\r\n\tThis book will offer, through its authors, in a clear and easy-to-read style a comprehensive coverage of the various aspects of performance valuation and compensation management. The text will focus on real core issues which are the tools for appraising the performance of an individual and organization.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tIn this context, the book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in valuation and compensation management.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThis book will serve as a useful tool for managers, executives and HR practitioners who are confronted with many performance management issues in their work scenarios.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aac39a84162fc51366824efdee1c02ad",bookSignature:"Prof. Ubaldo Comite",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8278.jpg",keywords:"Development, Administration, Audit, Compensation, Remuneration, Bonus, Benefit, Valuation,\r\nHealthcare Valuation, Incentive, Performance Compensation, Job evaluation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 1st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 9th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"195399",title:"Prof.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Comite",slug:"ubaldo-comite",fullName:"Ubaldo Comite",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195399/images/system/195399.jpg",biography:"Ubaldo Comite was born in Cosenza, Italy, on June 14, 1971. 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1. Introduction
Although the technology of producing concrete is relatively simple the microstructure of the resultant product is highly complex. Concrete microstructure is defined as the microscopical detailing of the concrete components from its macrostructure. To better understand the mechanisms that intrinsically control durability of Portland cement concrete (PCC) it is necessary to define and understand those factors affecting concrete microstructure. Typically, the microstructure is a consequence of both the concrete formulation and the processes taking place during mixing, placing and curing. Past studies have already established that deterioration originates in the concrete at the micro- or sub-microscopic level, i.e., in its microstructure [1, 2].
Several current studies on concrete failure indicated that an often major cause of variability of the properties and performance of the hardened concrete was the inadequate dispersion of cement paste in the fresh concrete [3]. In this way, harmful impurities that permeate or diffuse throughout the hardened concrete may initiate its deterioration due to a variation in the ability of the concrete to restrict their transport. Moreover, the cement particles tend to irregularly coagulate and cluster in the mix leading to uneven regions of dense and high porosity hardened paste because of poor dispersion and inhomogeneity during mixing and placing. This holds true even for high density microstructures resulting when using of low water/cement (w/c) ratios. The development of a dense homogeneous microstructure is also affected by the pattern packing of the cement particles and aggregate. Thus, the microstructure developed during the mixing, setting and hardening process will directly affect the resulting properties and performance of concrete. Microstructural development is also controlled by a combination of uniform dispersion of cement particles, mineral admixtures and aggregates along with cement hydration. Moreover, developments occurring at a micro- or sub-microscopic level in the concrete matrix influence aspects such as early or retarded setting, drying shrinkage, permeability, frost damage, excessive bleeding, and/or inadequate strength. Understanding the concrete behavior at these small scale levels is the initial and most important step toward achieving the means to control its microstructure and influence on performance [3].
Additionally, the examination of concrete microstructure either in transmitted or reflected energy is a valuable tool in the study of concrete microstructure. These methods can be used in inspecting various concrete specimens to determine potential defects or material characteristics. For example, water/cement ratios can be determined by comparing paste porosity with a series of carefully prepared reference samples. In this chapter, the physical interface between aggregate and cement paste and the aggregate fracture were studied. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) capable of acquiring micro-scale level images was used to quantify the ITZ cracking for normal and self-consolidating concrete. The X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) system was employed to visualize the coarse aggregate distribution in the concrete specimens and their fracture pattern. SEM is a device that creates highly magnified 2-D images of structures to analyze their various components interactions and potential flaws using accelerated electrons. The X-ray CT technique uses high energy beams which penetrate samples of different thicknesses then stacks up the acquired images to reconstruct a 3-D model of the scanned sample for structural analysis.
2. Research methodology
The first part of this section addresses the development of microstructure and its control of performance with a focus on the normal (NC) and self-consolidating concrete (SCC). The second part details the damage caused by steel projectiles of different sizes impacting large concrete specimens at various speeds.
2.1 Concrete microstructure characterization and performance comparison
This research study had four objectives: (1) To investigate the bonding between coarse aggregates and cement paste; (2) To evaluate fresh SCC test methods – slump flow and U-tube; (3) To compare NC and SCC splitting tensile strength and compressive strength; and (4) To visualize the distribution of coarse aggregate in NC and SCC concrete specimens. The SEM imaging was employed to investigate the bonding between the cement paste and coarse aggregate of the two types of concrete by studying their interfacial transition zone (ITZ). The ITZ, which is mostly comprised of calcium hydroxide, is a narrow and fuzzy cement paste area surrounding the aggregate particles. Being a very porous region due to a high water content, the ITZ tends to increase with the aggregate size. Moreover, due to its weaker structure compared to the bulk paste in the concrete this transition zone directly affects the concrete properties, especially its strength and stiffness. The aggregate distribution throughout the specimens and the fracture patterns of the NC and SCC specimens tested for compressive strength were visualized using the X-ray tomography imaging system. The standard compressive strength test method depicts typical fracture patterns indicative of the mix strength or existing problems with the testing equipment.
Additional information on materials and admixtures used for preparing the specimens can be found in Druta et al. [4]. Table 1 presents the mix proportions for casting the SCC specimens. The type I Portland cement was replaced by blast furnace slag (25%), fly ash (15%), and silica fume (5%). Similar mix proportions and equal amount batches were prepared for casting cylindrical NC samples and conduct slump tests without incorporating any mineral admixtures.
W/C ratio
Water (kg)
Cement (kg)
Fine Agg. (kg)
Coarse Agg. (kg)
HRWR (ml)
VMA (ml)
0.3
3
5.5
16.3
21.1
340
0
0.4
4
5.5
16.3
21.1
100
15
0.45
4.5
5.5
16.3
21.1
80
25
0.5
5
5.5
16.3
21.1
50
50
0.6
6
5.5
16.3
21.1
20
100
Table 1.
Self-consolidating concrete mix design.
Splitting tensile and compressive strength tests were performed on both types of concrete, whereas U-box and slump flow tests were conducted to evaluate the filling ability and the self-compactability of the SCC, respectively [5, 6]. The slump flow test, currently used for fresh SCC, is a good indicator of concrete consistency and ability to self-consolidate [6, 7]. For SCC, instead of measuring the drop in height of the fresh concrete the average of two perpendicular diameters (R1 and R2) of the spread concrete is determined. A good self-consolidation is achieved for a spread of 600 mm or larger, up to 800 mm, within a time period of 60 s [4]. Figure 1 illustrates the filling ability apparatus that comprises an approximately 700 mm tall tube with a round bottom divided into two equal sections by a middle wall incorporating a sliding gate. Once the left section is filled with concrete the sliding gate is lifted allowing the fresh concrete to flow freely in the right section through a specially designed grate provided with closely spaced rebars. The height levels of the concrete in both sections are measured, then followed by a height difference calculation. An adequate SCC filling and compactability is achieved if a difference of 30 mm or less between H1 and H2 is recorded.
Figure 1.
U-box schematic for testing SCC.
2.2 Evaluating the bond between coarse aggregate and cement paste
The SCC was extensively researched in the past decades to find ways to enhance its performance [8, 9]. The general focus of those efforts was the improvement of the interface properties between paste and aggregates. That improvement has led to the manufacturing and use of higher strength and enhanced durability concretes [10, 11]. The physical interface between aggregate and cement paste and the aggregate fracture patterns were investigated in the second phase of this study. First, the ITZ cracking behavior for the two types of concrete was quantified using the SEM capable of acquiring micro-scale level images. Secondly, a visualization of the coarse aggregate distribution in the specimens and their fracture pattern were performed by employing the X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) system [2]. In addition, a comparison of the number of air voids in the NC and SCC was conducted on six rectangular samples with the dimensions of 70 × 70 × 12 mm. The samples were cut from concrete cylinders at 0.3, 0.45, and 0.6 water-cement ratios and analyzed under a digital stereo-zoom microscope.
To determine the characteristics of the interfaces between aggregates and paste for both SCC and NC, small samples of 25.5 mm diameter and 4 mm thick were obtained from untested cylinders of both types of concretes at three different water-cement ratios of 0.3, 0.4, and 0.6 after 60 days of curing. The SEM was used to capture pictures of each w/c ratio sample at different ITZ locations. Smaller crack widths within their physical interface were observed from the acquired SEM photomicrographs for SCC samples compared the NC samples as showed in Figure 2. This finding indicated that a better aggregate-paste bonding was achieved in the transition zone for SCC compared to NC.
Figure 2.
Photomicrographs of (a) normal concrete and (b) self-consolidating concrete physical interfaces (w/c = 0.40).
The use of silica fume led to a lower porosity and less growth of calcium hydroxide in the ITZ resulting in an increase in tensile and compressive strength of the SCC when compared to NC. Typically, silica fume has a “filler effect” in the concrete structure that reduces internal bleeding in the fresh concrete while enhancing the aggregate-paste bond strength [12]. It also renders its structure more homogeneous due to a reduction of the large pores in the ITZ. The split tensile strength tests revealed a larger number of broken aggregate particles in SCC than in NC when the fractured surfaces of the concrete samples were inspected. Furthermore, the strength of the ITZ was also enhanced by the addition of silica fume, as some of the aggregate fracture occurred at the physical interface instead within the transition zone.
Table 2 shows the specimens’ cracks widths from the images acquired at each water/cement ratio. The SEM image analysis indicated that a tendency for the cracks to shrink existed for lower w/cm ratios. However, a certain relationship between the interface crack widths and the water-cement ratios for either type of concrete was not found. Establishing a quantitative relationship between the crack width and strength, if any, has to be further investigated.
w/c ratio
NC width range (µm)
SCC width range (µm)
0.3
0.62–1.75
0.01–0.75
0.4
0.63–5.63
0.01–1.12
0.6
1.23–3.38
0.01–0.61
Table 2.
Interfaces crack widths for normal and self-consolidating concretes.
2.3 Analysis of fracture patterns
The X-ray computed tomography (CT) was employed to examine the internal structure and fracture patterns of the concrete specimens tested in compression [4]. Using the CT radiographic inspection technique objects are reconstructed from their cross sectional images. Over the years, nondestructive evaluations using CT imaging of the microstructure of concrete [13], soil [14, 15], rock [16], and asphalt concrete [17, 18] have been largely used. Compression tested specimens have exhibited similar fracture patterns, i.e., cone at one end and vertical columns, as types 2 and 3 patterns described in the ASTM C 39 test method. Figure 3 shows tomographic images of the 3D reconstructed SCC and NC specimens acquired from the top, middle and bottom. Images reveal concrete structural damage and fracture patterns along with the aggregate fracture throughout the tested specimens. The SCC specimens did not exhibit any segregation.
Figure 3.
Tomographic images of SCC (top row) and NC (bottom row) specimens after being tested in compression (from left to right: top, middle, and bottom of specimen).
Several sectional images of 100 × 200 mm tensile split cylindrical specimens were visually inspected to identify fractured aggregate. The analysis showed that the percentage of fractured aggregate for SCC was about 15–25% (9–15 out of 60) while for NC was around 10% (4–6 out of 60) after determining that each section facet contained around 60 coarse aggregate particles. The number of broken aggregate particles from three tested specimens was averaged to calculate the fracture percentages. The greater number of fractured aggregate in the SCC specimens was another indication of a better bonding between aggregate and cement paste.
2.4 Evaluation of air void content
The air entrainment was reduced in the SCC mix with the addition of finely divided mineral admixtures, such as fly ash and silica fume. Samples with the dimensions of 80 × 80 × 12 mm were acquired from both types of concretes at w/cm ratios of 0.30, 0.45, and 0.60 to study their air-entrained properties. Air voids larger than 200 microns only were considered for the analysis. The measurements showed that SCC samples exhibited half the amount of air voids compared to NC. Visual analyses of the “air voids” sizes and shapes revealed that SCC had smaller and more round-shaped voids than NC which presented slightly larger and irregular shaped voids (by 15–20%) (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Distribution of air voids (white spots) in: (a) NC and (b) SCC.
Moreover, while the air voids in the SCC appeared more clustered in certain areas of the cut specimen, the voids in NC were relatively well dispersed in the specimens. These data indicate that the lower air void content also contributed to an increase in strength of the SCC as cracks initiate more easily in the cement paste with higher air voids. Some of these air voids represent “flaws” in the cement paste at the aggregate-paste boundary possibly forming microcracks or “bond cracks” in the ITZ which ultimately lead to the failure of the concrete due to the propagation of microcracks under localized tensile stresses.
2.5 Conclusions
This research verified that SCC achieved self-compactability and adequate flow under its own weight, without external vibration or compaction based on the mix proportion parameters and the materials used. The study also showed that splitting tensile and compressive strengths in SCC were higher than those of normal vibrated concrete due to the addition of chemical and mineral admixtures. Compressive strength had an average increase of over 60%, whereas the splitting tensile strength showed a 30% increase. The ratio between the splitting and compressive strength was similar to values found in the literature. Also, a better bonding between aggregate and cement paste was achieved in SCC due to the use of chemical and mineral admixtures, as the material has shown smaller aggregate-matrix interface microcracks than normal concrete. This characteristic affected both the splitting tensile and compressive strengths. Another indicator of the stronger aggregate-paste bonding was the greater percentage of the fractured aggregate in SCC (20–25%) compared to the 10% for normal concrete. Moreover, when compared to NC, the number of air voids in SCC was lower and they appeared relatively smaller and more rounded. These factors have contributed as well to the increase in strength of the SCC.
3. Concrete microstructure damage by projectile impact
Penetration of projectiles into concrete target was investigated in this research by using both experimental and simulation methods. The over-all objectives of the project included: (a) Building up an experimental facility to conduct the penetration test; (b) Developing of a rational constitutive model to incorporate distributed damage effects; (c) Enhancing of the model implementation by combining the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Discrete Element Method (DEM) so that post-fracture behavior can be simulated; and (d) Developing of methods to back-calculate model constants from comparing experimental with simulation results.
The equipment assembled for testing concrete specimens of different sizes and strengths is showed in Figure 5. It contains a gas tank that can be filled at various pressures, a launch tube, a gas expansion tank, and specimen housing chamber.
Figure 5.
Gas operated facility for testing concrete samples.
A three-dimensional penetration model was constructed using ABAQUS as shown in Figure 6. The concrete target was tentatively modeled as 40 × 40 × 100 cm blocks and penetrated by high speed projectiles made of rigid materials. No deformation is assumed for the projectile when penetrating the target. The concrete is assumed to be an elasto-plastic material with damage property. 8-node linear brick elements are used for the FEM mesh. An unbounded boundary domain is defined by using 8-node linear infinite elements, which are connected with concrete specimen at the periphery (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
FEM modeling of concrete target impacted by projectile.
The microstructure of concrete specimen is considered by assigning different material properties to the three components of the mixture, aggregate, mortar (hydration products plus fine aggregate particles) and air void. These components are discriminated by utilizing image analysis techniques shown in Figure 7(a) and (b). Pixel intensity value determines what component each pixel belongs to. When meshing the domain to be modeled, the properties of the material between two scanned images are assumed to be the same as the front image.
Figure 7.
3D microstructure of concrete specimen (a) and the image-based reconstruction (b).
3.1 Concrete damage
A reduction in the elastic stiffness of concrete is the result of damage typically associated with the failure mechanisms of the concrete (cracking and crushing). According to the scalar-damage theory, the isotropic stiffness degradation is characterized by a single degradation variable, d. Based on continuum damage mechanics notions, the effective stress is defined as Eq. (1).
σ¯=D0el:ε−εplE1
The Cauchy stress is related to the effective stress through the scalar degradation relation per Eq. (2).
σ=1−dσ¯E2
The stress-strain relations are governed by scalar damaged elasticity given in Eq. (3), where D0el is the elastic stiffness of the undamaged material; Del = (1 − d)D0el is the elastic stiffness due to damage; and d is the scalar stiffness variable due to degradation. A d value of zero indicates undamaged material while one shows a fully damaged material.
σ=1−dD0el:ε−εplE3
The constitutive behavior of concrete was illustrated using the concrete damaged plasticity model. The model describes the inelastic behavior of concrete based on the concepts of isotropic damaged elasticity in combination with isotropic tensile and compressive plasticity. Moreover, the scalar damaged elasticity combined with the non-associated multi-hardening plasticity describe the irreversible damage that occurs during the fracturing process. The main ingredients of the model are summarized below.
3.2 Strain rate decomposition
Additive strain rate decomposition is assumed for the rate-independent model according to Eq. (4).
έ=έelelastic+έplelasticE4
For any given cross-section of the material, the ratio of the effective load-carrying area (i.e., the total area minus the damaged area) to the overall section area is represented by the (1 − d) factor. Thus, the effective stress is equivalent to the Cauchy stress, σ, if there is no damage, d = 0. When damage occurs, however, the effective stress is larger than the Cauchy stress because the external loads are supported by the effective stress area. Therefore, the plasticity problem can be conveniently formulated using the effective stress component. The development of the degradation variable is governed by a set of hardening variables, ε∼pl (plastic strains), and the effective stress, d = d(σ¯, ε∼pl).
3.3 Hardening variables
Two hardening variables, ε∼tpl and ε∼cpl, defined as equivalent plastic strains in tension and compression, respectively, can be used to independently characterized a material damaged states in tension and compression. Generally, increasing values of the hardening variables may lead to microcracking and crushing in concrete. These variables also control the degradation of the elastic stiffness and the progression of the yield surface, as well as affecting the dissipated fracture energy required to generate microcracks.
Also, a yield function, F(σ¯, ε∼pl), that represents a surface in effective stress space, will determines the states of failure or damage. For the inviscid plastic-damage model, it is represented by Eq. (5).
Fσ¯ε∼pl<0E5
4. DEM modeling
Penetration test is also modeled using the Discrete Element Method (DEM). DEM was first introduced by Cundall [19] in the early 1970s. It was originally applied on rocks, then extended to granular material, which triggered much wider uses in different kinds of material like fluid, soil, and composites. DEM has not received much attention in penetration simulation before 1990. Before 1990, Heuze’s overview [20, 21] indicated that only 3 computer programs based their theory on DEM. However, DEM has its intrinsic advantages, especially related to penetration simulation, when compared to other numerical simulation methods, such as FEM-based on continuum meshing. DEM allows transitioning from continuum to discontinuum to be easily simulated, while handling fracturing and large deformation conveniently.
The geometry of a projectile is one of the key factors affecting the penetration process. A number of studies have addressed the shape effects including those on flat nose [22, 23, 24], ogive [25], and spherical ball [26]. Zhu and Zhang [27] compared the effects on penetration using projectiles of ogive and flat nose shape. While most researchers consider projectiles as rigid, others investigated the effects due to a deformable projectile. As for the impact velocity, Nishida [26] studied the penetration at a low velocity of 16 m/s while most others focused on velocities larger than 100 m/s.
DEM is also used in the theoretical formulation of PFC3D (a particle modeling software) known as particle-flow model. Particles of arbitrary shapes that displace independent of each other and occupy a finite amount of space constitute the basic element of the model. The model uses a finite normal stiffness to represent the contact stiffness, while the interaction between the particles, which are assumed rigid, is defined using a soft contact approach. Force-Displacement Law and Motion Law are the two primary rules to define the mechanical computation. The former law is used to calculate the contact force and momentum between two entities based on their relative displacement. It should be noted that the momentum part could only be modeled in the parallel bond model for contacts. The second law, also referred as Newton’s second law, governs how force and momentum determine the particle translational and rotational motion.
4.1 Projectile model
In order to build the required cone shape mono-size balls are decreased in size from tail to tip. To keep a compact status inside the projectile the overlap of balls and large stiffness were purposely assigned. The balls forming the projectile were clumped into one object using the PFC3Dclump function. The created object does not allow any relative movements for the balls constituting the projectile. The friction between projectile and the target varies with their relative velocity and is defined by Eq. (6), where the static friction was determined by using the idealized infinite velocity Chen [28].
f=finf+fstat−finfeγ∗velE6
where finf is the friction with idealized infinite velocity and fstat is the static friction.
Figure 8 illustrates a projectile model used to simulate penetration velocity versus depth relationship established by Forrestal et al. and their corresponding microscopic scale parameters. A model of a projectile created in PFC3D is showed in Figure 9. Most experiments use the cylindrical projectile shape which allows the convenient monitoring of symmetric damage. However, cubic specimens are used in simulations due to their simple geometry. By using large dimensions, the corner or boundary effects can be minimized. Although a semi-infinite target can be used in the classic penetration theory, a DEM simulation only accepts finite size targets, with its specific dimension needing to be determined to eliminate the size effect.
Figure 8.
Geometry of projectile used in test (Forrestal et al., 1994).
Figure 9.
Projectile model created in DEM.
For both projectile and target, there are several major parameters contributing to the entire penetration process significantly. The major variables for projectile are mass (m), diameter (dia), nose shape, and impact velocity (vel). The former three are set in the projectile geometric and mechanical property file, while the last variable is input in the main code for penetration simulation. Key variables for target are macro Young’s modulus (E), Poisson’s ratio (ν), compressive strength (σc), and tensile strength (σt). They together represent the mechanical characteristics of the material.
PFC3D provides an optimized calibration sequence for some major control variables to minimize the iterations for parallel bond.
Matching the material’s Young’s modulus by varying Ec and Ēc.
Matching the Poisson’s ratio by varying kn/ks and k¯n/k¯s.
Varying the mean normal and shear strength, σ¯c and τ¯c, as well as their standard deviation, to obtain the strength envelope for both compression and tension.
Properties, such as post-peak behavior or crack-initiation stress, can also be obtained by adjusting related variables, such as friction coefficient to match with those from the real samples; for conciseness purpose however, they are not presented in this paper.
4.2 Normal and shear strength calibration for parallel bond
Normal strength and shear strength (σ¯c and τ¯c) for parallel bond are the two major micro-parameters contributing to the material’s compressive strength. Three typical calibration tests were carried out: varying normal strength, varying shear strength, and varying both with a constant relative ratio. The relationship between compressive strength and microstrength is shown in the Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Relation between macro-compressive strength and micro-strength.
As illustrated in Figure 10, the macro compressive strength depends on both normal and shear strength of the contact balls, while normal strength contributes a little more. An important feature for this case is that it is the smaller one of these two micro-parameters controls the upper limit of the macro-strength, i.e. the compressive strength cannot increase when either one of the micro strengths stay at a constant level.
For Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, neither the normal nor the shear strength of particles has much contribution in the normal range. However, when both these two micro strengths decrease to very small values, the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio have a little more influence.
The empirical discoveries found in the above calibration test can be used to form concrete target with the required mechanical property, although the calibration still needs to be conducted step by step. This is because different micro-variable changes may result in similar macro-property, and the changing magnitudes probably vary widely as other parameters vary.
5. Experimental results
Two types of concrete targets were made for penetration testing, i.e., the frusta of either a pyramid or a cone (Figure 11). The pyramid and cone shapes were intended to save materials in the rear end of the samples. The larger-area side was subjected to the projectile penetration. The frustum of pyramid had dimensions of 12″ × 12″ in the larger-end side and 13″ in depth, while the cylinders were 6″ and 11″ in diameter and 11″ in height. Both types of concrete targets were cast in 5000 psi and 8000 psi uniaxial compressive strengths. For verification purposes of the gas operated facility the first two shots were on two 2500 psi concrete cylinders (6″ × 12″). Limestone aggregate (#67) was used for the 5000 psi samples while (#78) was used for the 8000 psi samples.
Figure 11.
Types of concrete targets used for penetration testing.
Projectiles of three different diameters (12, 20, and 30 mm) were used for penetration into the concrete targets and were launched using the same pressures (1200 psi) to assess their speeds, penetration depths, and target damage.
Figure 12 shows an example of the projectile after impacting the concrete targets, the damaged concrete targets and location of projectiles after the impact. Some target specimens were shattered by the projectile and the penetration of the projectile were not observed. This was primarily due to the size of concrete specimen relative to that of the projectile. However, as projectile size decreases (or concrete specimen size increases), the phenomena of projectile penetrating through concrete target become more likely to occur.
Figure 12.
8000 psi cylinder impacted by 30 mm diameter and 218 g projectile at v = 360 m/s.
5.1 Comparison between FEM simulation results and laboratory test results without considering the microstructure of the target
It is worth mentioning that both the mass and diameter of the projectiles influence the penetration depths. However, the major factor to determine the penetration depth is the velocity of the projectile. For example, in tests 7 and 8, the two projectiles have similar masses and diameters, but the projectile with higher velocity (405 m/s) has a penetration depth of 51 mm which is almost twice the depth of the one with lower velocity (360.5 m/s). This fact is also revealed by the simulation results, pertaining to the same tests, in which the projectile having a higher velocity has a 106 mm penetration depth, while the one with lower velocity has a 51 mm penetration depth. The major reason for the inconsistency between the simulation results and the test results is that the material properties including microstructure were not varied for different materials (Table 3).
Test #
Target type
Test penetration depth (mm)
Simulated penetration depth (mm)
1
Cyl (11″ × 11″)
80
84
2
Cyl (11″ × 11″)
96
83
6
Cyl (11″ × 11″)
87
150
7
Cyl (6″ × 12″)
27
18
8
Cyl (6″ × 12″)
51
106
Table 3.
Penetration depth comparison between test data and simulation (Zhou et al., 2009).
5.2 Comparison between simulation results and laboratory test results with microstructure incorporated for the concrete target
As previously mentioned, the 6″ × 12″ concrete cylinders were X-ray CT scanned and cross-section images showing their internal structure were obtained for each specimen. An image analysis code has been developed to reconstruct the internal structure of the target specimen using the x-ray CT slices. Thus, different constituents of concrete are identified respectively, based on the gray levels of a cross-section image. In addition to the reconstruction of the internal structure, the program also maps each pixel of the image onto the mesh of the digital model as shown in Figure 13. For each of the two 6″ × 12″concrete specimens, 100 slices (cross-section images) were stacked together and processed to generate their respective digital specimen. Elements pertaining to different components of the mixture (i.e., aggregates and cement paste) were assigned different material properties in the simulation. The aggregates were treated as elastic material with high elastic stiffness, whereas the cement paste was treated as an elasto-plastic material with low elastic stiffness and shear damage factor to control the damage of the material.
Figure 13.
Internal structure reconstruction of the concrete specimen.
5.3 Effect of projectile mass on the simulated penetration
The effect of the projectile mass on the penetration was assessed by considering three different masses in the simulation – 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 kg, respectively. Other properties of the projectiles were kept the same. The simulation data are presented in Figure 14. From the figure it can be noticed that the projectile penetration depth increases as its mass increases (a) whereas the penetration speed decreases at smaller rates for larger mass projectiles (b).
Figure 14.
Penetration depth and speed reduction of projectiles with different masses. (a) projectile penetration depth increases as its mass increases whereas (b) the penetration speed decreases at smaller rates for larger mass projectiles.
5.4 Visualization of DEM simulation
After creating the target and projectile models, it is convenient to assign different striking velocities to the projectile and perform penetration simulation. Through PFC3D coding, the entire penetration process can be simulated at selected time steps (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
Visualization of the penetration process using DEM (Zhou et al., 2009).
In the figure above, the concrete slab perforation process at selected time steps was initiated at a striking velocity of 500 m/s. Different steps correspond to different times, which can be obtained from the simulation history record. As shown, widespread cracking, progressive gross failure, and fragmentation during penetration can be visualized.
6. Conclusions
Penetration of projectile into concrete target was investigated in this research by using both experimental methods and numerical simulations. A lab test system which is able to launch steel projectile into cement concrete targets was successfully built. Projectile package driven by propellant gas enables a steel projectile to penetrate into cement concrete targets at different speeds. Finite Element Method (FEM) was utilized to simulate the penetration process of projectile into a concrete target. A projectile is considered as rigid material with no deformation during the penetration process. Cement concrete targets can be modeled using a concrete damaged plasticity model. Several major effects are estimated by FEM simulation including diameter, mass and initial speed of the projectile. Additionally, numerical simulation using Discrete Element Method (DEM) was employed to simulate the penetration process of projectile into cement concrete target. A calibration method was developed to obtain microscopic parameters from macroscopic parameters of concrete. Penetration process can be modeled using the time history of the depth, initial velocity and deceleration of the projectile then compare results with empirical predictions results of previously conducted simulations.
\n',keywords:"microstructure, damage, interface, compressive strength, transition zone",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70803.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70803.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70803",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70803",totalDownloads:248,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 1st 2019",dateReviewed:"November 14th 2019",datePrePublished:"January 30th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Microstructural characteristics such as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and cracking patterns from compressive strength testing are main features that characterize concrete behavior. Certain materials such as blast furnace slag or fly ash introduced in the concrete mix aid in improving its strength and durability. Others such as nanosilica particles may affect only the microstructure of the paste without making any significant improvement in the strength of the ITZ or paste-aggregate bond. Additionally, in situ investigation of the microstructures of fresh cement paste can greatly enhance knowledge of the development properties of concrete at an early age (e.g., setting and hydration), which can be helpful for improvement of the quality of concrete. Common technologies such as Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) are currently employed in petrographic analysis of cementitious materials and concrete microstructure.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70803",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70803",book:{slug:"compressive-strength-of-concrete"},signatures:"Cristian Druta",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Research methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Concrete microstructure characterization and performance comparison",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Evaluating the bond between coarse aggregate and cement paste",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Analysis of fracture patterns",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Evaluation of air void content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Conclusions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Concrete microstructure damage by projectile impact",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Concrete damage",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Strain rate decomposition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Hardening variables",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. DEM modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Projectile model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2 Normal and shear strength calibration for parallel bond",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Experimental results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1 Comparison between FEM simulation results and laboratory test results without considering the microstructure of the target",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2 Comparison between simulation results and laboratory test results with microstructure incorporated for the concrete target",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.3 Effect of projectile mass on the simulated penetration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.4 Visualization of DEM simulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Iwama K, Higuchi K, Maekawa K. Multi-scale modelling of deteriorating concrete at elevated temperature and collapse simulation of underground ducts. In: 10th International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures FraMCoS-X. 2019'},{id:"B2",body:'Mehta PK, Monteiro PJM. Microstructure, Properties, and Materials. New York, London: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.; 2006'},{id:"B3",body:'Roy DM, Idorn GM. Concrete Microstructure. In: Rep. SHRP-C-340, Strategic highway research program. Washington. D.C.: National Research Council; 1993'},{id:"B4",body:'Druta C, Wang L, Stephen Lane D. Tensile strength and paste-aggregate bonding characteristics of self-consolidating concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;55:89-96'},{id:"B5",body:'Kuder K, Lehman D, Berman J, Hannesson G, Shogren R. Mechanical properties of self-consolidating concrete blended with high volumes of fly ash and slag. Construction and Building Materials. 2012;34:285-295'},{id:"B6",body:'Khayat KH, Guizani Z. Use of viscosity-modifying admixture to enhance stability of fluid concrete. ACI Materials Journal. 1997;94(4):332-340'},{id:"B7",body:'Ozyildirim C, Davis RT. Bulb-T beams with self-consolidating concrete on route 33 in Virginia. Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2007;2020:76-82'},{id:"B8",body:'Gesoglu M, Guneyisi E, Ozbay E. Properties of self-compacting concretes made with binary, ternary, and quaternary cementitious blends of fly ash, blast furnace slag, and silica fume. Construction and Building Materials. 2009;23:1847-1854'},{id:"B9",body:'Castel A, Vidal T, Francois R. Bond and cracking properties of self-consolidating concrete. Construction and Building Materials. 2010;24:1222-1231'},{id:"B10",body:'Bijen JM, de Rooij M. Aggregate-matrix interfaces. In: Presented at International Conference on Concretes. Dundee, Scotland; 1999'},{id:"B11",body:'Herman G. Image Reconstruction from Projections: The Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography. New York: Academic Press; 1980'},{id:"B12",body:'Mindess S, Young JF, Darwin D. Concrete. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Prentice Hall; 2003'},{id:"B13",body:'Hall C, Colston SL, Jupe AC, Jacques SDM, Livingston R, Ramadan AO. Non-destructive tomographic energy-dispersive diffraction imaging of the interior of bulk concrete. Cement and Concrete Research. 2000;30(3):491-495'},{id:"B14",body:'Shi BM, Wu Y, Chen Z, Inyang JH. Monitoring of internal failure evolution insoils using computerization X-ray tomography. Engineering Geology. 1999;54(3):321-328'},{id:"B15",body:'Rogasik HC, Wendroth JW, Young O, Joschko IM, Ritz MK. Discrimination of soil phases by dual energy X-ray tomography. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 1999;63(4):741-751'},{id:"B16",body:'Verhelst F, Vervoort ADB, Marchal G. X-ray computerized tomography, determination of heterogeneities in rock samples. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Congress on Rock Mechanics. Tokyo, Japan: A. A. Balkema; 1995. pp. 105-109'},{id:"B17",body:'Wang L, Frost JD, Shashidhar N. Microstructure study of westrack mixes from X-ray tomography images. Journal of the Transportation Research Board. 2001;1767:85-94'},{id:"B18",body:'Wang L, Frost JD, Voyiadjis G, Harman TP. Quantification of damageparameters using X-ray tomography images. Journal of Mechanics and Materials. 2002;35:777-790'},{id:"B19",body:'Cundall PA, Strack ODL. Discrete numerical model for granular assemblies. Geotechnique. 1979;24:4843-4848'},{id:"B20",body:'Heuze FE. An overview of projectile penetration into geological materials, with emphasis on rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science and Geomechanics Abstracts. 1990;27(1):1-14'},{id:"B21",body:'Zhang D, Zhu F. Application of beam-particle model to the problem of concrete penetration. Explosion shock wave. 2005;25(1):85-89'},{id:"B22",body:'Kusano N, Aoyagi T, Aizawa J, Ueno H, Morikawa H, Kobayashi N. Impulsive local damage analyses of concrete structure by the distinct element method. Nuclear Engineering and Design. 1992;138(1):105-110'},{id:"B23",body:'Sawamoto Y, Tsubota H, Kasai Y, Koshika N, Morikawa H. Analytical studies on local damage to reinforced concrete structures under impact loading by discrete element method. Nuclear Engineering and Design. 1998;179(2):157-177'},{id:"B24",body:'Magnier SA, Donze FV. Numerical simulations of impacts using a discrete element method. Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials. 1998;3(3):257-276'},{id:"B25",body:'Ng T-T. Numerical Simulations for Penetration Process of Concrete Target Using the Discrete Element Method, New Orleans, LA, USA. New York, NY, USA: ASME; 1993, 1993'},{id:"B26",body:'Nishida M, Tanaka K, Matsumoto Y. Discrete element method simulation of the restitutive characteristics of a steel spherical projectile from a particulate aggregation. JSME International Journal Series A Solid Mechanics and Material Engineering. 2004;47(3):438-447'},{id:"B27",body:'Zhu F, Zhang D. Numerical simulation of perforation in plain concrete panel with nose shape of perforators. Journal Impact Factor. 2005;24:4843-4848'},{id:"B28",body:'Chen EP. Penetration into dry porous rock: A numerical study on sliding friction simulation. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics. 1989;11(2):135-141'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cristian Druta",address:"cdruta1@vt.edu",affiliation:'
Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Blacksburg, USA
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1. Introduction
1.1 Landraces and traditional varieties: similarities, differences and comparison with wild species and commercial varieties
In the wide spectrum of plant material in terms of domestication and/or breeding, the concepts seem to be clear in both extremes, wild forms and commercial varieties. On one hand, the wild plants (either the Crop Wild Relatives, CWR, or those belonging to more distant gene pools) are those that have not been domesticated or subject to processes of artificial (human) selection and breeding. They do not exhibit traits typically present in cultivated plants, like uniform seed germination and homogeneous fruit ripening, or desirable characteristics present in those plants destined to human consumption, mainly related to quality (Figure 1). On the other hand, commercial varieties are those obtained by a breeding programme aimed to improve certain traits of the crop and that differ from other existing varieties by distinctive properties, which are uniformly expressed, and transferred in a stable way to the subsequent generations (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Examples of phytogenetic resourses within the genus Lactuca: A lettuce wild relative (Lactuca dregeana DC.) and two cultivated forms (Lactuca sativa L.), a landrace/traditional variety (Morada de Bernués), and a commercial variety (‘Romana inverna’).
In between those two ends, a wide plethora of intermediate forms can be found. That is a grey area with blurred boundaries, what explains the general lack of consensus in even defining the plant material. In many cases, different terms have been used to refer to the same (or similar) type of plant, like ecotype, landrace, race, farmer variety, folk variety, local variety, traditional cultivar, etc. [1]. Even if some definitions are contradictory, there seems to be some recurrent ideas when authors refer to landraces and traditional varieties.
Landraces are profusely described in the literature as autochthonous cultivars or, at least, cultivars that have been grown in a certain area since ancestral times and, hence, are adapted to local growing conditions and uses through natural selection but without any active intervention from farmers. There are several terms difficult to verify in that definition. It does not seem easy to trace back the origin of the cultivars, especially if we take into account that the crop dispersals and the human migrations are inseparable. Besides, even if they have been cultivated in a region for a long period of time and, hence, they are adapted to the predominant environmental conditions, that does not imply that they exhibit a great tolerance to adverse conditions, biotic and abiotic stresses as stated before [1, 2]. Actually, the adverse edaphic, climatic and phytosanitary conditions would be mitigated even by the most traditional low input agricultural systems in comparison to those that the wild plants would have to face in the same region. Finally, it is difficult to defend the idea of farmers growing a cultivar for generations without carrying out any type of selection of the outstanding individuals, even if it is not fully conscious, as stated mainly in the earliest definitions [3, 4]. In fact, the agriculture procedures (seeding, harvesting …) exert an artificial selection under which the most suitable genotypes for those cultural practises, prosper (and they probably rely on them for their survival, in return). Furthermore, in a scenario in which only the natural selection is acting, the resulting plants would probably be more similar to their wild relatives and less to the bred cultivars (and that is not the case with the landraces). In more recent definitions, the idea of a more or less directed human selection has been embraced [5, 6, 7], even if it cannot be considered a formal breeding programme [8].
In contrast with landraces, traditional varieties (also called folk varieties or farmer-bred varieties), have usually been defined like those that have been maintained by active selection and/or breeding by farmers. And, if this is the main difference between landraces and traditional varieties (as the latter are also cultivated locally and are well adapted to the particular climatic and growing conditions), is it really possible to distinguish them? How do we determine if a certain variety is the product of merely natural selection or the human intervention has also played a role on it? Is it actually possible to separate both processes? It could be that the question is nowadays irrelevant and the important aspect is that, either if we call them landraces or traditional varieties (Figure 1), they consist of dynamic populations that harbour enough genetic variability to show adaptability to local conditions and plasticity to overcome eventual changes, even if they can be fairly uniform for the selected traits. That broad genetic base would explain that, under eventual adverse conditions, they are still able to yield stably (though moderately), as some genotypes within the population will possibly show a better performance. These aspects were early emphasised by the plant breeder Harlan [9] when stated that some of the most important characteristics of landraces are their genetic diversity and dynamism, what has also been adopted in more modern times by other authors [10, 11]. Harlan also pointed out that they are the result of millennia of natural and artificial selection, as a way of integrating these two indiscernible processes. Another approach to overcome this thorny aspect consisted of eliminating the type of selection undergone in the definition of the landraces [12]. Any realistic and updated definition of this type of plant material will have to include the impact of agriculture and, hence, the human influence in their evolution as proposed recently [13].
Another aspect that blurs the lines between landraces and traditional varieties is the gene flow between them. With the availability of molecular markers and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) techniques, it is possible to trace the allele introgression from cultivated (all types) to wild plants and vice versa. Even if there were landraces exclusively product of natural selection and traditional varieties obtained by men selection, obviously, gene transfer could have also happened between them, especially taking into account that exchanging plant material is a common practise among farmers.
In any case, the main differences when compared to commercial varieties are that landraces and traditional varieties do not always have a traceable origin, they exhibit a great diversity and, precisely for that reason, most of their traits are less uniform within them and less stable through the descendants.
1.2 Importance and conservation of landraces and traditional varieties in germplasm banks worldwide
The great variability harboured by the landraces and traditional varieties is one of their most outstanding characteristics. Historically, all this richness had been preserved and used (a vicious circle of cause and effect) by the agriculturalists. That situation started to change when the erosion of the plant genetic resources became patent for scientists and breeders, not only in the case of landraces and traditional varieties, but also concerning the wild species. Since then, the germplasm banks have assumed a principal role in safeguarding this plant biodiversity [14]. The strategy has revealed itself so successful that, according to the World Information and Early Warning System (WIEWS) on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA), approximately 5.4 million accessions are being conserved in over 710 genebanks from 103 countries and 17 international/regional centres [15]. Landraces and traditional varieties represent the heart of the collections, what becomes obvious when the numbers of the different types of plant resources are consulted. As an example, in Genesys, which is a portal that supplies not only seeds, but also characterisation and evaluation data about PGRFA from germplasm banks around the world [16], landraces and traditional varieties account for the highest proportion of accessions (37%), followed by breeding and research material (27%), advanced and improved cultivars (19%), and finally, wild forms (17%) (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Relative amount of the different types of accessions attending to their biological status (excluding the “not specified” material) hold at Genesys [16], the online platform which harbour information about PGRFA conserved in genebanks worldwide.
The high genetic variability exhibited by landraces and traditional varieties obviously translates into characteristics that could be desirable in modern varieties, particularly those related to their nutritional value and content of health-promoting compounds, which is the subject under discussion in this chapter. In modern breeding programmes, flavour selection has prevailed over nutritional quality. That explains why, for instance, modern lettuce varieties have almost lost their ancestral bitterness. That is a direct consequence of the drastic decrease in the content of sesquiterpene lactones, which are not only responsible for the bitter taste but have also beneficial properties for the plant itself and for the animals that feed on it [17]. In other cases, the main objective has not been to eliminate flavours detrimental to the taste but to enhance the pleasant ones. This is the case for sweet corn. Its sugar content has been escalating over the last decades by the selection of varieties with an increasing polysaccharide content: sugar-enhanced varieties, supersweet or extrasweet varieties, high sugar varieties… [18]. The side effect has been the disappearance of non-sweet dark-grain primitive varieties rich in anthocyanins, which happen to be powerful antioxidants with an important role for health by preventing cardiovascular diseases and by presenting anti-cancer activity [19, 20]. The landraces and traditional varieties were shaped under very different criteria, what does not necessary implies that they are better, for instance, from a nutritional perspective, than any commercial variety, though they contribute to increase the agrodiversity and to enrich the diet. In this sense, the germplasm banks can act as gene reservoir to improve crops, allowing us to dive for valuable characteristics to obtain all types of plant material (coming from crosses between different traditional varieties, between traditional varieties and CWR, between traditional varieties and breeding material …), using both conventional and biotechnological tools.
2. Essential micronutrients
Essential micronutrients are nutrients that must be obtained in the diet as they cannot be synthesised by the human body. They are required in small quantities and usually consist of vitamins and minerals. Micronutrients play vital roles in human health, so their deficiencies can be devastating. These deficiencies, also known as hidden hunger, are mainly consequence of micronutrient low concentrations in the daily diet, resulting in malnutrition that is considered an important global problem of public health, especially in developing countries. In addition, the impact is more serious in women of reproductive age (especially pregnant women) and under-five children due to their higher micronutrient requirements. In fact, maternal and child malnutrition or micronutrient deficiencies affect approximately half of the world’s population [21]. Nevertheless, hidden hunger also affects developed countries due to low quality food or bad habits, like extreme diets to lose weight or alcohol and drug abuse.
Generally, fruits and vegetables are the sources of vitamins and minerals, but their concentrations in most plant foods are not sufficient to reach the daily dietary requirements, even if the recommended amounts are consumed [22]. Besides, micronutrient content usually depends on the plant genotype, among other factors like environmental conditions, time of harvest, etc. Cases in which landraces and traditional varieties of important crops exhibit higher contents of micronutrients than commercial and modern cultivars are described here. They actually could play a key role in human health by supplying an enhanced nutrition.
2.1 Organic micronutrients: vitamins
Vitamins are a diverse group of organic molecules that are essential in trace quantities for a proper metabolism of all living organisms and are mainly synthesised by plants and microorganisms. Vitamins can be classified into fat-soluble (A, D, E and K) or water-soluble (vitamin B-complex, C and H) compounds. Their main function is to act as cofactors for many enzymes and as natural antioxidants, both in plants and animals. In addition, some vitamins play specific roles, for example, in human vision (vitamin A) [23] or as hormones implied in calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in the blood stream (vitamin D) [24], and many of them are indispensable to prevent chronic diseases [19, 20].
Plants, mostly fruits and vegetables, are the main source of vitamins for humans. However, their concentration in the edible portions of most important crops is usually below the recommended daily intake, which entails important implications for global human health [24]. Interestingly, some landraces exceed these minimal requirements or, at least, they are richer than commercial cultivars in these micronutrients, especially for vitamins A, C and E.
2.1.1 Vitamin A
Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin group that includes retinol and its derivatives, like retinoic acid and retinal, among many others [25]. Besides, among the large group of compounds known as carotenoids, there are some that can act as precursors of vitamin A, known generically as provitamin A, such as α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene, the most abundant and nutritionally active within them all. The richest sources of vitamin A are from animal origin, whereas carotenoids are synthesised mainly by plants, but also by some fungi and microorganisms.
Carotenoids play important roles in plant metabolism: acting as pigments in different tissues, mediating plant–animal interaction for pollination or seed dispersal, participating in cell photoprotection against photooxidative damage and heat stress, and protecting membranes from lipid peroxidation thanks to their antioxidant activity [26].
In humans, provitamin A is involved in vision, immune responses, cellular growth, development and reproduction [23]. Vitamin A deficiency is one of the micronutrient deficiencies with more devastating consequences for health. It is the main cause of preventable blindness in children and pregnant women, especially in low-income countries, and raises the risk of suffering several diseases and of dying as a result of severe infections. Between 250,000 and 500,000 vitamin A deficient children become blind every year, half of them dying 12 months later [27]. Therefore, it is a question of the utmost importance to know what plant-based foods contain high levels of provitamin A.
The β-carotene content was measured in two Spanish landraces of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and in the commercial variety ‘Moneymaker’ [28]. A higher concentration of this carotenoid was found in green fruits of the two landraces when compared to ‘Moneymaker’, whereas in ripe fruits, only the landrace Negro Yeste had a higher amount, even more than double. Also in comparison with the commercial variety ‘Moneymaker’, three tomato landraces, two from Italy and one from Guatemala, showed a significantly higher β-carotene content [29]. In other study carried out in melon (Cucumis melo L.), landraces of different origins exhibited the highest levels of β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene compared with commercial melons [30]. In an analysis of the β-carotene content of mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilzeck), the landrace VI000323 B-G happened to have grains significantly richer than two improved mungbean lines at their maturity stage [31]. Though modern wheat (Triticum spp.) varieties were not analysed, old varieties (from the 1900–1960 breeding period) were included as reference, and the average values obtained for β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin were significantly higher in the wheat landraces than in the old cultivars [32]. Also in landraces of pepino (Solanum muricatum Ait.) from the Andean region [33] and in the landrace G-4615 of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) from Solomon Islands [34], higher contents of β-carotene than in improved varieties have been obtained.
2.1.2 Vitamin C
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that comprises ascorbic acid (AA), the main biologically active form, and its oxidation product, dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), easily convertible into AA in the human body [35]. In plants, vitamin C plays relevant roles in metabolic and defence processes, as it is an important antioxidant in the ascorbate-glutathione pathway, it protects enzymes with prosthetic metal ions, it is a cofactor for many enzymes (including those involved in cell wall synthesis), it is involved in photosynthesis and respiration, etc. [36].
In humans, it is crucial in some metabolic processes as it participates in collagen formation and inorganic iron absorption, and contributes to a healthy state by reducing the cholesterol levels, preventing chronic diseases and enhancing the immune system by its antioxidant action [37]. The main consequence of vitamin C deficiency is scurvy and, although relatively few people suffer this deficiency, the benefits of the micronutrient are evident, so it is important to find vitamin C-rich plant food.
Some studies have reported a higher content in vitamin C in crop landraces with respect to commercial varieties. For example, 17 Spanish melon traditional varieties were evaluated and most of them had significantly higher values of AA when compared with 10 commercial accessions of reference, in some cases even doubling the AA values of the commercial variety within the same market class (Piel de Sapo, Yellow, Ananás…) [38]. Traditional varieties of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) from Aragón (Spain) have also been reported to have higher average contents in vitamin C than commercial varieties, especially AA content [39, 40]. Some Spanish landraces of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) had also a higher concentration of both, AA and DHAA, than commercial hybrids [41]. In other experiment, four to seven traditional varieties of tomato contained higher concentrations of vitamin C than the commercial variety ‘Baghera’, with significant differences for the traditional varieties CIDA-62 and BGW-004123. In addition, CIDA-62 fruits showed the highest antioxidant activity, whereas the lowest was observed in the commercial variety [42]. Other authors also reported 10 indeterminate tomato landraces that exhibited significantly higher AA contents than the commercial variety ‘Moneymaker’ [29]. In analyses of the AA content in accessions of garlic (Allium sativum L.) from Plugia region (Italy), the six landraces evaluated had a higher content than the commercial cultivar used as reference [43]. Higher contents of total vitamin C have also been obtained in grains of the mungbean landrace VI000323 B-G from Taiwan [31], in the Greek onion (Allium cepa L.) landrace Vatikiotiko [44] and in two rare landraces of Italian turnip (Brassica rapa L. subspecies rapa) [45] when compared with commercial and improved varieties.
2.1.3 Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin group made up of tocopherols and tocotrienols, a group of lipid-soluble compounds. Both tocopherols and tocotrienols can present four different methylated forms, α, β, γ and δ, and although all of them are antioxidants, α-tocopherol is the most abundant form and has the highest activity [46].
In plants, the main function of vitamin E is as antioxidant, quenching and scavenging singlet oxygen, controlling the extent of lipid peroxidation, preserving the integrity of the membranes, and protecting against photoinhibition and photooxidative stresses [36].
In humans, vitamin E also acts as a potent antioxidant and it is involved in multiple physiological processes, such as regulation of gene expression and cognitive performance. Besides, vitamin E plays a key role in maintaining a healthy state by controlling the inflammation, enhancing the immune function and preventing light-induced pathologies of the skin and eyes, and degenerative disorders like cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis and cancer. Its deficiency is common in developing countries and affects mainly children and the elderly, and can cause haemolytic anaemia in premature babies and neurological and ophthalmological disorders as well as myopathy in children. In developed countries it is rare and only appears in some stages of development, such as in premature babies, and specific conditions, like in digestive and genetic pathologies [24].
A total of 28 Korean accessions of soybean (Glycine max L.) were evaluated and the highest total tocopherol contents were observed in the seeds of the 7 landraces analysed, especially in HaNagari, in comparison with the modern cultivars developed by cross-breeding, in which paradoxically the content decreased gradually with the year of registration [47]. Furthermore, a strong negative correlation between tocopherol contents and lipid peroxidation was observed (what demonstrates the vitamin E role in oxidative stress tolerance), with the soybean landraces showing the lowest lipid peroxidation. In wheat, higher contents of tocopherols and tocotrienols were obtained for some landraces in comparison with modern cultivars when individual genotypes were analysed [48]. Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is also a good source of vitamin E and an Argentinian landrace has been reported to have the highest total tocopherol content in comparison with different commercial cultivars [49]. The total contents of tocopherols and tocotrienols, as well as total vitamin E, were higher in traditional red rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties than in three light brown new-improved varieties [50].
2.2 Mineral micronutrients
Mineral micronutrients are inorganic elements required in small quantities to play vital functions in both, plants and animals. The nutrient classifications are dynamic and, sometimes, even contradictory. That is because, on one hand, the limit between small and big quantities that determine the inclusion of an element in the micronutrient or macronutrient list can result arbitrary. On the other hand, new discoveries about the participation of some elements in important physiological mechanisms cause their transfer from the “nonessential” to the “essential” list. Magnesium (Mg) is a clear example of discrepancies on the first criteria as, depending on the author, is described as micronutrient or macronutrient as ranks in an intermediate position in terms of recommended daily allowances [51]. Regarding the second criteria, some minerals like boron (B) have been known to be essential for plant nutrition for a long time but it has not been until a few decades ago that its important effect on human nutrition was noted [52].
In plants, mineral micronutrients participate in different physiological processes of primary and secondary metabolism, like photosynthesis, electron transfer, activation of enzymes, cell defence, hormone perception, gene regulation… So, mineral deficiencies affect the plant life cycle seriously, causing even plant death in the severest cases [53].
In humans, more than 22 mineral elements (altogether micro- and macronutrients) are essential and they can be obtained with an appropriate diet [51]. Nevertheless, mineral deficiencies are very common, especially in developing countries, and their consequences, such as learning disabilities in children, increased morbidity and mortality, low productivity at work…, are detrimental for humans. Iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and iodine (I) are the mineral elements most frequently lacking in the diet and their deficiencies, together with vitamin A deficiency, are responsible for about 12% of the deaths among under-five children globally [21]. Fe is important for oxygen transport and haemoglobin formation, and its deficiency is the main cause of preventable iron-deficiency anaemia, poor cognitive development, and maternal and child deaths [54, 55]. Zn plays a central role in growth, development and in the normal functioning of the immune system, so its deficiency hampers growth, alters immunity and also causes diarrhoea among children [56, 57]. Moreover, both deficiencies are also associated with childhood stunting. I is a component of the thyroid hormones and a strong antioxidant. Its deficiency can also cause growth impairments and, in addition, thyroid enlargement (goitre), hypothyroidism, pregnancy loss, infant mortality and cognitive and neuron psychological impairments [58]. On the other hand, manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) or selenium (Se) deficiencies are not a global issue, but they are common in some populations of developing countries, specifically in parts of China, India and Africa [51].
Many landraces of horticultural crops are reported to present higher contents of minerals and oligoelements than commercial varieties. In a study carried out with seeds of Turkish lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.), the average values of all the micro-minerals quantified (Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) were higher in the landraces than in the commercial cultivars, being Kahmar1 the richest in Zn and Cu, Diykub in Fe, and Kahmar2 in Mn [22]. Also in Turkey, higher contents of Zn and Se have been observed in common bean (Phaseoulus vulgaris L.) landraces than in modern varieties, especially in the landrace LR05 [59]. The Greek onion landrace Vatikiotiko [44] and a Greek garlic landrace [60] were both richer in Zn, Mn and Fe than well-established onion cultivars and hybrids commercialised in Greece and a garlic commercial cultivar used as control, respectively. In addition, the mineral content of the onion landrace was even higher than the suggested by USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) for raw onions as a standard reference, especially for Fe. Results obtained in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) revealed that landraces from Kyrgyzstan presented higher average values for Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn compared with a breeding line [61]. In Andean landraces of pepino [33], in several eggplant landraces from Spain and Cuba [62], and in landraces of mungbean [31], higher contents in Fe and Zn than in commercial and modern varieties have also been reported.
For cereal crops there are also several studies in which landraces are reported to be richer in mineral micronutrients than commercial varieties. Wheat is one of the most important cereal crops worldwide and there are many studies on wheat landraces. The maximum contents in Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Se were observed in wheat landraces from Canary Islands in comparison with the commercial cultivar ‘Vitrón’ [63]. Other authors [64] also reported landraces and old cultivars of wheat with a higher average concentration of B, Cu, Fe, and Zn, and of Cu, Fe, Zn, and Mn, respectively, than modern cultivars. Similarly, the average content in Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, and strontium (Sr) in wheat grain was reported to be significantly higher in 12 Sicilian landraces than in 3 modern cultivars [65]. Other study found seven Afghan wheat landraces with higher content in Fe than reference lines in three different locations [66]. In the case of rice, two Indian landraces showed a higher content in Zn in brown and even polished (considered a poor source of micronutrients) grains than the commercial variety ‘BPT 5204’ (‘Samba Mahsuri’), very appreciated for its high yield and quality [67].
3. Health-promoting phytochemicals
Plant-based foods are rich in different phytochemicals with health-promoting properties for the human body, in spite of not being essential nutrients. Polyphenols and carotenoids are the most important ones among these plant phytochemicals. Unlike micronutrients, their deficiencies in humans are not devastating, but their health benefits are very significant.
3.1 Polyphenols
Phenolic compounds (monophenols and polyphenols) are one of the most abundant and widely distributed groups of chemicals in plants, with more than 8,000 structurally-different compounds currently identified [68]. Particularly, polyphenols are characterised by the presence of aromatic rings with one or more hydroxyl groups and, depending on the basic chemical structure, they are classified in at least 10 different types. However, there is a growing tendency to group them in 2 main categories: flavonoid (flavones, flavonols, flavanols, flavanones, isoflavones, and anthocyanins) and non-flavonoid (phenolic acids, stilbenes, lignans, xanthones, and tannins) compounds. In plants, polyphenols are involved, on one hand, in crucial biological processes, such as cell division, development, hormonal regulation, reproduction, photosynthesis, pigmentation and pollinator attraction, and, on the other hand, in protection mechanisms against oxidative damage due to radiation or biotic stress (pathogens), among other causes, thanks to their antioxidant properties [69].
Polyphenols seems to be the main contributor to the total antioxidant activities of fruits, with flavonoids being the most abundant in human diets. The health-promoting effects associated with phenolic compounds include the elimination of free radicals, as well as the prevention of chronic diseases, such as cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [68].
There are a number of studies in which different polyphenols are more abundant in horticultural crop landraces than in commercial cultivars. This could be because some polyphenols contribute to the bitterness and astringency of the food, what could have been negatively selected in modern breeding programmes. Tomato is one of the most important crops worldwide and it is very rich in polyphenols. Several Italian and Spanish landraces have been reported to have higher contents of total phenolic compounds than the commercial varieties ‘Brigade’ and ‘Moneymaker’, with significant higher levels of the flavonoids quercetin-3-rutinoside, kaempferol-O-rutinoside and kaempferol-O-glucoside in the case of the Spanish landraces [29, 70]. Nevertheless, polyphenols are abundant in many other crops. For example, different Spanish landraces of eggplant exhibited the highest average and individual contents of total phenolic compounds when compared with several commercial cultivars in two independent studies [41, 62]. Other study found higher levels of chlorogenic acid in three Italian landraces of carrots (Daucus carota L.) in comparison with a commercial cultivar used as reference [71]. Landraces of pepino from the Andean region also exhibited a higher average content of total phenolics than commercial cultivars [33]. Two rare Italian landraces of turnip showed similar concentration of total phenols between them, which was up to a 61% higher than in the commercial genotype also included in the study [45]. An Ecuadorian landrace of sweet potato showed the highest content in two particular anthocyanins (peonidin and cyaniding glucosides) when compared with several improved varieties [34]. Regarding phenolic acids and flavonoids, significant higher contents were observed in landraces of mungbean [9], garlic [43], and apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) [72], in comparison with improved lines and commercial varieties. Finally, in winery by-products from Majorcan landraces of grape (Vitis vinifera L.), the highest values of total anthocyanins, tannins, and total phenolic compounds were observed in the Escursac red landrace, with the commercial variety ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ used as reference [73].
In the case of cereals, also some landraces have been reported to be richer in polyphenols than commercial cultivars. In extracts of wheat bread flour, the landrace Biancola showed higher contents of flavonoids and total phenolic compounds than three modern cultivars, as well as higher reducing power and lipid peroxidation inhibition levels [74]. Similarly, the landrace Gentil Rosso had a much higher amount of total, free, and bound polyphenols than three modern and five old cultivars [75]. In extracts of wheat grains, the highest contents of the 13 phenolic compounds identified were found in landraces when compared with commercial cultivars, especially in Tumminia SG3, Tripolino, Scavuzza, and Urria [76]. In maize (Zea mays L.), several Mexican landraces have been reported to have the highest content of phenylpropanoids in comparison with two commercial genotypes, especially Sinaloa 35, which contained exceptionally high levels of diferulates [77]. Also in maize, the Italian landrace Rostato Rosso contained a higher concentration of anthocyanins than an inbred line and a hybrid assayed [78]. Finally, in rice, traditional red-grained varieties of Sri Lanka exhibited significantly stronger antioxidant activity and higher total phenolic content in both, bran and grains, than light brown-grained newly improved varieties, with proanthocyanidins and phenolic acids among the most abundant phenolic compounds identified [50].
3.2 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are the second most abundant natural pigments, behind only chlorophyll, with more than 750 different structures known until now. They are synthesised by photosynthetic organisms (bacteria, algae and plants) and by some non-photosynthetic bacteria and fungi. They can be classified in two main groups: carotenes, composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, such as α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene, among others; and xanthophylls, that are oxygenated hydrocarbon derivatives, like lutein, cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, etc. [79]. Carotenoids play key roles in several biological processes in plants. Apart from some of them being vitamin A precursors (as mentioned above), they are also precursors of the plant hormones abscisic acid (ABA) and strigolactones (SLs), they are one of the most important attractants to pollinators thanks to their pigmentation and fragrances (provided by volatile carotenoids), and they also participate in development, photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis and photoprotection processes [26].
The antioxidant potential of carotenoids is very important in human health due to their ability to reduce and, sometimes, prevent the development of various ROS (reactive oxygen species)-mediated disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and neurological and photosensitive pathologies [80]. As humans are not able to synthesise these compounds, it is interesting to find crops rich in carotenoids. Vitamin A precursors (α-carotene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin) have been described previously, so they are not dealt with here. Lycopene is the carotenoid responsible for tomato’s red colour and it has been reported to be more abundant in two Spanish traditional varieties of tomato than in the commercial variety ‘Baghera’ [42]. In addition, one of these traditional varieties showed the strongest antioxidant activity. In two other studies carried out in tomato, not only lycopene, but also lutein content were significantly higher in a Spanish landrace and in three Italian landraces, respectively, than in the commercial variety ‘Moneymaker’ [28, 29]. Higher levels of lutein were also found in three Italian landraces of carrot, especially in the Tiggiano Yellow-Purple landrace [71], and in the melon landrace Casca de Carvalho [30] in comparison with commercial varieties. Cereal grains are also rich in carotenoids, especially lutein and zeaxanthin [81]. In this sense, several landraces of wheat exhibited higher levels of both compounds than old cultivars used as reference [32]. Finally, higher contents of lutein were also found in kernels of some maize traditional varieties from Italy, especially in Storo, in comparison to the hybrid B73/MO17, used as control [82].
4. Applications
As we all know, malnutrition is a public health problem with global dimensions. In 2019, almost 690 million people, 8.9% of the world population, were undernourished, mostly in developing countries. Beside this, about 2 billion people in the world suffered moderate or severe food insecurity, i.e. they did not have regular access to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food that year [83]. Overweight is also a growing matter of concern. In addition, since Green Revolution, the main objective of crop improvement programmes has been yield increase, what has resulted in a nutrient decrease in foodstuffs, contributing to malnutrition. However, quality has started to receive higher priority and agriculture objectives are undergoing changes from yield gains to the production of nutrient-rich food crops in sufficient amounts.
A search for crop landraces and traditional varieties with an enhanced nutritional value could be an interesting approach to combat nutrient deficiencies because, as seeing above, some of them are richer in micronutrients and health-promoting phytochemicals. However, they do not always cover minimal nutrient requirements and they are usually adapted to local environmental conditions. Therefore, a more feasible measure could be developing nutritionally enhanced foods with an increased bioavailability of nutrients for the human population. These efforts are normally directed toward raising the levels of minerals, vitamins, amino acids, and antioxidant compounds, as well as improving fatty acid composition in the edible portion of crop plants [84]. Crops with a higher nutritional value can be obtained by agronomic practices, conventional plant breeding, and modern biotechnological techniques.
4.1 Fortification
Fortification through agronomic practices or traditional fortification consists of the physical addition of micronutrients to the plants to improve their nutritional quality. It is generally achieved by using mineral fertilisers to increase their content, bioavailability and/or transport from the soil to the edible portion of the plant. Plant growth-promoting soil microorganisms can also be used [85]. This approach is simple and fast but requires regular applications in every crop season, what can increases costs, and also needs supervision in order not to reach toxicity levels, both in the environment and for humans.
One example of this approach is the Se fortification through foliar application in different wheat genotypes [86]. The greater Se accumulations were obtained in the grains of the landrace Timilia and the obsolete variety ‘Cappelli’ when compared with modern varieties, with an increase of up to 35-fold in mineral grain concentration at the maximum Se application. In another study, fortification with I was carried out in the carrot landrace Carota di Polignano through foliar fertilisation in open field experiments and through both, foliar fertilisation and fertigation with nutrient solution, in greenhouse experiments [87]. In open field, the root content in I increased a 51% and a 194% with low and high levels of the fertiliser, respectively, when compared with untreated carrots, whereas in greenhouse, the I content increased a 9% and only with the fertigation.
4.2 Biofortification
Quite the opposite that the fortification, the biofortification consists of developing crops with a higher nutritional value per se, either through conventional breeding or through genetic engineering, without the need of external micronutrient addition. That means that the plants are able to synthesise greater amounts of the particular micronutrients.
Biofortification is a one-time investment and offers a long-term and cost-effective approach to prevent malnutrition: once a crop has been biofortified, no more costs, like adding fertilisers to the soil or fortificants to the processed food are needed. In addition, low-income countries could develop biofortified crops through traditional practices, so in theory, low cultivation and production costs are feasible [88]. Reducing the amount of fertilisers required to obtain a more nutritious crop has also unarguable environmental benefits. Nevertheless, biofortification is not the final solution but an additional tool to combat malnutrition.
4.2.1 Biofortification through conventional plant breeding
Biofortification through conventional plant breeding requires crosses between parent lines rich in nutrients and recipient lines that present desirable agronomic traits during several generations. This is a time-consuming method, though sustainable. However, this conventional biofortification relies on genetic variability, which is usually limited in commercial cultivar gene pools, especially of staple crops. Landraces and traditional varieties are an adequate alternative here, thanks to their wide genetic diversity. This approach has been applied to a wide variety of crops, especially since HarvestPlus Challenge Programme was launched in 2003 to develop biofortified staple food crops with enhanced essential micronutrients through plant conventional breeding [89].
Nevertheless, there is not a large number of studies carried out in landraces (Table 1). For example, in the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) programme, an improved line (IR68144-3B-2-2-3) with a high concentration of Fe in the grain was obtained through a cross between a high-yield variety (‘IR72’) and a traditional variety (Zawa Bonday) from India. This new variety was reported to have about 80% more Fe than the commercial variety ‘IR64’ [90]. Useful information have been collected about the Zn content of different mapping populations of rice including wild germplasm, landraces and varieties, as well as hybrids [91]. Using ‘IR64’ as one of the parents, the hybrid with the highest Zn content (26.9 mg/kg) resulted from a cross with the landrace Chittimuthyalu. A collection of 14 hybrids between different landraces of eggplant has also been characterised [62]. These hybrids exhibited a higher average content of phenolics, as well as Fe and Zn, than commercial varieties. Zn average concentration was also higher in the hybrids than in the landraces tested. A maize hybrid with a high carotenoid content has also been identified [92]. It is a single-cross hybrid developed from the landrace ITA0370005 and it is currently being used by an Italian beer brewer. The metabolite profile and the antioxidant activity of the tomato hybrid Torpedino di Fondi (TF), developed from the landrace San Marzano (SM), has been characterised in two ripening stages, pink and red, both considered ideal for fresh consumption. In comparison with SM, pink TF tomatoes exhibited the highest content of total polyphenols, tannins, and flavonoids besides the greatest antioxidant activity [93]. Within a breeding programme, the eggplant landrace Almagro, known to contain higher values of vitamin C and total phenolics than regular varieties, but also having higher prickle presence, was used as recurrent parent in a backcross, whereas three non-prickly eggplant accessions were used as donors of this desirable trait [94]. Finally, an improved pure line (H15) with the Almagro eggplant ideotype and reduced prickliness was developed.
Fortified and biofortified crops through different approaches by using landraces and traditional varieties.
4.2.2 Biofortification through modern biotechnological techniques
Biofortification can be tackled through the genetic transformation of crops to express desirable genes from a plant species, independently of their taxonomic status, or even from other type of organisms, in the plant of interest to increase their nutrient content and bioavailability. This approach overcomes the limitation of the availability of genetic variability, allows the transfer of several genes simultaneously, and makes possible to biofortify crops with particular nutrients that are not naturally produced by themselves. Biofortification through transgenesis implies large investment of time, resources and researching: it is necessary to identify and characterise gene functions previously, and then, use these genes to transform crops. However, once the crop has been biofortified, it becomes a cost-effective approach [96].
The cisgenesis is a very interesting alternative to the transgenesis. With this approach, only genetic material from either the same species, or close relatives that hybridise naturally with it, is introduced [97]. In this way, the pool of genes available is exactly the same than when classical breeding methods are used. Cisgenic crops are subject to the same regulation than transgenic crops, but the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) have concluded that cisgenics pose similar risks than plants obtained by conventional breeding [98]. Furthermore, the consumer’s acceptance of cisgenics is greater than of transgenics [99].
Furthermore, the application of modern biotechnological techniques to landraces also allows the development of crops with higher yield, as it has been achieved recently [95]. The CRISPR-Cas9 technique was applied to the African rice landrace Kabre, considered a valuable resource, obtaining mutants with significantly improved seed yield and low lodging by disrupting genes known to control seed size and/or yield (Table 1).
5. Conclusion
In spite of not having been widely used in fortification and biofortification, especially with modern biotechnological approaches, crop landraces and traditional varieties could be key to improve the nutritional quality of food crops, as they can provide the desired genetic variability without sexual incompatibility barriers to overcome. Hopefully, in the near future there could be less restrictive regulations about the use of these biotechnological tools in crop breeding.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the projects RTA2017-00093-00-00 from the National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) and LMP164_18 from the Government of Aragón; and by the Operational Programme FEDER Aragón 2014-2020 and the European Social Fund from the European Union [Grupo Consolidado A12-17R: “Grupo de investigación en fruticultura: caracterización, adaptación y mejora genética”]. We gratefully acknowledge the Vegetable Germplasm Bank of Zaragoza (BGHZ-CITA, Spain) for supplying the seeds used for this work. I. M.-L. was granted with a predoctoral contract for training doctors from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (MCIU) and the Spanish State Research Agency (AEI).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"biofortification, carotenoids, micronutrients, health-promoting compounds, minerals, plant breeding, phenolic compounds, vitamins",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74824.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74824.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74824",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 14th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 15th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Over the years, crops have been improved through breeding, mainly to increase production and, secondly, to introduce resistance to diseases and to achieve tolerance to abiotic stresses, these two latter by resorting to Crop Wild Relatives (CWR). This has resulted, in most cases, in homogeneous and nutritionally poor commercial varieties. Landraces and traditional varieties, barely taken into account, are key resources as they retain nutrients frequently “washed away” in the commercial varieties and also harbour a great genetic variability. They could represent a shortcut when compared to CWR in breeding, saving time and resources. The consumer’s growing interest in health and food quality has caused breeders to redirect their attention toward them. This chapter provides information about the content in compounds with health benefits, such as phenolics, minerals, vitamins, etc., of landraces and traditional varieties of the most important crops, which could help to obtain healthier and more nutritious products.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74824",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74824",signatures:"Inés Medina-Lozano and Aurora Díaz",book:{id:"10359",title:"Landraces - Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Landraces - Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",middleName:null,surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Landraces and traditional varieties: similarities, differences and comparison with wild species and commercial varieties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Importance and conservation of landraces and traditional varieties in germplasm banks worldwide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Essential micronutrients",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 Organic micronutrients: vitamins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.1 Vitamin A",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.2 Vitamin C",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.3 Vitamin E",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Mineral micronutrients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Health-promoting phytochemicals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1 Polyphenols",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Carotenoids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1 Fortification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2 Biofortification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.2 Biofortification through modern biotechnological techniques",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zeven, A.C. Landraces: A review of definitions and classifications. Euphytica. 1998;104:127-139. DOI: 10.1023/A:1018683119237'},{id:"B2",body:'Mansholt, U.J. Van Pesch Plantenteelt, beknopte handleiding tot de kennis van den Nederlandschen landbouw. In Plantenteelt; 3rd ed. Zwolle; 1909. 228 p'},{id:"B3",body:'von Rümker, K. Die systematische Einteilung und Benennung der Getreidesorten für praktische Zwecke. Jahrb. der Dtsch. landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. 1908;23:137-167'},{id:"B4",body:'Fruwirth, C.; Roemer, T. 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Department of Horticulture, Agrifood Research and Technology Centre of Aragon (CITA), Spain
AgriFood Institute of Aragon – IA2 (CITA-University of Zaragoza), Spain
Department of Horticulture, Agrifood Research and Technology Centre of Aragon (CITA), Spain
AgriFood Institute of Aragon – IA2 (CITA-University of Zaragoza), Spain
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