Simultaneous multithreading – modeling parameters and their typical values
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5419",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Virtual Learning",title:"Virtual Learning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The first chapter provides an overview of the popular systems for distance learning. In the second chapter, a review of all major social and economic activities in order to improve the system of virtual learning is given. The third chapter deals with the influence of technology in the management of educational institutions. The fourth chapter provides an overview of the graphic communication. The fifth chapter confirms that quality assurance remains an integral and indispensable part of the process of virtual learning. The sixth and seventh chapters are dedicated to health and mutual communication about health problems and causes. The eighth and ninth chapters are dedicated to massive open online courses (MOOC). The tenth chapter refers to the widespread use of virtual reality in industrial environments.",isbn:"978-953-51-2823-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2824-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4136-5",doi:"10.5772/62799",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"virtual-learning",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"5ec59dce356b02297b7dc3bd56eec0df",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetkovic",publishedDate:"December 14th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5419.jpg",numberOfDownloads:22045,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 31st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 24th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković obtained a Ph.D. in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1997. To date, he has published sixty-five books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published many scientific papers as well. Dr. Cvetković became a full professor of Informatics and Computing at Singidunum University, Belgrade, in 2014. Since 2019, he has been the vice-rector for teaching at the same university.",institutionString:"Singidunum University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Singidunum University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1315",title:"Distance Education",slug:"distance-education"}],chapters:[{id:"52577",title:"A Review of Distance Learning and Learning Management Systems",doi:"10.5772/65222",slug:"a-review-of-distance-learning-and-learning-management-systems",totalDownloads:3087,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In recent years, rapid developments in technology and the web have led to many changes in education. One of the most important changes in education is in the form of distance learning. Distance learning, which is used to define education where educators and learners are physically separated, is not a new concept; however, emerging technologies and the web allow web‐based distance learning and therefore increase its popularity. As a result of these developments, many universities have started to use web‐based distance learning systems to provide flexible education that is independent of time and place. In this chapter, we review all popular, widely used, and well‐known learning management systems and include detailed comparison of some of these systems to allow institutions to choose the right system for their distance education activities.",signatures:"Mümine Kaya Keleş and Selma Ayşe Özel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52577",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52577",authors:[{id:"190444",title:"Dr.",name:"Mümine",surname:"Kaya Keleş",slug:"mumine-kaya-keles",fullName:"Mümine Kaya Keleş"},{id:"190656",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selma Ayşe",surname:"Özel",slug:"selma-ayse-ozel",fullName:"Selma Ayşe Özel"}],corrections:null},{id:"52213",title:"Social Collaboration Style Preferences and Cognitive Receptivity to Technological Change and Innovation in Open and Distance e-Learning",doi:"10.5772/65220",slug:"social-collaboration-style-preferences-and-cognitive-receptivity-to-technological-change-and-innovat",totalDownloads:1584,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The proliferation of online courses in open and distance e-learning higher education contexts brought attention to the role of social collaboration activities in enhancing student learning. Constructive social collaboration in an e-learning environment is influenced by the interaction dynamics of the relevant virtual learning community. Social learning involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills relevant to the individual’s unique work or learning context through collaborative endeavours and interactions that often include the use of technological tools such as web-based platforms and social media technological applications. This chapter focuses on how the social collaboration style preferences of members of the virtual learning community relate to their cognitive receptivity to technological change and innovation. The practical implications for virtual learning in open and distance e-learning contexts are outlined.",signatures:"Melinde Coetzee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52213",authors:[{id:"188011",title:"Prof.",name:"Melinde",surname:"Coetzee",slug:"melinde-coetzee",fullName:"Melinde Coetzee"}],corrections:null},{id:"52243",title:"Digital Transformation in School Management and Culture",doi:"10.5772/65221",slug:"digital-transformation-in-school-management-and-culture",totalDownloads:1942,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quality becomes milestone for enhancing learning and teaching practices through contemporary standards. In this respect, considering the outcomes of transformation is essential. School management is an umbrella of facilitating learning and teaching. Therefore, role of digital transformation in school management is an intensified need to be underlined. In establishing school culture, school management plays an essential role that digital transformation effects the school management and culture for the quality in education. The nature of this research is qualitative. Reflective reports of headmasters are gathered as data to understand the readability and awareness of school management to the digital transformation in the case of North Cyprus. In addition, content analysis is done to realize the upcoming issues in school management and digital transformation. As this focus is demanding for developing countries especially North Cyprus, this research revealed that headmasters have awareness on the use of digital and technological facilities. They are aware on digital transformation although budget and application restrictions are revealed to apply this transformation.",signatures:"Fahriye Altınay, Gokmen Dagli and Zehra Altınay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52243",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52243",authors:[{id:"189778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahriye",surname:"Altınay",slug:"fahriye-altinay",fullName:"Fahriye Altınay"},{id:"189780",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokmen",surname:"Dagli",slug:"gokmen-dagli",fullName:"Gokmen Dagli"},{id:"189781",title:"Dr.",name:"Zehra",surname:"Altınay",slug:"zehra-altinay",fullName:"Zehra Altınay"}],corrections:null},{id:"53091",title:"Usage of 3D Computer Modelling in Learning Engineering Graphics",doi:"10.5772/65217",slug:"usage-of-3d-computer-modelling-in-learning-engineering-graphics",totalDownloads:1992,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"What is graphic communication? Firstly, it is a very effective way of communication between the technical idea and the final solution of the problem in engineering. The process engineering design (design) begins with visualization, i.e., reviewing the problem and possible solutions. Then, sketching leads to the preparation of the initial idea. Next step is preparation of geometric models, which are used for a variety of engineering analysis and, finally, creating detailed drawings and/or 3D models, which are used for the production process. Visualization, sketching, modelling and preparation of technical documentation are ways in which engineers and technologists communicate in creating new products and structures in the modern technical world. Essentially, graphic communication, which is done via engineering drawings and models, is the clean, practical language with defined rules that need to be overcome if one wants to be successful in engineering design (any kind of design). When that language can overcome any approach to solving engineering problems. Ninety‐two percent of the engineering design process is based on the graphic display. The remaining 8% is divided between the mathematical calculations and written and oral communication. Fifty percent of the projecting time a designer spends on are purely visual and graphic activities. We like precision in communication. Engineers use graphical tools, some of which are centuries old and are used day‐to‐day, while others are very new and conditioned by the rapid development of computer technology, such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems. From this chapter, users will be able to familiarize themselves with the above tools and principles of their use.",signatures:"Zorana Jeli, Branislav Popokonstantinovic and Misa Stojicevic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53091",authors:[{id:"189704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zorana",surname:"Jeli",slug:"zorana-jeli",fullName:"Zorana Jeli"},{id:"194655",title:"Prof.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Popkonstantinovic",slug:"branislav-popkonstantinovic",fullName:"Branislav Popkonstantinovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"53292",title:"Quality Assurance in Virtual Learning Environments for Open Distance Learning",doi:"10.5772/65746",slug:"quality-assurance-in-virtual-learning-environments-for-open-distance-learning",totalDownloads:1975,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Quality assurance, as the fundamental pillar of higher education development, continues to remain an integral part of the e‐learning process. Most importantly, it influences reforms in higher education institutions globally. This chapter departs on the assumptions that (1) quality assurance, as power relations construct, is not free from cultural hegemony and (2) quality assurance in virtual learning environments should be guided and informed by Paulo Freire's humanizing pedagogy. In this chapter, we shall argue that quality assurance is both a philosophical problem and a policy imperative that is critical for the internationalization and globalization of higher education, more specifically virtual learning environments. We will further argue that the emphasis placed on the importance of quality assurance in virtual learning practices has been blind‐spotted by the fact that quality assurance can be viewed as agent of cultural hegemony and cultural reproduction of capitalist societies. While we agree with all the positive elements attributed to quality assurance in virtual learning, we argue that they should be characterized by humanizing pedagogy and the international dimension (exchange of knowledge and interactive networking) and cultural hybridity.",signatures:"Victor J. Pitsoe and Matsephe M. Letseka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53292",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. Letseka"}],corrections:null},{id:"52988",title:"‘Women on a Wiki’: Social Constructivist Analysis of the Effectiveness of Online Collaborative Spaces for Reflective Learning in Women‘s Health Studies",doi:"10.5772/65298",slug:"-women-on-a-wiki-social-constructivist-analysis-of-the-effectiveness-of-online-collaborative-spaces-",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Public health undergraduate students studying the unit Women's Health undertook a teaching and learning exercise which required them to learn to create and use a wiki website for reflective learning purposes. A wiki is a group of web pages that allows users to add content, similar to a discussion forum or blog, while permitting others to edit and provide feedback. The Women's Health wiki provided an online shared, collaborative and creative space wherein the students’ perceptions of women's health issues could be discussed, reflected upon and debated. This chapter develops a social constructivist theoretical framework for analysing the content developed on the Women's Health wiki by the students and provides a theoretical model for how the wiki worked to aid reflective and critical thinking, as well as developing technological and communicative skills among students, and discusses implications for their future use in a tertiary setting.",signatures:"Julie‐Anne Carroll, Mangalam Sankupellay, Michelle Cornford and\nNajmah Bahir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52988",authors:[{id:"194108",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie-Ann",surname:"Carroll",slug:"julie-ann-carroll",fullName:"Julie-Ann Carroll"},{id:"194803",title:"Ms.",name:"Michelle",surname:"Cornford",slug:"michelle-cornford",fullName:"Michelle Cornford"},{id:"194804",title:"Ms.",name:"Najmah",surname:"Bahir",slug:"najmah-bahir",fullName:"Najmah Bahir"},{id:"194805",title:"Dr.",name:"Mangalam",surname:"Sankupellay",slug:"mangalam-sankupellay",fullName:"Mangalam Sankupellay"}],corrections:null},{id:"52297",title:"New Educational Challenges and Innovations: Students with Disability in Immersive Learning Environments",doi:"10.5772/65219",slug:"new-educational-challenges-and-innovations-students-with-disability-in-immersive-learning-environmen",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In today society, one of the most demanded challenges faced by the current educational system is the educational response to diversity in the various educational contexts. University lecturers are opening new lines of research focused on issues as social demand and current reality of produced new learning environments. The general aim of this study was to design learning environments using immersive virtual reality and evaluate improvements produced by this tool in relation to the difficulties show by the participants. From that point, an action plan was created to recreate school situations with a high degree of realism and interaction using IVRSystem. In this way, we want to obtain answers according to the dysfunctions of educational system to work with these students. This was done by a mixed design. On the one hand, a quasi-experimental methodology was used with a control group and an experimental group. On the other hand, direct and observation and applicative methodology made possible the development of educational intervention in immersive learning environments. The results obtained throughout these years have given a response to the initial problem-question raised: Can immersive virtual learning environments serve as a support tool for working disabilities of students, which have a visual learning style, such as students with autism spectrum disorders?",signatures:"Gonzalo Lorenzo, Asunción Lledó, Rosabel Roig, Alejandro Lorenzo\nand Jorge Pomares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52297",authors:[{id:"5683",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Pomares",slug:"jorge-pomares",fullName:"Jorge Pomares"},{id:"187920",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Lorenzo",slug:"gonzalo-lorenzo",fullName:"Gonzalo Lorenzo"},{id:"189580",title:"Prof.",name:"Asunción",surname:"Lledó",slug:"asuncion-lledo",fullName:"Asunción Lledó"},{id:"189581",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosabel",surname:"Roig",slug:"rosabel-roig",fullName:"Rosabel Roig"}],corrections:null},{id:"53197",title:"MOOCs in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/66137",slug:"moocs-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:3352,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MOOCs have been the major issue in higher education worldwide since 2008. Frankly speaking, there are clear pros and cons of moving into MOOC-based education. This chapter deals with the pedagogical utilization and limitations of MOOCs in higher education. Through literature review and websites surfing related to MOOCs, expansion of MOOCs, instructional strategies in MOOCs, functions of platform for MOOCs, development of a MOOC, and future of MOOCs are summarized, analyzed, and discussed at the aspect of pedagogy. Based on the analysis, some recommendations are suggested for the success of MOOCs.",signatures:"Sung-Wan Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53197",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53197",authors:[{id:"187838",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Wan",surname:"Kim",slug:"sung-wan-kim",fullName:"Sung-Wan Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"52803",title:"Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) and Its Possibilities as Instrument of Formal, Nonformal, Informal and Lifelong Learning",doi:"10.5772/65930",slug:"massive-open-online-courses-mooc-and-its-possibilities-as-instrument-of-formal-nonformal-informal-an",totalDownloads:2331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present the definition, development, and providers of massive open online courses (MOOC). We also explain the advantages and disadvantages of MOOC. We also present the structure of participants of MOOC, and also the motivation of participants is analyzed. Some basic statistics of realization and success of participants are also displayed. In one part of this chapter, the authors present case study of MOOC implementation in formal education in Belgrade Polytechnic (BP) College. For informal learning, a MOOC for welding is presented. This MOOC is planned to be organized on faculty of mechanical engineering at Belgrade University. During MOOC, participants also expanded their knowledge base and in that way they created possibilities for rerun of MOOC on a higher level. In that way, a participant can attend the same course after a couple of years and then will upgrade his knowledge. This attribute makes MOOC an instrument for lifelong learning.",signatures:"Srdjan Trajković, Radica Prokić-Cvetković and Olivera Popović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52803",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52803",authors:[{id:"104246",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivera",surname:"Popović",slug:"olivera-popovic",fullName:"Olivera Popović"},{id:"106384",title:"Prof.",name:"Radica",surname:"Prokic-Cvetkovic",slug:"radica-prokic-cvetkovic",fullName:"Radica Prokic-Cvetkovic"},{id:"191211",title:"MSc.",name:"Srdjan",surname:"Trajković",slug:"srdjan-trajkovic",fullName:"Srdjan Trajković"},{id:"192158",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Srdjan",surname:"Trajković",slug:"srdjan-trajkovic",fullName:"Srdjan Trajković"}],corrections:null},{id:"52530",title:"Digital Factory and Virtual Reality: Teaching Virtual Reality Principles with Game Engines",doi:"10.5772/65218",slug:"digital-factory-and-virtual-reality-teaching-virtual-reality-principles-with-game-engines",totalDownloads:2024,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Virtual reality (VR) is widely used in various industrial applications. All leading industrial manufacturing companies today have a strategy called the ‘concept of a digital factory’ where all aspects of manufacturing are digitally verified on digital mock-ups prior to physical manufacturing. Other than that, it is a rapidly developing new medium and further development of VR and IT will open up new possibilities. The new concept of Industry 4.0 is based on using approaches like the Internet of Things, Cloud Computing, Cyber-Physical Systems and Virtual Reality. With the decreasing cost of VR devices, even smaller businesses are able to implement such technologies. It is therefore crucial that mechanical engineering graduates are familiar with these new technologies and trends. We had to use unconventional methods to educate mechanical engineering students in the latest trends in IT and VR. Back in 2010, there were almost no tools available for teaching how to create industry-themed VR environments, which did not require complicated coding, so we decided to make our own. To simplify the development, we used Source Engine as the core and enhanced it with a library of textures, models and scripts we called DigiTov. Although Source Engine is a game engine, the master logic of VR development is the same as for professional SW products. 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\r\n\tThis book will explore how gender and sexual minorities have created communities of meaning and political expression around the world. Through a series of case studies, historical considerations, and reflections, different communities of gender and sexual minority groups will be explored. The book will give an overview of the wide variety of experiences that people who identify as gender and sexual minority group members have used in the formation of community, both online and in person. We will see that some of these creations of the community are a reaction to the exclusion by the larger society in which members are embedded. We will also see that people create a community in the face of oppression, engage in dialogue and activities (political and social), and create meaning in their identities. We will witness how these spaces give voice to change, resilience, and survival. For all of us who are queer and trans, community means at a minimum the place in which we can thrive and be seen.
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Due to continuous progress in manufacturing technologies, the performance of processors has been doubling every 18 months (the so–called Moore’s law [2]), but the performance of memory chips has been improving only by 10% per year [1], creating a “performance gap” in matching processor’s performance with the required memory bandwidth [3]. More detailed studies have shown that the number of processor cycles required to access main memory doubles approximately every six years [4]. In effect, it is becoming more and more often the case that the performance of applications depends on the performance of the system’s memory hierarchy and it is not unusual that as much as 60% of time processors spend waiting for the completion of memory operations [4].
Memory hierarchies, and in particular multi–level cache memories, have been introduced to reduce the effective latency of memory accesses [5]. Cache memories provide efficient access to information when the information is available at lower levels of memory hierarchy; occasionally, however, long–latency memory operations are needed to transfer the information from the higher levels ofmemory hierarchy to the lower ones. Extensive research has focused on reducing and tolerating these large memory access latencies.
Techniques which tolerate long–latency memory accesses include out–of–order execution of instructions and instruction–level multithreading. The idea of out–of–order execution [1] is to execute, instead of waiting for the completion of a long–latency operation, instructions which (logically) follow the long–latency one, but which do not depend upon the result of this long–latency operation. Since out–of–order execution exploits instruction–level concurrency in the executed sequential instruction stream, it conveniently maintains code–base compatibility [6]. In effect, the instruction stream is dynamically decomposed into micro-threads, which are scheduled and synchronized at no cost in terms of executing additional instructions. Although this is desirable, speedups using out–of–order execution on superscalar pipelines are not so impressive, and it is difficult to obtain a speedup greater than 2 using 4 or 8-way superscalar issue [7]. Moreover, in modern processors, memory latencies are so long that out–of–order processors require very large instruction windows to tolerate them.
Although ultra–wide out-of-order superscalar processors were predicted as the architecture of one-billion-transistor chips, with a single 16 or 32-wide-issue processing core and huge branch predictors to sustain good instruction level parallelism, the industry has not been moving toward the wide–issue superscalar model [8]. Design complexity and power efficiency direct the industry toward narrow–issue, high–frequency cores andmultithreaded processors. According to [6]: “Clearly something is very wrong with the out–of–order approach to concurrency if this extravagant consumption of on–chip resources is only providing a practical limit on speedup of about 2.”
Instruction–level multithreading [9], [10], [1] is a technique of tolerating long–latency memory accesses by switching to another thread (if it is available for execution) rather than waiting for the completion of the long–latency operation. If different threads are associated with different sets of processor registers, switching from one thread to another (called “context switching”) can be done very efficiently [11], in one or just a few processor cycles.
In simultaneous multithreading [12], [6] several threads can issue instructions at the same time. If a processor contains several functional units or it contains more than one instruction execution pipeline, the instructions can be issued simultaneously; if there is only one pipeline, only one instruction can be issued in each processor cycle, but the (simultaneous) threads complement each other in the sense that whenever one thread cannot issue an instruction (because of pipeline stalls or context switching), an instruction is issued from another thread, eliminating ‘empty’ instruction slots and increasing the overall performance of the processor.
Simultaneous multithreading combines hardware features of wide-issue superscalar processors and multithreaded processors [12]. From superscalar processors it inherits the ability to issue multiple instructions in each cycle; from multithreaded processors it takes hardware state for several threads. The result is a processor that can issue multiple instructions from multiple threads in each processor cycle, achieving better performance for a variety of workloads.
The main objective of this work is to study the performance of simultaneously multithreaded processors in order to determine how effective simultaneous multithreading can be. In particular, an indication is sought if simultaneous multithreading can overcome the out–of–order’s “barrier” of the speedup (equal to 2 [13]). A timed Petri net [14] model of multithreaded processors at the instruction execution level is developed, and performance results for this model are obtained by event–driven simulation of the developed model. Since the model is rather simple, simulation results are verified (with respect to accuracy) by state–space–based performance analysis (for those combinations of modeling parameters for which the state space remains reasonably small).
Section 2 recalls basic concepts of timed Petri nets which are used in this study. A model of simultaneous multithreading, used for performance exploration, is presented in Section 3. Section 4 discusses the results obtained by event–driven simulation of themodel introduced in Section 3. Section 5 contains concluding remarks including a short comparison of simulation and analytical results.
A marked place/transition Petri net is typically defined [15] [16] as = (,
A place
All places which are not conflict–free and not free–choice, are conflict places. Transitions sharing conflict places are (directly or indirectly) potentially in conflict (i.e., they are in conflict or not depending upon a marking function; for different marking functions the sets of transitions which are in conflict can be different). All transitions which are potentially is conflict constitute a conflict class. All conflict classes are disjoint. It is assumed that conflicts are resolved by random choices of occurrences among the conflicting transitions. These random choice are independent in different conflict classes.
In timed nets [14], occurrence times are associated with transitions, and transition occurrences are real–time events, i.e., tokens are removed from input places at the beginning of the occurrence period, and they are deposited to the output places at the end of this period. All occurrences of enabled transitions are initiated in the same instants of time in which the transitions become enabled (although some enabled transitions may not initiate their occurrences). If, during the occurrence period of a transition, the transition becomes enabled again, a new, independent occurrence can be initiated, which will overlap with the other occurrence(s). There is no limit on the number of simultaneous occurrences of the same transition (sometimes this is called infinite occurrence semantics). Similarly, if a transition is enabled “several times” (i.e., it remains enabled after initiating an occurrence), it may start several independent occurrences in the same time instant.
More formally, a timed Petri net is a triple, = (,
The occurrence times of transitions can be either deterministic or stochastic (i.e., described by some probability distribution function); in the first case, the corresponding timed nets are referred to as D–timed nets [18], in the second, for the (negative) exponential distribution of firing times, the nets are called M–timed nets (Markovian nets [17]). In both cases, the concepts of state and state transitions have been formally defined and used in the derivation of different performance characteristics of the model [14]. Only D–timed Petri nets are used in this paper.
The firing times of some transitions may be equal to zero, which means that the firings are instantaneous; all such transitions are called
Performance analysis of net models can be based on their behavior (i.e., the set of reachable states) or on the structure of the net; the former is called
A timed Petri net model of a simple multithreaded processor is shown in Fig.1 (as usually, timed transitions are represented by solid bars, and immediate ones, by thin bars).
For simplicity, Fig.1 shows only one level of memory; this simplification is removed further in this section.
Petri net model of a multithreaded processor.
If long–latency operation is detected in the issued instruction,
The choice probability associated with
The number of memory ports, i.e., the number of simultaneous accesses to memory, is controlled by the initial marking of
In a similar way, the number of simultaneous threads (or instruction issue units) is controlled by the initial marking of
Memory hierarchy can be incorporated into the model shown in Fig.1 by refining the representation of memory. In particular, levels of memory hierarchy can be introduced by replacing the subnet
Petri net model of a multithreaded processor with a two–level memory.
The effects of memory hierarchy can be compared with a uniform, non–hierarchical memory by selecting the parameters in such a way that the average access time of the hierarchical model (Fig.2) is equal to the access time of the non–hierarchical model (Fig.1).
Processors with different numbers of instruction issue units and instruction execution pipelines can be described by a pair of numbers, the first number denoting the number of instruction issue units, and the second – the number of instruction execution pipelines. In this sense a 3-2 processor is a (multithreaded) processor with 3 instruction issue units and 2 instruction execution pipelines.
For convenience, all temporal properties are expressed in processor cycles, so, the occurrence times of
The main modeling parameters and their typical values are shown in Table 1.
The model developed in the previous section is evaluated for different combinations of modeling parameters. Performance results are obtained by event-driven simulation of timed Petri net models.
The utilization of the processor and memory, as a function of the number of available threads, for a 1-1 processor (i.e., a processor with a single instruction issue unit and a single instruction execution pipeline) is shown in Fig. 3.
ℓt tm tcs ps1 ps2 | number of available threads number of execution pipelines number of simultaneous threads thread runlength average memory access time context switching time prob. of one–cycle pipeline stall prob. of two–cycle pipeline stall | 1,...,10 1,2,... 1,2,3,... 10 5 1,3 0.2 0.1 |
Simultaneous multithreading – modeling parameters and their typical values
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 1-1 processor;
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 2-1 processor;
The value of the processor utilization for
The utilization of the processor can be improved by introducing a second (simultaneous) thread which issues its instructions in the slots unused by the first slot. Fig.4 shows the utilization of the processor and memory for a 2-1 processor, i.e., a processor with two (simultaneous) threads (or two instruction issue units) and a single pipeline. The utilization of the processor is improved by almost 50 % and is within a few percent from its upper bound (of 100 %).
The influence of pipeline stalls (probabilities
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 1-1 processor;
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 1-1 processor;
Fig. 6 shows the utilizations of processor and memory for reduced probabilities of pipeline stalls, i.e., for
A more realistic model of memory, that captures the idea of a two–level hierarchy, is shown in Fig.2. In order to compare the results of this model with Fig.3 and Fig.4, the parameters of the two–level memory are chosen in such a way that the average memory access time is equal to the memory access time in Fig.1 (where
The results for a 1-1 processor with a two–level memory are shown in Fig.7, and for a 2-1 processor in Fig.8.
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 1-1 processor with 2-level memory;
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 2-1 processor with 2-level memory;
The results in Fig.7 and Fig.8 are practically the same as in Fig.3 and Fig.4. This is the reasonthat the remaining results are shown for (equivalent) one-level memory models; the multiplelevels of memory hierarchy apparently have no significant effect on the performance results.
The effects of simultaneous multithreading in amore complex processor, e.g., a processorwithtwo instruction issue units and two instruction execution pipelines, i.e., a 2-2 processor, canbe obtained in a very similar way. The utilization of the processor (shown as the sum of theutilizations of both pipelines, with the values ranging from 0 to 2), is shown in Fig.9.
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 2-2 processor;
When another instruction issue unit is added, the utilization increases by about 40%, as shownin Fig.10.
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 3-2 processor;
Further increase of the number of the simultaneous threads (in a processor with 2 pipelines)can provide only small improvements of the performance because the utilizations of both,the processor and the memory, are quite close to their limits. The performance of the systemcan be improved by increasing the number of pipelines, but then the memory becomes thesystem bottleneck, so its performance also needs to be improved, for example, by introducingdual ports (which allow to handle two accesses at the same time). The performance of a 5-3processor with a dual-port memory is shown in Fig.11 (the utilization of the processor is thesum of utilizations of its 3 pipelines, so it ranges from 0 to 3).
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 5-3 processor with dual–port memory;
Fig.11 shows that for 3 pipelines and 5 simultaneous threads, the number of available threadsgreater than 6 provides the speedup that is almost equal to 3.
System bottlenecks can be identified by comparing service demands for different componentsof the system (in this case, the memory and the pipelines); the component with the maximumservice demand is the bottleneck because it is the first component to reach its utilizationlimit and to prevent any increase of the overall performance. For a single runlength (of allsimultaneous threads) the total service demand for memory is equal to
Simultaneous multithreading is quite flexible with respect to context switching times becausethe (simultaneous) threads fill the instruction issuing slots which normally would remainempty during context switching. Fig.12 shows the utilization of the processor and memoryin a 1-1 processor with
Fig.13 shows utilization of the processor and memory in a 2-1 processor, also for
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 1-1 processor;
Processor (-o-) and memory (-x-) utilization for a 2-1 processor;
Simultaneous multithreading discussed in this paper is used to increase the performanceof processors by tolerating long–latency operations. Since the long–latency operationsare playing increasingly important role in modern computer system, so is simultaneousmultithreading. Its implementation as well as the required hardware resources are muchsimpler than in the case of out–of–order approach, and the resulting speedup scales well withthe number of simultaneous threads. Themain challenge of simultaneousmultithreading is tobalance the systemby maintaining the right relationship between the number of simultaneousthreads and the performance of the memory hierarchy.
All presented results indicate that the number of available threads, required for improvedperformance of the processor, is quite small, and is typically greater by 2 or 3 threads than thenumber of simultaneous threads. The results show that a larger number of available threadsprovides rather insignificant improvements of system’s performance.
The presented models of multithreaded processors are quite simple, and for small values ofmodeling parameters (
1 2 3 4 5 | 11 52 102 152 202 | 0.538 0.670 0.684 0.685 0.685 | 0.536 0.671 0.685 0.686 0.686 |
A comparison of simulation and analytical results for 1-1 processors.
1 2 3 4 5 | 11 80 264 555 951 | 0.538 1.030 1.384 1.568 1.655 | 0.536 1.031 1.381 1.568 1.647 |
A comparison of simulation and analytical results for 3-2 processors.
The comparisons show that the results obtained by simulation of net models are very similarto the analytical results obtained from the analysis of states and state transitions.
A similar performance analysis of simultaneous multithreading, but using a slightly differentmodel, was presented in [20]. All results presented there are very similar to results presentedin this work which is an indication that the performance of simultaneous multithreadedsystems is insensitive to (at least some) variations of implementation.
It should also be noted that the presented model is oversimplified with respect to theprobabilities of pipeline stalls and does not take into account the dependence of stallprobabilities on the history of instruction issuing. In fact, the model is “pessimistic” in thisregard, and the predicted performance, presented in the paper, is worse than the expectedperformance of real systems. However, the simplification effects are not expected to besignificant.
The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada partially supported this research through grant RGPIN-8222.
Mining comprises the activity that includes the extraction of geological materials from earth with tunnels, shafts or pits. Mining and mines can be classified in several ways. According to materials commonly mined, three classes of mining can be distinguished: metallic, non-metallic and fuel minerals. Based on the nature of excavation, mineral extraction can be categorized into two classes: underground and surface mining. The latter includes open-pit mining (also known as open-cast mining) that is implemented to extract deep and massive deposits that are not covered by a thick overburden. Underground mining of such deposits would be disadvantageous, since the material is mainly close to the surface [1].
Greece has been commonly included in the top lignite producers in Europe [2]. Mining of fuel minerals constitutes a critical activity, since a large percentage of the country’s energy needs is covered by a solid fuel, lignite. The first lignite mine in Greece appeared in 1873, whereas systematic exploitation commenced after 1950. Nowadays, the primary lignite extraction basins are located in Ptolemaida and Amyntaio. Lignite exploitation in Greece is conducted by surface mining and specifically open-pit mining [3].
Mining and specifically coal mining activities may cause severe environmental impacts [4]. Landscapes formed by mining activities are vulnerable to several geomorphic hazards, for instance, landslides and rockfalls [1]. The stability of excavations is a critical aspect of Greek lignite mines which become larger and deeper in comparison with those in the past. During the last few years, many events of severe deformations and disastrous slope failures occurred [2]. In addition, flood is a probable hazard, since water can enter pits and tunnels [1]. Surrounding areas are affected by mining with economic, environmental and social impacts [5].
Taking into consideration their synoptic coverage and multitemporal data acquisition capabilities, remote sensing methods have been widely implemented in applications related to mining activities. Availability of high spatial resolution data resulted in an increased interest of using satellite data to monitor surface mining activities [4]. Remote sensing offers a valuable tool for acquiring rigorous data, while decreases the cost of field surveys both in time and money [6].
Remote sensing applications related to mining activities include the following: mapping of the surface mineralogy, topography and related changes that are quite valuable throughout the operation and planning of mine, identifying and monitoring environmental effects and mapping surface movements of mine structures in order to monitor safety features [7]. Furthermore, the size and location of mine areas as well as land-cover changes due to mining can be extracted from satellite images [5]. Remote sensing can make mine planning procedures easier, enhance safety during and after mine operation and monitor environmental effect as well as rehabilitation [7].
In contrast with traditional pixel-based approaches, the primary methodological component in Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) is the image object [8, 9]. OBIA produces meaningful image objects only if the imagery is partitioned into similar or relatively similar areas. This requires a low value of internal heterogeneity regarding the parameter that is examined in comparison with its adjoining areas [8].
Image segmentation is the first but also fundamental procedure to produce the core elements of OBIA [10]. It is about the partitioning of an image into spatially adjoining and homogenous groups of pixels (segments) that constitute the foundation for further analysis [8, 11]. These regions have similar spatial and spectral features, which, if considered as meaningful, depict a real-world object [9, 12]. By implementing image segmentation, the level of detail is decreased to make image content more comprehensive by lessening image complexity [9]. By transitioning from pixel to image object-based framework, in an effort to follow the example of visual interpretation, better management of spatial information can be accomplished, thus a more beneficial integration with Geographic Information System (GIS) can be achieved [13].
During the last decades, several segmentation methods were matured and employed in remote sensing applications [10]. Commonly, segmentation methods are classified into three broad categories: pixel-based, edge-based and region-based methods [14]. The selection of segmentation method is substantially influenced by the objective of image analysis study and it is typically acknowledged that it does not exist a perfect algorithm that will demonstrate adequate results with every satellite image. It has to be mentioned that most segmentation methods do not instantly produce meaningful image objects. However, clusters are generated with generic labels, for example, region A, region B, etc. Then, these clusters have to be converted to meaningful image objects through a post-segmentation process [15].
A fairly demanding task in image segmentation procedure is the selection of segmentation parameters’ values in order to generate segments that will comply with the needs of user and the purpose of study [10]. Since there is not a commonly accepted method to determine optimal segmentation parameters’ values, image segmentation continues to be an interactive procedure that includes trial-and-error approaches.
A typical OBIA approach includes two main steps, image segmentation and object classification. On the other hand, there are studies that propose a methodology that includes only the step of image segmentation. It hast to be noted that the application objective is the definitive factor concerning the methodology implemented. This study does not follow the traditional OBIA approach.
Several studies have utilized satellite data and remote sensing methods to investigate an issue related to mining activities. Monitoring and evaluating reclamation procedure in mining areas is a common application [16]. LaJeunesse Connette et al. [17] developed a methodology to detect mining areas and evaluate mining expansion in Myanmar. For this reason they used data free of charge and open-source software. Likewise, Li et al. [18] employed multitemporal Landsat data to monitor the expansion of coal mining activity. Demirel et al. [6] proposed a methodology for detecting land use changes in surface coal mines with the use of multi-temporal high-resolution satellite data. Similarly, Guan et al. [19] investigated land use changes in a surface coal mine area located in the northeast China. In addition, Latifovic et al. [20] presented a methodology for land-cover change evaluation in the Athabasca Oil Sands region, northeast Alberta, Canada. For this purpose Landsat data were obtained. Maxwell et al. [21] combined very high resolution imagery and LIDAR data for mapping land-cover of a surface coal mine area in the southern coalfields of West Virginia, USA. Demirel et al. [22] investigated the potential implementation of a machine learning classifier (Support Vector Machines) for classifying high spatial resolution multispectral data of an open-cast mine area. Lechner et al. [23] carried out a spatial assessment of mine disturbance and rehabilitation of an open-pit mining study area. Townsend et al. [24] presented a methodology for quantifying land-use and land-cover change patterns due to surface mining and reclamation in the Central Appalachian Mountain region of the Eastern U.S., during a 30-year timeframe.
The primary objective of the present work is to provide an object-based methodology for rapid detection and delineation of an open-pit mining area boundaries located nearby Amyntaio town, in northwestern Greece. Since image segmentation quality is a critical part in our analysis, an unsupervised evaluation of image segmentation performance was conducted, quantifying the internal homogeneity of segments and between segment separability.
The study area that was selected for this paper covers the Public Power Corporation (PPC) SA Amyntaio lignite mine. It has an extended mining history that includes opencast mining with depths that reach 180 m, since the mid-1980s and is considered a critical mine for energy production in Greece. It is located in the north west part of mainland Greece. A subset was extracted from the main scene for analysis in order to include the mining operations as it appears in Figure 1, that is presented below.
Study area located in Greece (left) and the subset of Sentinel-2A imagery (2020) (right).
In this paper Sentinel-2A, Level 2A (Bottom-Of-Atmosphere) corrected reflectance imagery was obtained. The scene acquisition date is 30 June 2020 (Tile T34TEK). The criteria for the selection of scene were limited cloud coverage and high quality.
The methodology implemented in order to delineate the boundaries of this open-pit mining area is presented in Figure 2.
Methodological framework.
Orfeo Toolbox (OTB) was used for digital processing of the imagery. It is an open-source project that supports processing of remote sensing data including high resolution optical, multispectral and radar images [25]. The algorithms utilized for the purpose of this study were accessed from Python through the otbApplication module. Spatial analysis procedures were carried out in QGIS, a free and open-source Geographic Information System that supports the creation, editing visualization and publication of geospatial data [26].
Initial processing of Sentinel-2A imagery includes resampling the 20 m bands to 10 m, clipping the scene to the boundaries of Area Of Interest (AOI) and concatenating the spectral bands to produce a single stacked image.
The stacked image was used as input for image segmentation. For the purpose of this study, Mean-Shift segmentation algorithm was implemented. It is a non-parametric clustering approach that is widely utilized in image analysis [27]. Mean-Shift segmentation algorithm has depicted adequate results regarding object extraction [28, 29]. It can handle different remote sensing satellite data, for instance, medium or high spatial resolution images. Critical factors that are related to its popularity are the simplicity of filtering step, the multivariate nature and the existence of various implementations [30]. The vector output of segmentation and the selected parameter values of Mean-Shift algorithm are presented in Figure 3.
Segmentation results. The boundaries of segments are symbolized with red color (spatial radius: 4, range radius: 160, minimum region size: 700).
As shown in Figure 3, range radius and minimum region size parameter values were increased drastically compared to default values. This is necessary in order not to confuse mine areas with different land-cover types and not to have a large number of segments, so that they are manageable.
A qualitative evaluation of segmentation output is commonly implemented through visual assessment [31]. This is a rather subjective mean of segmentation accuracy evaluation. Conversely, several supervised and unsupervised approaches have been presented in order assess image segmentation accuracy. Supervised methods typically compare segmentation output with a reference layer and measure the overlapping area [32]. Unsupervised approaches measure particular features of segments, for example, spectral homogeneity and between object heterogeneity [33]. However, there is not a standard methodology [32].
For the purpose of this study, an unsupervised approach was selected. In specific, the objective function proposed by Espindola et al. [33] was calculated to evaluate the quality of image segmentation results. This function consists of a measure of intrasegment homogeneity and one of intersegment heterogeneity. The first part is intrasegment variance of segments, a weighted average, where the area of each segment represents the corresponding weight. Thus, probable variabilities produced by smaller segments are eliminated. Furthermore, in order to evaluate intersegment heterogeneity, the function employs Moran’s I autocorrelation index [34] that measures the spatial association as derived from the total of segments. Moran’s I reflects how, on average, mean values of each segment vary from mean values of its adjacent segments. Small values of Moran’s I suggest low spatial autocorrelation, hence the adjacent regions are statistically different. This denotes large intersegment heterogeneity. In other words, image segmentation produces segments with discrete boundaries. Employing spatial autocorrelation for evaluating image segmentation quality is especially suitable for region growing algorithms that generate closed polygons [33].
An adequate selection of parameters’ values incorporates low intersegment Moran’s I index with low intrasegment variance. The proposed function from Espindola [33] adds the normalized values of variance and autocorrelation measures. The objective function and its components were computed for each spectral band of Sentinel-2 imagery. Following, the value of objective function for the entire imagery was calculated by averaging the values of each spectral band. The results are presented in Table 1.
Mean-Shift parameters’ values (Spatial radius/Range radius/Minimum region size) | Variance | Moran’s I index | Objective function |
---|---|---|---|
5/15/100 | 0.53 | 0.57 | 1.10 |
4/80/700 | 0.59 | 0.38 | 0.97 |
4/120/700 | 0.60 | 0.35 | 0.95 |
4/160/700 | 0.60 | 0.34 | 0.95 |
4/200/700 | 0.60 | 0.38 | 0.98 |
4/240/700 | 0.59 | 0.36 | 0.95 |
4/200/1500 | 0.61 | 0.27 | 0.89 |
4/300/2000 | 0.59 | 0.28 | 0.87 |
The values of variance, Moran’s I index and objective function for specific Mean-Shift parameters’ values.
As shown in Table 1, the mean normalized value of variance slightly changes for different parameters’ values and the lowest values corresponds to the lowest values of range radius and minimum region size, as expected. Moran’s I index value is decreasing when range radius value and minimum region size are increasing, which means that segments get larger in size but also fewer in number. The selected Mean-Shift parameters’ values for this specific study area (4/160/700) correspond to relatively low Moran’s I index value which denotes that neighboring segments are statistically discrete.
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was computed among several spectral indices. The relevant bands for NDVI are Red and NIR. NDVI is a simple but also undoubtedly effective and extensively implemented index for quantifying green vegetation. NDVI values range from −1 to +1. Negative values suggest the existence of water bodies. Values close to zero (−0.1–0.1) typically correspond to barren land. Values above 0.1 commonly indicate the existence of green vegetation [35]. NDVI of the study area is presented in Figure 4.
NDVI of the imagery.
As shown in Figure 4, values from 0 to 0.2 clearly indicate the existence of mine areas, as it can be visually recognized from the natural color image. This observation lead to the exploitation of this specific feature to extract the boundaries of mine areas.
Zonal statistics of segments were computed from NDVI raster layer. In specific, min, max, standard deviation and mean statistics were calculated over each segment. Following, they were exported in a vector layer (shapefile). It was ascertained that mean value statistic comprise an ideal indicator to identify mine areas. Mean value of NDVI for each segment is presented in Figure 5 superimposed on the natural color image of the study area.
Mean NDVI value of segments.
Following the identification of mine areas, isolation of these areas is the next step. Since some areas outside mines share the same mean NDVI values with mines, further processing of the vector layer is required. A dataset with rough boundaries of mine areas forms an auxiliary layer that can help to remove non-mine areas. In specific, Corine Land Cover (CLC) 2018 polygon of mine class was employed. A buffer area was computed using a fixed distance of 500 m for two main reasons. Minimum mapping unit of CLC datasets is 25 hectares, thus it is not appropriate for the scale of the analysis of this study and cannot be used unchanged. In addition, the reference year of satellite data used for the production of the latest CLC status layer is 2018, while the reference year of the imagery used in this paper is 2020. Several changes regarding mine boundaries occurred during this timeframe. CLC 2018 mine polygon and 500 m buffered polygon are presented in Figure 6.
CLC 2018 mine polygon (in orange color) and 500 m buffered polygon (in red color).
A segment, in order to be characterized as mine area has to satisfy two conditions. It has to intersect with CLC 2018 buffered boundaries and its mean NDVI value has to be in the range of 0.00 to 0.25. Through this approach, segments were filtered and non-mine areas (polygons outside buffer zone) were erased. Furthermore, a manual more precise removal of non-mine areas was carried out to the remaining segments. The final step includes the implementation of dissolve algorithm in order to dissolve adjacent segments that share a common boundary. In this way, several segments were converted to a single meaningful image object (the mine area), that is demonstrated in Figure 7.
Mine area in crosshatch pattern.
An effective way of accomplishing adequate environmental management of mining areas requires the integration of remote sensing methods and Geographic Information Systems. Remote sensing provides image analysis fundamentals while a Geographic Information System offers spatial data analysis and geo-visualization tools. If these are exploited in a proper way, then continuous monitoring of mining activity can lead to efficient reclamation. In addition, freely-available data and open-source software drastically facilitates the efforts in this direction. This study utilized both of them in an effort to develop a comprehensive and at the same time rapid methodology for identifying mining areas and precisely delineating their boundaries. Of course, this approach can be beneficial for a multitemporal analysis in order to evaluate mining expansion.
The implemented approach for image segmentation evaluation that is demonstrated in this study does not require ground truth data, since it is an unsupervised method that is characterized by two features included in the following. Each segment should be internally homogeneous (weighted variance metric) and at the same time discrete from its adjacent segments (Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation index). These two indicators are calculated for each spectral band and then combined into a global evaluation metric, the objective function. The main advantage of this approach is its robustness, since it exploits well-established statistical methods. However, since it is a global evaluation metric, it may not perform well when two segmentation results depict very similar performance but have dissimilar local error distributions. An approach that is capable of quantifying both locally and globally segmentation performance may be more suitable for the aforementioned situation.
In this study a methodology for rapid identification of mines and precise delineation of theirs boundaries is presented, with the use of both freely-available data and open-source software. For this reason a cloudless Sentinel-2A imagery was obtained covering the area of interest. Following the initial processing steps, image segmentation was carried out using Mean-Shift algorithm and an unsupervised segmentation evaluation metric was calculated for different parameters’ values. It is combined by an autocorrelation index that identifies separability between segments and variance, an indicator that depicts the global homogeneity of segments. Then, NDVI and its mean values for each segment were computed. Finally, the mine area was extracted by implementing some spatial analysis tools including dissolve algorithm in order to aggregate segments that share a common boundary.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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