar area and epithelialization time in excision wound model. A comparison study showed that 10% w/w concentration has better wound healing property than 5% w/w concentration [63].
There are some compounds present in the root extract of castor plant which is very important for the treatment of asthma, because it has anti-allergic and cell-stabilizing ability. Saponins present in the extract possess mast cell-stabilizing effect, and flavonoids have smooth muscle relaxant and bronchodilator function. The apigenin- and luteolin-like flavonoids normally restrict basophil histamine release and neutrophils beta glucuronidase release and show anti-allergic activity in vivo. Another study showed that ethanolic extract of
The immunomodulatory compound generally increases the immune response of the human body against different pathogens by activating the nonspecific immune system. The phagocytosis is the engulfment of microorganisms by leucocytes which is one of the main protective mechanisms of the organism. The final step of phagocytosis is the intracellular killing of microorganism by the neutrophils. The leaves of
Experiments were conducted to see the biocompatibility and potentiality of
Castor oil has been used to develop low pour point lubricant base stocks by synthesizing acyloxy castor polyol esters [69]. Due to having low pour point property, it provides full lubrication to the equipment in cold environment [70]. An interesting study by Singh revealed that castor oil-based lubricant has the luscious potentiality to be used as smoke pollution reducer. In his research he used a biodegradable two-stroke (2 T) oil, which is a popular variety of lubricating oil and was used on two-stroke engines in scooters and motorcycles. The lubricant comprises tolyl monoesters and performance additives but no miscibility solvents. The result revealed that it decreased smoke by 50–70% at a 1% oil/fuel ratio [71]. Castor oil also can be used as car engine lubricant. A modified version of castor oil lubricant comprising 100 parts of castor oil and 20–110 parts of a chemically and thermally stable, low viscosity blending fluid, soluble in castor oil showed its potential to be used as a lubricant for refrigeration system [72]. In spite of having its use as DOT 2 rating brake fluid, castor oil lubricant is considered as obsolete types of brake fluid and is not used in the modern vehicles [73].
Food grade castor oil is used in the food industry. It can be used as food additives such as flavor and food color and as a mold inhibitor and in packaging. In the foodstuff industry, polyoxyethylated castor oil is also used [74]. The white, large seed of castor are an important source of food condiment called “Ogiri” in the southeastern part of Nigeria [75].
For synthesizing the renewable monomers and polymers in the castor oil and its derivatives are used [76]. To produce the vulcanized and urethane derivatives, castor oil was polymerized with sulfur and diisocyanates, respectively [77]. In other study, by sequential mode of synthesis, full-interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) were prepared using epoxy and castor oil-based polyurethane (PU) (Raymond and Bui [78]). Similar to the aforementioned study, a series of two components IPN of the modified castor oil-based PU and polystyrene were prepared by sequential method [79]. IPN is also known as polymer alloy and is considered as one of the fastest growing research areas in the field of polymer blends in the last two decades [79]. As a root-end filling material, castor oil polymer has been shown to possess sealing ability. Root-end filling material is the root-end preparation filled with experimental materials, and it provides an apical seal to prevent the bacterial movements and its diffusion from root canal system to peripheral tissues [80]. One of the most common applications using castor oil is biodegradable polyesters [81]. The first synthetic condensation polymers are polyesters which are environmentally safe and friendly. This is also useful in biomedical field as well as elastomers and packaging materials [82, 83]. Castor can be combined with other monomers with a view to produce an array of copolymers. Again these copolymers provide materials with different properties which find use in products ranging from solid implants to in situ injectable hydrophobic gel [81].
Castor oil is used to produce soaps and waxes [30]. In a study by Dwivedi and Sapre [84], they utilized castor oil in total vegetable oil greases. Total vegetable oil greases are those in which both lubricant and gallant are formed from vegetable oil. In their study, they utilized a simultaneous reaction scheme to produce sodium and lithium greases from castor oil.
Castor oil can be used in producing coatings and paints. For useful paintings and furniture oil application, castor oil is dehydrated by monoconjugated oil-maleic anhydrite adducts [85]. Castor oil is utilized as coating application by converting the hydroxyl functionalities of castor oil to β-ketoesters using
There are two by-product produced from the castor seed, i.e., husks and meal. Lima et al. [89] reported that the blend of castor meal and castor husks can be used as fertilizer, which is effective for substantial plant growth when it is applied up to a dose of 4.5% (in volume) of meal. But when the dose exceeds 4.5%, the plant growth is retarded and even the plant may die [89].
Besides the above uses, the
The extraction of castor oil from castor seed can be done by either mechanical pressing or solvent extraction or a combination of both. After harvesting, the seeds are dried to split open the seed hull so that kernel can be collected easily. Extraction process starts with the dehulling of seeds, and this can be done either manually by hands or mechanically with the help of a castor seed dehuller. After dehulling the seed, foreign materials such as sticks, stems, leaves, sand or dirt are removed by using a series of revolving screens or reels. After cleaning, the kernels are heated in a steam jacketed press to eliminate moisture, and then these cooked kernels are dried; this hardening will help in extraction.
A hydraulic press or oil expeller is used to remove oil from castor kernels. This mechanical extraction is done at low temperature which recovers only about 45% oil from the castor seeds. Higher temperature can increase the extraction efficiency up to 80% of the available oil which can be done by using high-temperature hydraulic press. The extraction temperature can be maintained by circulating of cold water through the pressing machine that is responsible for cold pressing of kernels. Cold-pressed castor oil contains low acid and iodine content and is lighter in color than the castor oil which is solvent extracted. After extraction, the oil is collected and filtered, and the filtered materials are mixed with fresh kernels for repeat extraction. The extraction process is repeated for several times by bulking of filtered material with new material and oil is collected. The by-product is finally removed from the press as seed cake. This seed cake contains about 10% of castor oil [1]. The remaining oil in seed cake can be obtained by crushing the seed cake and subjected to solvent extraction.
The solvent extraction of castor oil can be done by using Soxhlet extractor. About 300 ml of solvent such as hexane, heptane, or petroleum ether is poured in a round-bottom flask, and 10 g of crushed castor kernel packed with oil tissue or filter paper is placed in a thimble and inserted into the center of the extractor. The extractor then is fixed on the round-bottom flask, and a condenser is placed on the top of the extractor. Then the fitted apparatus is placed in a heating mantle and heated (50–60°C) to boil the solvent. When the solvent starts to boil, the vapor rises through the vertical tube into the condenser at the top. The vapor condensed and dripped into the thimble at the center. The extract seeps through the pores of the thimble and fills the siphon tube where it flows back down into the round-bottom flask [91]. The extraction process is continued for 8 hours, and after that, the extract with solvent in the round-bottom flask is subjected to rotator evaporator to recover the solvent from the extracted oil. The weight of extracted oil should be recovered for further determination.
The transesterification process is the reaction of a triglyceride with an alcohol to produce ester and glycerol. A triglyceride has a glycerine molecule as its base with three long chain fatty acids annexed. The characteristics of the fat are determined by the nature of the fatty acids subsumed to the glycerine which affects the characteristics of the biodiesel. In the production of biodiesel, vegetable oil in the form of triglycerides reacts with small chain alcohol (methanol, ethanol, propanol, etc.) in the presence of homogeneous catalyst such as base (KOH, NaOH) or acid (HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4) or heterogeneous catalyst as zeolites or biocatalyst as enzymes. The process is also called alcoholysis. When methanol is used, it is called methanolysis, and esters that are produced in methanolysis are called fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), and in case of ethanol, the process is termed as ethanolysis, and the esters produced in this process are called fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) [92]. The transesterification is a reversible reaction, so alcohol must be added in excess to ensure the reaction in the right direction (Figure 3).
Transesterification reaction.
For transesterification about 25 ml of oil was kept in three-necked round-bottom flask and heated to 65°C. Then, the required quantity of methanol and catalyst (KOH) is added with stirring system. The experiment was continued for 3 hours and then the sample was monitored by running TLC to ensure the completion of reaction. After cooling, two layers were differentiated by separatory funnel, the upper layer is methyl ester (biodiesel), and the lower layer is glycerol. Produced methyl ester could be purified by successive rinse with 2.5% (w/w) H2SO4 and distilled water. NaCl was used to avoid emulsion during washing process. The washed methyl ester should be treated with anhydrous sodium sulfate to eliminate excess water. It was then filtered and dried by heating at low temperature (60°C) for 30 minutes [93].
After extraction of oil by using oil expeller, there still remain impurities in the extracted oil which can be removed through filtration process. Large- and small-sized particulates, any dissolved gases, acids, or even water can be removed by using filter press. Crude oil of castor seed is pale yellow or straw in color, but it can be made colorless or near colorless by refining and bleaching. The crude of castor seed also has a discrete odor which can also be deodorized during refining process [1].
Following filtration of crude oil of castor, it is subjected to refining process to eliminate impurities such as colloidal matter, phospholipids, excess free fatty acids, and coloring agents. Removal of these impurities prevents deterioration during long-term storage. The refining process includes several steps such as degumming, neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization, and sometimes winterization should be performed for efficient oil refining [1].
Degumming is performed to reduce the phospholipids and metal content of the crude oil of castor. The forms of phospholipids found in crude castor oil are lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidic acids [94], and these phosphatides can be classified as hydratable and nonhydratable [95]. For efficient removal of these phosphatides, a suitable degumming procedure such as water degumming, acid degumming, and enzymatic degumming has to be implemented. Generally crude vegetable oil contains about 10% of nonhydratable phosphatides [95] which may vary depending on several factors such as type of seed, quality of seed, and condition applied during milling operation. Water degumming process can be followed to remove hydratable phosphatides, and nonhydratable phosphatides can only be eliminated by applying acid or enzymatic degumming procedures [95].
Neutralization is the process of removing excess free fatty acids (FFAs) from the degummed oil. The FFA content is high in old seeds, which are stored for more than 1 year with high moisture content [96]. The degummed castor oil is refined by chemical refining or alkali neutralization which abates the content of FFAs, oxidation products of FFAs, residual proteins, phosphatides, carbohydrates, traces of metals, and a part of pigments. The alkali neutralization is done by treating degummed castor oil with an alkali solution (2% caustic soda) at temperature between 85 and 95°C with continuous stirring for about 45–60 minutes [97]. At this stage the alkali reacts with FFAs and converts them into soap which has a higher specific gravity than the neutral oil and tends to settle at the bottom. The oil can be differentiated either by gravity separation or by using commercial centrifuges. The separated oil is then washed with hot water to remove soap, alkali solution, and other impurities [98]. For batch neutralization of castor oil, it needs four to six times hot water wash so as to reduce the level of soap below 100 ppm [97]. The oil, thus obtained, is dried in vacuum dryer and transferred to the bleaching process.
After degumming and neutralization, the castor oil that appeared is clear and liquid, but it may still contain colored bodies, natural pigments, and antioxidants (tocopherols and tocotrienols). However, bleaching, an adsorption process, is used to remove such colored pigments and phospholipids. Bleaching of castor oil can be done under vacuum at about 100°C, and continuously stirring the oil with appropriate amount activated earths and carbon [91]. The activated earths are clay ores that consist of minerals such as bentonite and montmorillonite. About 2% bleaching earth and carbon are required in the bleaching process to produce desirable light-colored oil. In this process, colored particles, soap, and phosphatides are adsorbed by the activated earth and carbon. A commercial filter is used to remove the activated earth and carbon. The spent earth and carbon thus obtained contains about 20–25% oil content [99]. This retained oil in earth can be recovered by boiling the spent earth in water or by solvent extraction method. The oil that is recovered from the spent earth is highly colored with high FFA and high peroxide content usually more than 10 mg KOH/g and 20 meq/kg, respectively [100].
Deodorization is vacuum distillation processes that carry away relatively volatile components that produce undesirable flavor, color, and odors in fat and oils. To produce pharmaceutical grade castor oil, deodorization is necessary, but in other cases, this process is not essential as it is a nonedible vegetable oil [101, 102]. Deodorization is generally under high vacuum and temperature above 250°C to expel undesirable odor caused by ketones, aldehydes, sterols, triterpene alcohols, and short chain fatty acids [98]. Pharmaceutical grade castor oil is deodorized under low temperatures (150–170°C) and high vacuum for 8–10 hours to hydrolysis of hydroxyl group ricinoleic acid [103].
Most vegetable oils contain high concentration of waxes, fatty acids, and lipids which is subjected to winterization before final use. Winterization is the process where waxes are crystalized and eliminated by a filtering process to avoid clouding of liquid fraction at cooler temperatures [1].
For the development of high-yielding varieties of castor understanding, the genetics of economically important traits is most important. Different morphological and qualitative traits are controlled by one or few genes and their additive, dominant, and epistatic effects, which make it more difficult to develop high-yielding varieties. Stem color of castor is controlled by epistatic interaction of two genes “M” and “G” [104] and tall plant shows dominance over dwarf plant due to a monogenic factor. Particularly the inheritance of sex expression is important in the development of hybrids. There are three types of pistillate line, i.e., N, S, and NES, which could be used for hybrid production. In the N type, the occurrence of only female flowers is controlled by a recessive gene (ff); in the S type, the production of only female flower is controlled by a polygenic complex with dominant and epistatic effects; and in the NES type, the induction of female is also controlled by a recessive gene (ff), but sexual reversion occurs when the air temperature is more than 31°C [105, 106, 107]. The seed yield and seed oil content are usually inherited by quantitative manner. Some important characters such as the number of nodes before flowering, number of racemes per plant, and seed oil content are controlled by additive genetic effect [108, 109]. Other traits such as length of primary raceme, number of capsules per racemes, and seed weight are also additively inherited [110, 111, 112]. Early maturity is an another important character for castor cultivation in tropical areas or regions of short growing seasons where multiple crops are cultivated, but it shows negative correlation with high seed yield which is the main hindrance in the development of early maturing variety [113]. Genetic transformation of castor also remains challenging as it is averse to proficient regeneration of durable and transformed plant. The callus culture of castor for regeneration of plant has been problematic due to the lack of proper protocol which restricted the development of transgenic cultivars [114]. The most important global challenge in castor breeding is the development of cultivars that facilitate mechanical harvest. The success of perennial and indeterminate type castor is limited than annual and determinate type. The selection dwarf and non-branching type castor plant is hardly possible due to high genotype versus environment interaction.
The most important challenges in castor cultivation are management of disease and pest incidence. Several disease occurrences were noticed in castor; among these gray mold (
The major insect pests that cause significant damage are castor semilooper (
After the extraction of oil from castor seed, it produces castor meal as a by-product, which contains a toxic compound ricin. This ricin content is about 1 to 5% of the weight of the castor meal remaining after oil extraction [122, 123]. Small quantities of castor meal can be easily detoxified, but no commercial or industrial level detoxification process has been successfully implemented yet. In early 1934, it was demonstrated that by boiling for 2 hours, castor meal could be detoxified. Several other methods for castor meal detoxification have been investigated later which includes short but repeated boiling, autoclaving, steam heating, fermentation, ionizing radiation, and mixing castor meal with tannin-rich meal of Sal seed (
According to FAOSTAT, during 2014, the average world production of castor oilseed was 1.95 million tons that was harvested from an area of 1.44 million hectare, of which 92.2% was concentrated in Asia, mostly in India. India ranked first in the production of castor oil seed that was about 1.73 million tons followed by Mozambique (0.069 million ton), China (0.04 million ton), Brazil (0.038 million ton), and Myanmar (0.011 million ton). In Bangladesh, it is only 266 tons, which is too much lower compared to India, Mozambique, and China. India is the highest exporter of castor oil accounting for more than 90% of the castor oil exports, while the United States, European countries, and China are the major importer, accounting for more than 84% of the imported castor oil [128]. Harvested area, production, and yield of the top 10 castor oil seed producers during 2014 are presented in Table 5.
Country | Harvested area (million hectare) | Production (million ton) | Yield (ton/ha) |
---|---|---|---|
India | 1.04 | 1.733 | 1.666 |
Mozambique | 0.184 | 0.069 | 0.375 |
China | 0.046 | 0.040 | 0.870 |
Brazil | 0.063 | 0.038 | 0.591 |
Myanmar | 0.014 | 0.011 | 0.782 |
Ethiopia | 0.005 | 0.011 | 2.000 |
Paraguay | 0.008 | 0.009 | 1.125 |
Vietnam | 0.008 | 0.007 | 0.875 |
South Africa | 0.010 | 0.006 | 0.607 |
Angola | 0.016 | 0.004 | 0.253 |
Harvested area, production, and yield of the top 10 castor oil seed producers during 2014.
Source: FAO [2].
The global consumption of castor is increased, but the current production of castor is not increasing at sufficient rate. Future research strategies play an important role in the world production of castor. International collaboration between scientific communities is needed for the development of solution to the main constraints to castor production, processing, and marketing. Although some locally adapted variety and hybrids are developed, an integrated plant improvement strategy needs to be developed for further progress. A closer interaction between plant breeders, molecular biologists, plant pathologists, plant physiologists, and entomologists is needed for speeding up the research activities. Both the quality and quantity of castor oil can be improved by using biotechnological innovations and genetic engineering. The castor genome draft should be used as map for introducing molecular markers in castor breeding. Improved coordination of germplasm bank helps in the standardization of evaluation method and increase the exchange of accession in breeding programs. The development of non-shattering, dwarf, and high-yielding cultivar with additional improvement in machinery and agronomic practices will allow the prompt transition of castor to mechanized production [129]. Breeding of castor for resistance or tolerance to disease and insect pest is also important for the production of good-quality castor oil seed. Another major concern is the development of castor cultivar with low ricin, low ricinin, low allergen, and low RCA content [41, 42, 130]. Accurate detection and detoxification of castor toxin in feed and biological samples remain a challenge to the commercial use of castor meal in animal rations. The use of castor oil for biodiesel production is problematic due to its high viscosity and high cost of production and refining. However, castor has a tremendous potentiality as a source of bioenergy and industrial feedstock with high oil content, unique fatty acid composition (ricinoleic acid), and a wide range of adaptation under drought and saline condition.
Castor is an underutilized nonedible oil crop species that has a variety of application, but it is promising for its high oil content particularly as a potential source of renewable energy. It is also used in the production of pharmaceuticals, lubricants, hydraulic and brake fluid, polymer materials, coating, and fertilizer. It also contains toxic compounds that are ricin, ricinin, and RCA. The development of high-yielding varieties, detoxification castor meal, and control of insect pests are the major challenges.
The authors acknowledge the support of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman of the Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh, for providing all research inputs and bearing the cost of the project. The authors would like to thank BSMRAU authority for their support.
There is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of the chapter.
The drastic improvement in communication networks over the last few decades has led to a rapid increase in the demand for data transmission. A rise in the demand and supply of media content has been witnessed due to the variety of multimedia platforms available over the internet. Some of the platforms that provide multimedia content over the internet are YouTube [1], Net TV [2], and IPTV [3], etc. Among all data that is transmitted over P2P networks; over 90% of the data is due to video transmission. YouTube is the second most popular site according to the Alexa Ranking System [4]. Demand for multimedia content is increasing due to its widespread use in the communication, entertainment and education sectors [5]. Two different approaches used for video transmission over the network are Video on Demand (VoD) and live video streaming. VoD approach is more competent and convenient for the user, as the user can demand the video whenever they choose to rather than watching it at a particular time. No real time constraints are applied and no broadcast time is fixed only during which the video can be watched [6]. But live video streaming approach follows a specific broadcast time. If a user wants to watch the video, they have to watch it during that broadcast time. The network requirements for live video streaming are more as compared to that for video on demand. Some of the famous commercial P2P live video streaming systems are UUSee [7], Sopcast [8], PPLive [9]. In live video streaming, video transmission is more complex as compared to that in VoD. The complexity of the network has increased over time due to the increase in demand for live streaming. Figure 1 shows the categorization of the video traffic over the Internet. Overall Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of traffic is 24% between the years 2016 and 2021. From the figure, it is also clear that demand for Internet video increased from 51 to 67.4% in the same time span.
Global IP traffic by application category [
Further, this Internet video was also subcategorized to understand the demand of different video categories over the Internet. From the Figure 2, it is easily observed that there is a huge demand for live Internet video and there is 10% increment in it in the period of 2016–2021. Some of the major highlights of video over Internet is describe in (Table 1).
Global internet video by sub-segment [
Streaming or media streaming is a technique for transferring data so that it can be processed as a steady and continuous stream. Video streaming allowed to play the video without completely downloading the file. The Distinguishing distribution techniques for multimedia distribution applies specifically to telecommunication networks, as most of the delivery systems are either inherently streaming (e.g., radio, television) or inherently non-streaming (e.g., books, video cassettes, audio CD’s).
Generally, classification of media over the Internet can be done into two ways Video on Demand (VoD) and Live streaming [10].
Video on demand is a recent exploitation in information storage and communication. Entertainment has undergone several positive changes in the last decade. Video on demand is one of them. It is a technology which combines user requirement, computer network, communication, and video engineering. Video on demand is a system which works like cable television. Contents are pre-recorded and stored at servers. The server may be at one physical location or distributed at different locations. Content is buffered or downloaded before actual play. Video on demand is not so time critical approach like live streaming. Therefore, video can be paused or resumed during the play. Every user is free to choose the program of their demand. It means programs are broadcast according to user requirements. A different user can ask for different services. The user can watch the programs according to their convenience. It may be weekdays or weekends at their choice timing. VoD also provides some special functionality. Users can forward or backward the program according to their convenience. In video on demand a client can download the video and may seek new play position according to his interest. Because the service is new it lacks universal standardization. Figure 3 shows the simple example of video on demand. After capturing the live event from the camera encoding take place. Now encoded video is stored for further demand, and through the streaming server, video in delivered to requester peers A, B and C.
Video on demand.
Live streaming is a video platform that allows users to view any video in real time. Broadcast video content using an audio/video communication media through the Internet. Live stream, can be described as the streaming platform that permits user to view and simulcast video content by the help of any capturing tools like camera or audio recorder through the medium commonly known as the Internet. Live streaming can be described as the act of telecasting any live event which is being performed at real-time in any place by the medium of the Internet. It is not possible for each and every person to be present at many events going on simultaneously at different places. For this, live streaming plays a very important role in entertaining people by broadcasting the live event. For live streaming, a very common example is cricket matches being played at different places which are being telecasted for people entertainment.
Live video streaming is time critical as compared to video on demand. It’s a delay sensitive service. The user can not choose the program at their convenience timing. The event is going on and it is broadcasted to all users. So users don’t not have special features like fast forward or slow the live events. Packet sizes of video which are being sent from server to viewers are not predefined. It makes live streaming more complicated than video on demand. Transmission of the video is very crucial factor in case of live video streaming. Frames should be reached at the destination before its deadline. After deadline frames are useless. So the frames which are urgent should be reached first before other frames. Otherwise, there is an interruption in live video streaming. In video on demand, first of all video is stored and further distributed according to the demand of client. Due to the same, implementation complexity of the video on demand is less as compare to live streaming. Figure 4 shows the simple example of live streaming. After capturing the live event from the camera encoding take place. Now the encoded video is transferred to a streaming server. The streaming server further forwards the video to requester peers A, B and C. A detail comparison of VoD and live streaming is given in Table 2.
Live streaming.
S. no | Property | Effect |
---|---|---|
1 | Quantity of video | It will take approx. 5 million years to individual to watch video, Which will cross global IP in each month in 2021 |
2 | Traffic of video | Video traffic will be approx. 73% up between 2016 and 2021. |
3 | Live video | Live video will grow 15-fold between 2016 and 2021. |
4 | Virtual reality and augmented reality traffic | Will increase 20-fold between 2016 and 2021 |
5 | Internet video to TV | grew 50 percent in 2016 |
6 | Consumer Video-on-Demand (VoD) | Traffic will nearly double by 2021 |
7 | Content Delivery Network (CDN) traffic | It will carry 71 percent of all internet traffic by 2021 |
Video highlights.
S. no | Live streaming | Video on demand |
---|---|---|
1 | In a live streaming session, a live video content is disseminated to all users in real-time. | Video-on-demand users enjoy watching whatever video clips whenever they want |
2 | The video playback on all users is synchronized. | The playback of the same video clip on different users are not synchronized |
3 | All the users watching the same video and same segment. | If the users are watching the same video still the segment may be different |
4 | Less Flexible and convenience to users | VoD is more flexible and convenience to users |
5 | Time Complexity is more | Time Complexity is less |
6 | Space complexity is less | Space Complexity is more |
7 | Generally broadcast or multicast | Generally Multicast or Unicast |
8 | Economical | Required additional hardware and software |
Comparison between live streaming and video on demand.
The architecture use for any system plays very important role in its performance. Therefore, a good architecture is also required to efficiently support video streaming applications. The architectures used for such systems have to support broadly buffering and streaming of audio, video and related data. Client server architecture is conventional and most popular solution for both VoD and live streaming. However architecture is not appropriate due to the scalability and Quality of services of different parameters. This motivates the research community to search for better architecture and to most commonly used architectures are Content Distributed Network (CDN) and Peer to Peer (P2P) network discussed below.
The CDN architecture is a distributed architecture in which data is distributed over the different server. Instead of storing the whole data at an original server, data is distributed at edge or surrogate server as shown in Figure 5. A hierarchy of server is created over the network [11]. When a client wants to communicate it will send a direct request to nearest edge server instead of an original server. If the server is free, it responds back according to data it has for the client. The client gets the response and according to response if it is positive, client start to see the live video. But if the response is negative client has to search another server and repeat the process again until it gets a positive response from the server. The server can share more than one program with multiple clients according to its resource capacity. To overcome the problem of a flash crowd in client-server architecture a new approach called cooperative networking (Coop Net) is discussed [5]. The drawback of Coop Net is that the client cannot work for long duration. Coop net uses distributed streaming and distributed coding approach for transmission of live video streaming. Using the approach robustness of the system is also increased. Control overheard on the client side is minimum and easy to handle due to centralized behaviors of the server. Content distributed network provides reliability. In the client-server architecture, the resource utilization of the client is minimized. Scalability of the content distributed network is a major issue and increases the cost at the server side as the peer increase in the network. Due to the problem of scalability, cost and utilization of peer’s resources researcher are attracted towards peer to peer network.
Content distribution network.
“Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed architecture that partitions tasks or assignments between peers. Peers are similarly advantaged, equipotent contributors in the application” [12]. The prime focus of P2P network is to fair distribution of the content without any extraordinary provision from the network. Aim of P2P network is to reduce the overhead from the server and uses the upload bandwidth of the users. Some of the formal definitions of P2P networks as defined in [13, 14, 15].
Figure 6 shows a tree overlay of peer to peer network with 13 peers and a streaming server. Peer 1 and 2 are receiving the content from the server directly while other peers receive it from their immediate parents instead of direct from server. So upload bandwidth of peers is also used to further upload the content in the network. A comparison of P2P and CDN is given inTable 3.
Peer-to-peer network.
Property | P2P | CDN |
---|---|---|
Resource utilization | Maximized | Less |
Peer role | Peer work as a both client and server | Specific role for client and server |
Scalability | Easy and easily scalable | Limited |
Cost | Low | High |
Monitoring of content provider | Difficult | Easy |
Stability | Low | High |
Service capability | High | Limited |
User management | Distributed | Centralized |
QoS | Best-effort, Cannot be controlled | Can be guaranteed |
Peer authentication | Distributed or no authentication | Centre node authentication |
Services | Heterogeneous | Homogeneous throughout the network |
Reliability | Low | High |
Comparison between P2P and CDN.
Working concept of P2P streaming system is same as BitTorrent [16], parent-child relation is stablishes between the peers from the set of neighbor peers. Landmark implementation of p2p with live video streaming is CoolStreaming [17], and the different issued relate to the implementation of CoolStreaming is disused by N.F. Huang et al. [10] and further visited in [18, 19]. PPLive [20], Sopcast [21], UUSee [22], Bittos [23], PPTV [24] and Mol’s system [25] are some of the influential p2p streaming systems.
In hybrid architecture both CDN and P2P architectures are combined to enhance the efficiency. A content distributed network is more reliable. Even if server is damaged peers can receive the media content from other servers. Peer to peer network is easily scalable and works better when the number of peer are more. Property of both the architectures are combined and a new hybrid architecture comes to light to leverages the characteristics of both the architectures [26]. In hybrid architecture, if a peer fails to deliver the requirements then reliable server takes over and provides the required media content to all the requester peers. Until the peer searches the new parent peer the quality maintenance in the network is the responsibility of the reliable server. Design issues of a hybrid system is discussed by Cui and Nahrstedt [27]. Servers are considered with large storage and bandwidth and peers are considered with limited storage and bandwidth. The link between the peers in the network follows the property of same as in P2Pand CDN. Figure 7 gives an example of hybrid architecture, 15 peers are in the network. Peer 1-4 are in P2P network and receive the content from the server2. Server 1-6 is the part of the content distributed network.
Peer to peer and Content Delivery Network.
Landmark implementation of live video streaming in P2P network is CoolStreaming [13]. Some other popular techniques for P2P are PPTV [14], Mol’s system [15] and Bitos [16]. Different implementation issues regarding CoolStreaming have been discussed in [17]. The design issues of DoNet/CoolStreaming are briefly described [10]. For overlay construction in CoolStreaming swarm based approach is used. An empirical study of CoolStreaming [18] reveals that distribution of media content can also affect the performance of the P2P network.
Some of the most challenging tasks in Multimedia streaming is selfish peer removal, flash crowd and data scheduling due to the frequently changed behavior of peers and network. This chapter primary focus on adaptive multimedia streaming. Further organization of the chapter is as follows. In Section 2, the work on adaptive multimedia streaming has been discussed. Section 2.1, gives the adaptive scheduling scheme, section 2.2 adaptive peer selection. Section 2.3 illustrates the various rate adaptation mechanisms. Last, the chapter concludes in Section 3.
Multimedia streaming architecture can be considered as a request response model and the demand of each client is not fixed also the network configuration can be changes dynamically. So static demand supply mechanism cannot provide the solution of multimedia streaming problem. Multimedia streaming model should be adaptive in nature. Different adaptation techniques can be applicable and some on them is discussed below in detail.
The scheduling strategy changes with any change in the network configuration. So, peer selects the different block of chunk according to its current network configuration or current peer demand. In this section, we discuss the different adaptive parameters which can affect the scheduling strategy and the different adaptive scheduling schemes. InFigure 8; different adaption parameters are discussed. Passive adaptation parameters are those which are pre-defined and do not change in the network for a specific peer. While active adaption parameters are the ones which change as the network condition changes. For a peer, active adaption parameters are dynamic in nature while, the passive adaption parameters are static in nature. This section explains how according to adaption, the choice of scheduling scheme for different parameters changes. Active adaption is dynamic so it is crucial for scheduling scheme and different parameters like peer, congestion etc. affect the scheduling.
Adaptation Techniques.
The relationship between sender and receiver may worsen due to improper resource adjustment. Lack of network knowledge also affects the network performance. Zheng et al. [28] described an adaptive approach, which uses push based scheduling scheme to solve the problem of the unstable relationship between demand and supply [28]. This approach depends on forecasting. The system forecasts the utilization of resources i.e. which resources will probably be insufficient so that resources can be demanded early and scheduling becomes smooth. An Adaptive method is used to select the push peers and the push resources. Peers are chosen according to network conditions and among them, the best peers are selected. Heterogeneity of the network and end devices is a major factor in live video streaming. The different issues that arise are resolution and screen size, delay, variable download bandwidth and processing capability. According to user convenience, the author tries to improve video streaming for end users. This approach provides quality adaptive streaming using scalable video coding (SVC). SVC is a layer coding technique where the video is distributed at different layers i.e. one base layer and multiple enhancement layers [29]. Layer selection is a two-step mechanism, and Quality adaption is provided using layer selection. The first step is Initial Quality Adaption (IQA) and the second step is Progressive Quality Adaption (PQA). Figure 9 depicts the Quality adaptive streaming architecture.
The quality adaptive P2P Streaming Architecture.
The dynamic requirement of peers is satisfied by parameters which are vital for the end user. Approach provides results considering the dynamic effect of nature, and thus it provides better adaptive results regarding block availability and response time for the reply. A solution to the scheduling problem is to find the sender peer and the resource. Many different paths maybe available between the source and destination in the case of mesh overlay. Thus, finding the best path between the sender and receiver also plays a major role in P2P networks. The approaches to path selection using genetic algorithm are used to take care of the same [31]. These methods use mutation and crossover procedures with series of the population. Peers find information about the physical path and this information works as a fitness function for decision making. Traceroute command is used for calculating physical path information; this command dynamically finds changes in the network. Approach adaptively provides the best available path between the sender and the receiver. Using such path selection approach has a positive effect on the network performance regarding the end-to-end delay. Figure 8 shows a classification of the adaptation techniques into two parameters on which they are based. Out of these different parameters adaptive peer selection and adaptive rate selection have a major impact on P2P network, so these two adaptation mechanisms are discussed in detail.
For providing the full bandwidth utilization of the peers available in the specific region E. Karayer provides a multi-generation packet scheduling approach [31]. Different classes according to the desired quality of services are created. Further two scheduling approaches are developed in such a way that first approach consider primarily on single generated problem, while second approach focuses on dynamic programming. Solution of the approaches are achieved using pseudo-polynomial-time. Improved bandwidth efficiency is achieved and verified thorough the simulation results [32]. Another scheme which focuses on multi-chunk and peer selection is defined in [33]. Focus of the approach is to provide usefulness of peers and chunks according to the playback probability of each chunk and streaming rate. Available bandwidth of each peer in the network also play a crucial role for scheduling scheme. Considering this factor J. Zhang [34] provides new approach for the selection of scheduling scheme. Real-time congestion of the environment is also considered for the selection of scheduling. Through the congestion peers are considered as busy, sense busy and idle. As a comparative analysis with CoolStreaming approach provides better Quality of Services (QoS) with respect to delay and throughput. Another approach defined in in [35] uses the 324 bandwidth information of every available peer in the network for selecting a 325 scheduling scheme.
The P2P network approach is scalable, so it can effortlessly be used in a video streaming network. But how a peer finds a perfect video chunk from its neighbor peers is a challenging task in the P2P network. The author X. Liao et al. [36] focuses on this issue and tries to formulate a hybrid scheduling scheme for data transmission in P2P network. Some of the factors which affect scheduling scheme are:
Which part of data to schedule?
Who should be the parent for a particular data packet?
The OCTOPUS approach takes the second factor into prime consideration and uses a score method for parent selection between the available neighbors. The score values calculated between the peers maybe positive or negative and are thus categorized as positive score or negative score. If a client needs data from its neighbor’s buffer cache, it is called a positive score. But if a neighbor requires data from its client’s buffer cache it is called a negative score. In simple terms, data required by the client is positive score and data given by client is the negative score. Eq. (2) represents how a score is calculated, Eq. (2)Eq. (3), Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) are used in this process.
where
The peers exchange buffer map among themselves to update their status. A Buffer map contains of 4 tuples <Pmin, Pmax, Pwant, S[i]>. According to the score value, each peer selects its parents. If score value of j is more for peer i, then peer i selects j as a parent. Scheduling cycle is assumed as T, while R(x) and W(x) as upload bandwidth and initial scheduling bandwidths for peer x. Then the capacity is calculated as P(x) = W(x)*T. Initial scheduling bandwidth of each peer is calculated as W(x) = Sbps/N, where Sbps is streaming rate for the video file and N are the total number of parents. After making the comparison between W(x) and R(x), the bandwidth is adaptively increased or decreased according to the network conditions. This is done so that the upload bandwidth of the peer can be fully utilized. The implementation done by the author shows that OCTOPUS approach gets the desired results. The main consideration of this approach is choosing the best parent peer. Selection of data is also a major concern in the network, but this approach doesn’t consider this issue. Other issues like end device heterogeneity and network configuration have also not been discussed in this approach [36].
Pre-caching of video can solve the issue of selecting an optimal scheduling scheme upto a certain level. Different pre-caching approaches for distributed and centralized settings are given in [37]. Max-weighted independent set (MWIS) method is used for the centralized scheduling setting. The message passing approach is used to find the value of the max-weighted independent set. For distributed scheduling setting, FlashLinQ link scheduling algorithm is used. Pre-caching at single level is not sufficient and can be further improved and the same is discussed by Hui-Hsiang Kao [38]. Hui-Hsiang Kao distribute the caching into two levels and named as prefix and suffix caching. Low startup delay and fast parent searching is achieved using prefix caching while adjustment of cache size is provide by suffix caching. Overall mechanism make sure the reduction in probability of chunk loss.
Peer selection is a prime concern to minimize the start-up delay and to provide high quality video. Round trip time (RTT) and available bandwidth both play a fundamental role in the P2P network. A combination of both parameters has been discussed in Adaptive and Efficient Peer Selection (AEPS) [39]. This approach combines both the factors i.e. RTT and Bandwidth, for video streaming. Different stages used in the architecture are Demand, Query & Rank and Verify. Demand stage is the core step in any P2P network. In this stage, a peer asks for a list of other available peers in the network who can play the role of parent for the client peers. Index server or tracer contains the list of existing peers in the network that have the same video. If there are too many peers in the network, instead of the full list server sends a partial list, and the rest of the list is calculated randomly. On receiving the list, the peer sends a query to all the available parents in the list. In response to the query, client receives a reply message. On the basis of this reply message, client finds the rank of all parent peers. APES scheme considers RTT as a principal factor; client uses this RTT value for ranking peers. Among all peers, if the RTT value of a peer is the highest then ranking of that peer is the lowest and based on the bandwidth further improvement must be made. In stage 3, the path defined by step 2 is verified according to the available bandwidth. The Parents peers are authenticated from the list according to their ranks. Through the experimental results, it is shown that AEPS is more efficient than the ABW based approaches and more accurate than the RTT based methods. APES performs much more efficiently in a general network [39].
The peers are very unpredictable in nature, and a peer cannot trust other peers for good data transmission so, trust is a crucial factor for good data transmission. On the basis of trust model a novel approach, trustworthy-based efficient multipoint relays (TEMRP) is described [40]. Method is described for mobile P2P networks which are a major component of P2P network. Approach tries to improve communication overhead between peers. A comparison is done between the TEMRP, multipoint relay (MPR) and pure flooding methods which reveal some useful results. MPR and flooding approach are very basic strategies for mobile P2P networks. Using the cost model a comparison of the different methods is performed using the resource utilization and latency. Peer calculates trust values based on the past experiences and according to that, it finds the trustworthy peer. Only trustworthy peers are selected as the next relay peer for data transmission. Most trustworthy peer selects the second most trustworthy peer and thus forwards the data further. Broadcast peer also finds the leaf peer and assigns a trustworthy peer for them so data can reach towards the leaf peers. The format of the message is <p1# p1-1, p1-2… p1-m>, peer before #indicates that peer p1 sends data to other peers that are shown after #. Then different trust values are calculated, and cost model is used to derive values for the TEMRP. In the end the cost of relay peer, leaf peer, and the broadcast peer is calculated. The comparison of cost model with MPR model and simple flooding model reveals that energy cost and latency of TEMRP is better than the other two approaches i.e. the MPR and Flooding approach [41].
Divide and conquer approach can be used to find the appropriate peer dynamically. Network Utility Maximization (NUM) problem is formulated first and second problems of NUM approach are solved by using Lyapunov drift plus penalty approach. The dynamic adaptive approach is used which decomposes the problem into two blocks. The first block is used to find the adaptive video quality by using helper selection mechanism. The second block is used for discovering the helper to peer rate. Thus this approach is adaptive in two ways: firstly for selecting of helper and secondly for rate adaption. Queue size also affects the performance of the network so in the approach the queues are assumed to be of the same length. For the purpose of buffering the pre-buffering and re-buffering approaches are used [42]. Networks in live video streaming have a demand for adaptive streaming. Every individual peer tries to improve the quality of media it receives. Peers try to receive the video as smooth as possible. HTTP Adaptive streaming (HAS) can be a solution for adaptive streaming [43] where a video is split into small segments, and then these segments are encoded at different rates. Differentiation between the rates is maintained according to the quality of the video. The decision of choosing any rate among the different possible rates is according to network conditions and the buffer status of the peer. If the network is less congested, then peer can request for better quality, but if the network is congested then, the peer has to adjust with low-quality video. The same approach is used if the buffer is full and if a peer can wait for better quality it will request for a better quality video. But if the buffer is empty and there is a situation of starvation, then the peer can only ask for low-quality video. The approach uses an optimization agent which monitors the network conditions and according to that it calculates the required optimization value and provides the best deal for it. Packet-based traffic estimation model is used for calculating traffic between the peers. A graph is created, and traffic of each path (edge) is calculated. The historical approach is used for calculating or estimating traffic between the peers. Then QoE-driven quality adaption technique is used for quality updating. This approach considers issues like rate and traffic but parameters like chunk utilization and chunk deadline which can also affect the network performance are not considered.
Only adaptive peer selection is not sufficient for improvement of a P2P network hence, overlay adaption and rate adaption are combined in a new scheduling scheme as described by Hao Luan [44]. On the basis of local information; rate controller applies rate adaption in this scheme. This approach is efficient in P2P networks for overlay construction and as a scheduling scheme, but it doesn’t contemplate upon properties like heterogeneity and parameters like delay in the network. A fixed channel uses fixed rate for data transmission over P2P network. If the data rate is high, the chance of data drop increases due to lack of available bandwidth between the peers. But if the data rate is low, then there is a chance of video smoothing and video quality. So the data rate directly affects the performance of video streaming in P2P network. To solve the above problem, an approach for the self-adaptive multi-rate is discussed [45]. The architecture of the approach (MoSee) comprises of three main components: Tracker (register server), broadcasting server (Broadcaster) and the client (Consumer of data). The client maybe wired, or wireless, broadcaster has the responsibility to transfer data to the client according to the client requirements. It also registers the channel it created for the client, with the tracker. Client logs in the register server and finds the list of programs. After choosing the program, the client selects the channel and joins it. In MoSee, a stream of the channel is distributed into sub-streams, and each sub-stream is identified by a unique index. According to network condition and status of its buffer, the client can choose any sub-stream. The sub-stream can also be adaptively changed according to variations in the network. In the starting, the network is unstable, so peer chooses low bit rate stream but after some time when the network becomes stable, the peer chooses the high data rate sub-stream. The concept of multiple sub-streams is introduced to decrease the degree of data sharing between peers who have different data sub-streams. For increasing the level of data sharing between such peers, a different approach is used. In that approach, peers that can download the high data rate also download the low data rate stream for poor peers. When the poor peer (the one with a low download bandwidth) needs the low rate sub-stream, then that peer can provide it the sub-stream. For selecting the neighbor peer, Round Trip time (RTT) value is used, and weights are assigned to different peers, after which the final selection is done.
Different factors like bandwidth heterogeneity, high transmission delay and churn of peers can be very tricky in a P2P network. A different prospective approach, server aided adaptive live video streaming that solves all these issues has been discussed by [46]. Multi-tree overlay approach is used for creating the overlay between the peers in P2P network. The video is sent by multiple peers according to the network conditions and available bandwidth. According to network state, streaming server switches bit stream between the multiple available streams. Rate shaping scheme is also applied to lower the rate for transmitting the stream to remove the effect of network congestion. Two stages are used for rate shaping in a distributed multi-tree overlay. The first stage is the calculation of allocated bandwidth, to compute this; a list of packets received and transmitted is created. According to remaining bandwidth, the most appropriate packet from the list is sent. In the second stage, the optimized scheduler is applied. On the basis of the impact on their performance, the packets are differentiated. This approach is suitable for application on the server side, but in P2P network the approach is not only at server side but also, the actual demand-supply exists between the peers. Another approach for controlling playback rate at run time is described by Maria [47]. This playback rate control method has been discussed in two different cases i.e. nominal and robust case. Remaining upload bandwidth of peers in the network is used for calculating the rate. It dynamically checks the remaining upload bandwidth of peers that are currently active in the network. A theoretical model is described, and the solution for playback rate control is provided.
The Higher rate is required to fulfill the demand of the receiver, and a queuing model can help with the same. If a proper queue is maintained and the proper input is provided to the queue, then appropriate rate can be received by the peers. For adaptive scheduling different queuing models are discussed in the approach like peer and server side [48]. In peer side queue, received data is classified into two classes F (Forwarding) and NF (Non-Forwarding). The forwarding class contains the data which should be forwarded to other peers, and non-forwarding class includes the data which belongs to peer. Thus, there is no need to forward it to other peers. At the server side, two queues are maintained one for data and the other for signal. Pull approach is used for retrieving data by the peers and optimization is done according to the queue status. A distortion rate approach has been discussed by [49], the approach is receiver driven on multipath streaming. First, the parent selection takes place, the most appropriate receiver driven approach is used to find the appropriate parent nodes. Parent selection takes care of optimal end-to-end delay path selection; then the stream flow equations are generated, and a stream flow graph is created. This solution of stream flow graph provides the best rate to the desired peer. To solve the problem of long start-up delay Z defined a low time delay scheduling scheme [50]. The three main methods that are used by the approach are described as copying, grouping based on parts and priority scheduling. The peer is distributed into different groups, and the peers within the same group can exchange data with each other. A peer can also join another group after downloading the content from the first group. This approach is easy to implement as it also reduces the start-up delay in the P2P network.
Because of the properties like user-friendly nature and scalability the demand of video streaming is growing rapidly in the existing age. Demand of client and configuration of network is not static and that’s force to moving towards the adaptation of streaming. Adaptive multimedia mechanism can provide the solution of scalability, network fluctuation, bandwidth availability and improvement in quality of services. So in this chapter we focus on different adaptive multimedia streaming mechanism. There are various mechanisms to provide it. Adaptive scheduling scheme is one of the crucial factors. Other factor which help in adaptive multimedia streaming are rate adaptation and peer adaptation. These factors directly impact the performance of video streaming and improve the overall quality of services for both sender and receiver as well as make the overall experience pleasant for client. Huge amount of work is already discussed but still there is a demand of appropriate adaptive scheduling scheme and the area is still open for further research.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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The system functionality is implemented by several agents that perform data collecting, cleaning, clustering, comparing time series, retrieving data for visualization, preparing charts and reports, performing spatial and intellectual analysis, etc. Convergent approach is the convergence of cloud, fog and mobile data processing technologies. The diagnostic system is necessary for remote maintenance of photoradar equipment. The structure of the neural network is adapted to the diagnosing problems and forecasting. The tasks of intellectual analysis and forecasting traffic accidents are solved. The hybrid fuzzy neural network is synthesized. Because of the comparison of time series of traffic accidents and time series of meteorological factors, the presence of factors to become determinants for an abnormal change in the traffic situation in controlled areas is established.",book:{id:"6391",slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Alexey Finogeev, Alexandr Bershadsky, Anton Finogeev, Ludmila\nFionova and Michael Deev",authors:[{id:"216108",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexey",middleName:"Germanovich",surname:"Finogeev",slug:"alexey-finogeev",fullName:"Alexey Finogeev"},{id:"217922",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Finogeev",slug:"anton-finogeev",fullName:"Anton Finogeev"},{id:"234398",title:"Prof.",name:"Ludmila",middleName:null,surname:"Fionova",slug:"ludmila-fionova",fullName:"Ludmila Fionova"},{id:"234630",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Deev",slug:"mikhail-deev",fullName:"Mikhail Deev"}]},{id:"58698",title:"Predicate Calculus as a Tool for AI Problems Solution: Algorithms and Their Complexity",slug:"predicate-calculus-as-a-tool-for-ai-problems-solution-algorithms-and-their-complexity",totalDownloads:1165,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the use of predicate calculus for artificial intelligence (AI) problem solving. Here, an investigated object is represented as a set of its elements and is characterized by a fixed number of predicates. Its description is a set of all constant literals (with the chosen predicates), which are valid on the object. The NP-complete problem, “whether an object satisfies a goal formula,” is under consideration. The upper bound of number of its solution steps is exponential. The notion of common up to the names of arguments subformula of two predicate formulas and one of their isomorphisms allows to construct a level description of the set of goal formulas and essentially to decrease the upper bounds of the problem solving. The level description permits to define a self-training predicate network, which may change its configuration during the process of training. The extraction of common up to the names of arguments subformulas permits to construct a multiagent description of an object when every agent does not know the true number of the object elements and uses her own notifications for the names of elements. A model example illustrating all algorithms is presented.",book:{id:"6391",slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Tatiana Kosovskaya",authors:[{id:"217409",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Kosovskaya",slug:"tatiana-kosovskaya",fullName:"Tatiana Kosovskaya"}]},{id:"58403",title:"Neural Network Configurations Analysis for Multilevel Speech Pattern Recognition System with Mixture of Experts",slug:"neural-network-configurations-analysis-for-multilevel-speech-pattern-recognition-system-with-mixture",totalDownloads:1022,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter proposes to analyze two configurations of neural networks to compose the expert set in the development of a multilevel speech signal pattern recognition system of 30 commands in the Brazilian Portuguese language. Then, multilayer perceptron (MLP) and learning vector quantization (LVQ) networks have their performances verified during the training, validation and test stages in the speech signal recognition, whose patterns are given by two-dimensional time matrices, result from mel-cepstral coefficients coding by the discrete cosine transform (DCT). In order to avoid the pattern separability problem, the patterns are modified by a nonlinear transformation to a high-dimensional space through a suitable set of Gaussian radial base functions (GRBF). The performance of MLP and LVQ experts is improved and configurations are trained with few examples of each modified pattern. Several combinations were performed for the neural network topologies and algorithms previously established to determine the network structures with the best hit and generalization results.",book:{id:"6391",slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Washington Luis Santos Silva, Priscila Lima Rocha and Allan Kardec\nDuailibe Barros Filho",authors:[{id:"40603",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan Kardec",middleName:null,surname:"Barros",slug:"allan-kardec-barros",fullName:"Allan Kardec Barros"},{id:"217078",title:"Dr.",name:"Washington",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"washington-silva",fullName:"Washington Silva"},{id:"217152",title:"Ms.",name:"Priscila",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"priscila-rocha",fullName:"Priscila Rocha"}]},{id:"59194",title:"New Trends in Artificial Intelligence: Applications of Particle Swarm Optimization in Biomedical Problems",slug:"new-trends-in-artificial-intelligence-applications-of-particle-swarm-optimization-in-biomedical-prob",totalDownloads:1284,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Optimization is a process to discover the most effective element or solution from a set of all possible resources or solutions. Currently, there are various biological problems such as extending from biomolecule structure prediction to drug discovery that can be elevated by opting standard protocol for optimization. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) process, purposed by Dr. Eberhart and Dr. Kennedy in 1995, is solely based on population stochastic optimization technique. This method was designed by the researchers after inspired by social behavior of flocking bird or schooling fishes. This method shares numerous resemblances with the evolutionary computation procedures such as genetic algorithms (GA). Since, PSO algorithms is easy process to subject with minor adjustment of a few restrictions, it has gained more attention or advantages over other population based algorithms. Hence, PSO algorithms is widely used in various research fields like ranging from artificial neural network training to other areas where GA can be used in the system.",book:{id:"6391",slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Aman Chandra Kaushik, Shiv Bharadwaj, Ajay Kumar, Avinash Dhar\nand Dongqing Wei",authors:[{id:"212221",title:"Dr.",name:"Aman Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Kaushik",slug:"aman-chandra-kaushik",fullName:"Aman Chandra Kaushik"},{id:"213909",title:"Mr.",name:"Ajay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"ajay-kumar",fullName:"Ajay Kumar"},{id:"221456",title:"Mr.",name:"Avinash",middleName:null,surname:"Dhar",slug:"avinash-dhar",fullName:"Avinash Dhar"},{id:"236718",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiv",middleName:null,surname:"Bharadwaj",slug:"shiv-bharadwaj",fullName:"Shiv Bharadwaj"}]},{id:"21254",title:"SeDeM Diagram: A New Expert System for the Formulation of Drugs in Solid Form",slug:"sedem-diagram-a-new-expert-system-for-the-formulation-of-drugs-in-solid-form",totalDownloads:5010,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"173",slug:"expert-systems-for-human-materials-and-automation",title:"Expert Systems for Human, Materials and Automation",fullTitle:"Expert Systems for Human, Materials and Automation"},signatures:"Josep M. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Biomedical Engineering",id:"7"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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