Classification of antibody mediated rejection according to Banff 2017 [16].
\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-544-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. 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During her research career obtained several grants is highly international competitive calls, including the MARS award for young scientists funded by The Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",middleName:"Marta",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320124/images/system/320124.jpg",biography:"Ana Marta Gonçalves obtained a Ph.D. in Biology with a specialization in Ecology from the University of Coimbra, Portugal, in collaboration with Ghent University, Belgium, in 2011. Currently, she is an auxiliary researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal, where she is also a member of the Directive Board. 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According to current evidence, B cell and plasma cell activation results in the generation of donor-specific antibodies (DSAs), which bind to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) or non-HLA molecules expressed on endothelial cells within the renal allograft [3].
\nABMR often represents a pathological spectrum that co-exists with T-cell-mediated rejection [3]. Active (acute) ABMR is characterized by serological evidence of DSA, peritubular capillaritis, glomerulitis, cellular necrosis, thrombotic microangiopathy, and a relatively rapid decline in allograft function. The response to currently available therapies is often favorable. Chronic ABMR, on the other hand, is characterized by transplant glomerulopathy, a distinct pathophysiological process resulting from a repetitive pattern of thrombotic events and inflammatory changes that lead to endothelial cell injury and allograft matrix remodeling. It usually results in a slow and progressive decline in renal function, unlikely to be reversed by current therapeutic strategies [3, 4].
\nIn the 1960 Kissmeyer et al. [5] were the first to observe the deleterious impact of allo-antibodies in kidney grafts. Since then great advances have occurred in solid organ transplantation. Nowadays, it is believed that immunologic reactions associated with ABMR can be triggered by circulating antibodies against donor HLA, non-HLA or ABO antigens, i.e. donor specific antibodies (DSAs) [6].
\nDSAs are most commonly directed against human leukocyte antigen (HLA)/major-histocompatibility-complex (MHC) class I and II antigens [7]. HLA class I antigens are expressed on all nucleated cells, whereas HLA class II antigens are restricted to antigen-presenting cells (B lymphocytes, dendritic cells) and endothelial cells [8]. In addition to DSAs existing prior to transplant due to recipient sensitization (pregnancy, blood transfusions, and previous transplantation), it has been realized that they can emerge at any time after transplant, thus mediating allograft injury [9, 10]. These
However, the antibodies can also be directed against other donor specific antigens such as MHC-class I-related chain A (MICA) antigens, MHC-class I-related chain B (MICB) antigens, platelet-specific antigens, molecules of the renin-angiotensin pathway, and polymorphisms involving chemokines and their receptors [11, 12, 13]. MICA antigens are expressed on endothelial cells, dendritic cells, fibroblasts, epithelial cells, and many tumors, but not on peripheral-blood lymphocytes [12].
\nThe major mechanism involved in antibody-mediated kidney injury is activation of the classical complement pathway by the binding of DSA to HLA and subsequent binding of the C1 complex, which ultimately leads to formation of the membrane attack complex (C5b-C9) (Figure 1) [14, 15].
\nActivation of classical complement pathway in ABMR in renal transplant recipients. Following binding of DSA to the vascular endothelium of kidney allograft, the C1 complex activates the serine esterases C1s and C1r, resulting in the cleavage of C4, deposition of C4d, and the assembly of the classical pathway C3 convertase. C3 convertase cleaves C3 into C3a, a potent pro-inflammatory mediator, and C3b, which propagates the complement cascade and leads to the formation of the pro-inflammatory mediator C5a and the membrane attack complex (C5b-C9). For more details, see Stegall et al. [
This leads to activation of polymorphonuclear inflammatory cells, NK cell and monocyte recruitment and inflammation, as well as activation of the coagulation cascade, which in turn leads to widespread microvascular injury evident as peritubular capillaritis, glomerulitis and microvascular thrombosis. B-cell responses against MHC antigens are T-cell dependent and require the involvement of antigen-presenting cells and costimulatory molecules such as CD40 ligand or soluble interleukins. These responses take 2–3 weeks to develop and lead to immunologic memory, allowing a more efficient antibody response upon repeat stimulation. Eventually transplant glomerulopathy develops (chronic phase) due to recurrent injury and repair with glomerular basement membrane remodeling, mesangial matrix expansion, capillary obliteration, foot process effacement [15]. Microcirculation remodeling at the level of peritubular capillaries progresses to interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy causing allograft failure.
\nBy light microscopy, active antibody mediated rejection is characterized by 3 types of tissue injury: acute tubular injury, microcirculation inflammation with neutrophils and mononuclear cells in glomeruli and peritubular capillaries, and fibrinoid necrosis of arteries (Figure 2) [14].
\nFeatures of active antibody mediated rejection: Acute tubular injury [(A) hematoxylin-eosin stain (HE), 200×], microcirculation inflammation with neutrophils and mononuclear cells in glomeruli-glomerulitis [(B) HE, 400×] and peritubular capillaries-peritubular capillaritis [(C) HE, 200×], and fibrinoid necrosis of artery [(D) HE, 200×].
Acute tubular injury includes loss of brush borders, thinning of tubular epithelial cells cytoplasm, shedding of tubular epithelium, and focal loss of nuclei (Figure 3). Focal necrosis of tubules can be found in minority of cases. In addition to oedema without significant interstitial infiltrate, proximal tubules express HLA-DR (Figure 4). Microcirculation inflammation with neutrophils and mononuclear cells in glomeruli and peritubular capillaries appears as glomerulitis and peritubular capillaritis. Glomerular capillaries are dilated and filled with swollen endothelial cells and inflammatory cells (Figure 5). In severe cases, glomerular capillary thrombosis can be detected (Figure 6). In glomerular injury due to ABMR usually predominates macrophages which express CD68 and neutrophils.
\nAcute tubular injury/necrosis accompanied by interstitial edema in active antibody mediated rejection [(A) periodic-acid Schiff (PAS), 100×]. Acute tubular injury/necrosis and glomerular capillary necrosis [(B) HE, 100×].
Diffuse HLA-DR positivity in proximal tubules in active antibody mediated rejection (immunohistochemistry, HLA-DR, 100×).
Focal glomerulitis in active antibody mediated rejection-Banff score g3. Dilated glomerular capillaries are filled with swollen endothelial cells and inflammatory cells (PAS, 200×).
Glomerular capillary thrombosis [(A) HE, 400×)] and fibrinoid necrosis of hilar arteriole [(B) trichrome stain, 200×)] in severe active antibody mediated rejection.
Cortical peritubular capillaries are dilated and filled with numerous inflammatory cells and sometimes focal interstitial hemorrhages are found (Figure 7). Presence of neutrophils in dilated peritubular capillaries may be associated with class I DSA and hyperacute rejection. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence revealed diffuse linear positivity of C4d along peritubular capillaries in the cortex and medulla (Figure 8). Dilated vascular spaces in the area between cortex and medulla should not be assessed as peritubular capillaritis, since those vascular spaces represent increased turnover between cortex and medulla not related to rejection. Interstitial oedema and hemorrhage may be prominent. B cells can be found in aggregates, and plasma cells can be detected, but interstitial infiltrate does not fulfill criteria for T-cell mediated rejection.
\nDiffuse peritubular capillaritis in active antibody mediated rejection-Banff score ptc3 [(A and B) HE and immunohistochemistry, C4d, 200×)]. Neutrophils in peritubular capillaries in severe active antibody mediated rejection [(C) HE, 400×].
Diffuse C4d positivity in active antibody mediated rejection (Banff score C4d 3) by immunofluorescence [(A) 200×] and immunohistochemistry [(B) 200×].
In about 25% of cases with ABMR, small interlobular arteries show myocyte necrosis, fragmentation of elastica, and accumulation of eosinophilic material termed fibrinoid necrosis (Figure 9). There is usually only scant mononuclear infiltrate in the intima and adventitia. Some arteries may show transmural arterial inflammation without fibrinoid necrosis reminiscent of T-cell mediated vascular rejection (Figure 10). Whether the cellular component of transplant endarteritis in ABMR is different from that due to T-cell mediated rejection is not apparent. Arterial thrombosis is uncommon. However, acute ABMR may also manifest as TMA affecting glomerular and vascular endothelium (Figure 11). TMA is characterized by bloodless glomeruli with swollen endothelium and mucoid intimal thickening and trapped red cells in the vessel walls.
\nFibrinoid necrosis in small interlobular artery-Banff score v3 in severe active antibody mediated rejection (arrow). Glomerular capillary thrombosis and acute tubular necrosis are also seen (HE, 200×).
Chronic active vascular rejection with intimal endarteritis and intimal fibrosis. HE, 200×.
Acute vascular thrombotic microangiopathy in active antibody mediated rejection [(A) HE, 200×]. Chronic glomerular and vascular thrombotic microangiopathy in chronic active antibody mediated rejection [(B) Weigert stain (W), 100×].
Over time, active ABMR usually transform to chronic ABMR with different levels of activity. Arterial lesions progress to intimal fibrosis with neomedia formation and progressive narrowing of vascular lumen (Figure 12) leading to chronic transplant changes—widespread interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. In addition, chronic microvasculature changes appeared, including glomerular and peritubular capillaries. At the beginning, chronic glomerular lesions are visible only by EM as neolamina in glomerular capillary loops (Figure 13), which may progress to double contour formation and mesangial interposition seen by light microscopy (Figure 14). Peritubular capillaries electron micrograph revealed basement membrane multilamelation consistent with chronic ABMR (Figure 15) [14].
\nChronic burn out vascular rejection without intimal infiltrate in arcuate artery-Banff score cv3 [(A) HE, 100×]. Intimal fibrosis due to chronic rejection is superimposed on fibroelastic lamelation associated with arterial hypertension [(B) W, 100×]. Artery with elastic duplication due to arterial hypertension without rejection [(C) W, 100×].
Swollen endothelial cells in early glomerular thrombotic microangiopathy due to severe active antibody mediated rejection. Glomerular basement membrane appears normal (A). Subendothelial widening with oedema and neolamina formation in early chronic active antibody mediated rejection seen only by electron microscopy-Banff score cg1a [(B), all electron micrographs].
Double contour formation in glomerulus with chronic glomerulitis in chronic active antibody mediated rejection-Banff score cg3 [(A) Jones, 400×] and normal glomerulus [(B) Jones, 400×]. Glomerulitis in chronic active antibody mediated rejection (Banff score g3, cg3) with diffuse double contour formation (glomerular capillaries with double contours are filled with swollen endothelial cells and inflammatory cells, among them macrophages predominate (CD68 and PAS, ×400).
Chronic active antibody mediated rejection: mild basement membrane multilamelation with swollen endothelium (A) and significant basement membrane multilamelation (B, D). Normal peritubular capillary (C, all electron micrographs).
According to Banff 2017 two types of ABMR were proposed-active ABMR (previously referred as acute ABMR) and chronic active ABMR [16].
\nThe 2017 Banff meeting report noted the confusion generated by reports on acute and chronic ABMR, and emphasized the importance of correctly defining ABMR, including additional characteristics, like the nature of the antibody; the significance of C4d; the severity of microcapillary injury, gene transcripts, molecular and cellular signatures. As the previously used term acute ABMR was found to be misleading by the majority of the working group, the term active was elected to simply refer to lesions of ABMR with microvascular injury and evidence of current or recent antibody interaction with graft endothelium but without morphologic evidence of chronic vascular injury (transplant glomerulopathy, peritubular capillary basement membrane multilayering, new-onset arterial intimal fibrosis).
\nTwo principal phenotypes defined in association of previously termed acute ABMR((1) ABMR phenotype 1 in the presensitized patient, occurring early posttransplant; and (2) ABMR phenotype 2, which develops from the emergence of
In accordance with major advances in molecular biology and gene rearrangement, the diagnosis of ABMR is now dependent on histologic, serologic and transcriptomics findings (see Table 1) [16]. For detailed scoring explanations of histological lesions for antibody mediated rejection according to Banff 2017, please see Table 2.
\nAccording to revised Banff 2017 classification of antibody-mediated rejection (ABMR) in renal allografts | \n
Active ABMR; all 3 criteria must be met for diagnosis \n
| \n
Chronic active ABMR; all 3 criteria must be met for diagnosis \n
| \n
C4d staining without evidence of rejection; all 4 features must be present for diagnosis \n
| \n
Classification of antibody mediated rejection according to Banff 2017 [16].
Banff scoring for antibody mediated rejection | \n|
---|---|
v—vascular inflammation: the most severely affected artery dictates the score; an asterisk is added to the v score if interstitial hemorrhage or infarct present | \nv0: no arteritis v1: intimal arteritis with <25% luminal area lost (minimum = 1 cell, 1 artery) v2: intimal arteritis with ≥25% of luminal area lost in 1+ arteries v3: transmural arteritis or fibrinoid necrosis (medial smooth muscle necrosis) with lymphocyte infiltrate in vessels | \n
g—glomerulitis: percentage of glomerular capillaries partially or completely occluded by inflammatory cells (polymorphonuclear leucocytes and mononuclear cells) and endothelial cell enlargement | \ng0: no glomerulitis g1: <25% of glomeruli involved (mostly segmental) g2: 25–75% of glomeruli involved (segmental to global) g3: >75% of glomeruli involved (mostly global) | \n
ptc—peritubular capillaritis: the most severely affected peritubular capillary (PTC) dictates the score; an asterisk is added to the ptc score if neutrophils are lacking/only mononuclear cells are present | \nptc0: <3 cells/PTC ptc1: 1+ inflammatory cells in >10% of cortical PTCs with 3–4 cells in most severely involved PTC ptc2: 1+ inflammatory cells in >10% of cortical PTCs with 5–10 cells in most severely involved PTC ptc3: 1+ inflammatory cells in >10% of cortical PTCs with >10 cells in most severely involved PTC | \n
C4d—percentage of PTC (or vasa recta in the medulla) that has linear circumferential staining, scored in at least 5 high powered fields of cortex or medulla without scarring or infarct | \nC4d0: no staining of PTC and medullary vasa recta C4d1: <10% of PTC and medullary vasa recta C4d2: 10–50% of PTC and medullary vasa recta C4d3: >50% of PTC and medullary vasa recta | \n
cg—transplant glomerulopathy: percentage of glomerular capillary loops with duplication of glomerular basement membrane in most affected nonsclerotic glomerulus | \ncg0: none by light microscopy (LM) and electron microscopy cg1a: only by electron microscopy in 3 glomerular capillaries cg1b: ≤25% by LM (1+ glomerular capillaries with glomerular basement membrane double contours by LM) cg2: 26–50% by LM cg3: >50% by LM | \n
cv—transplant arteriopathy: arterial fibrointimal thickening; percentage of narrowing of lumen of most severely affected artery | \ncv0: none cv1: ≤25% of the luminal area cv2: 26–50% of the luminal area cv3: >50% of the luminal area | \n
Detailed scoring explanations of histological lesions for antibody mediated rejection according to Banff 2017 [16].
C4d is a split product of C4 activation and has no known biological action. It may be activated by the classical and lectin complement pathways. C4d staining is a specific marker of ABMR when the stain is deposited in the capillaries of kidney allograft and is now considered an alternative for DSA criterion in cases where DSA testing is not available or potentially false negative [17, 18, 19]. However, C4d staining has been shown to have significant limitations for diagnosis of ABMR due to low sensitivity, with negative results in up to 50% of patients with antibody-mediated rejection [4, 20]. Furthermore, C4d positivity has been reported in the absence of other evidence of graft injury as its expression depends on the density of PTCs and also may not be associated with measurable DSA in the case of non-HLA antibodies or antibodies absorbed by the allograft [21]. In studies comparing the risk of allograft loss among patients with consistently C4d negative ABMR vs. patients with C4d positive ABMR at a single center, both phenotypes were associated with statistically comparable increased graft loss compared with ABMR free matched controls. No clinical characteristics that reliably differentiated C4d negative and C4d positive ABMR were identified [22].
\nIn patients with negative C4d staining, the diagnosis of ABMR may be confirmed on the basis of increased expression of gene transcripts or classifiers in the biopsy tissue that are strongly associated with ABMR [16].
\nMolecular markers associated with endothelial injury were first introduced into criteria of the ABMR classification in Banff 2013 [23]. Since that time, combinations of transcripts have been introduced and ABMR specific sets of transcripts proposed by different authors [16]. Data from Loupy et al. [4] showed that adding the results of the ABMR classifier to histologic findings significantly improved their ability to diagnose ABMR, independently from C4d and DSA.
\nHowever, it should be noted that at this point no specific Banff recommendations are given regarding which molecular transcript sets should be tested to assess gene expression. This includes the decision whether to perform molecular studies on freshly sampled tissue or FFPE. An advanced molecular approach using machine learning and classifiers has been done in recent years and has provided valuable information for improvement of rejection assessment [24]. The Alberta Transplant Applied Genomics Center team at the University of Alberta developed a “molecular microscope” approach to kidney transplant biopsies and has provided a system for distinguishing ABMR from other allograft pathologies by the expression of activated ENDATs. They proposed new rules to integrate molecular tests and histology into a precise diagnostic system that can reduce errors, ambiguity, and inter-pathologist disagreement [25].
\nIn clinical setting ABMR can present as hyperacute (occurring within minutes after the vascular anastomosis), acute (occurring days to weeks after transplantation), late acute (occurring 3 months after transplantation), or chronic (occurring months to years after transplantation) [26, 27, 28].
\nAcute ABMR almost always presents with an increase in serum creatinine, which is sometimes severe and accompanied with oligo-/anuria necessitating dialysis treatment. It is usually seen during the first few weeks after transplantation but can occur later, in which case it is usually associated with decreased immunosuppression or noncompliance [29]. The incidence varies with the amount of DSA present at the time of transplantation. In patients with high levels of DSA (i.e. sufficient to cause strongly positive crossmatch) the incidence may be as high as 40% in the first month after transplantation, while the incidence is less than 10% in patients with a negative crossmatch and DSA demonstrated only by solid phase assay [30, 31] According to Banff 2017 scoring system [16], histopathology in these patients is related to characteristics of
The diagnosis of chronic humoral rejection is usually, but not always, made in patients who are more than 6 months post transplantation [32]. The rise in serum creatinine is usually gradual and often accompanied by stepwise increase of proteinuria. Patients with chronic rejection are often hypertensive, sometimes nephrotic range proteinuria or even nephrotic syndrome can be observed. However, patients often have no clinical symptoms associated with chronic rejection, unless renal function is decreased enough that the patient has signs and symptoms of uremia. Except for proteinuria, urinalysis is usually unremarkable in chronic rejection. Contrary, in rare instances progression can be fairly rapid, especially with ongoing active lesions (chronic active ABMR), resulting in graft failure within months [33]. Chronic allograft injury is characteristically seen as transplant glomerulopathy on kidney biopsies. In addition to chronic features, signs of activity are often present, with prominent mononuclear cells in capillary loops with endothelial swelling (transplant glomerulitis) [34].
\nA certain amount of kidney transplant recipients present with stable kidney graft function, but histological evidence of smoldering active ABMR on protocol biopsies [35]. These patients often have low-level DSAs (de novo or persistent/recurrent). Evidence suggests that untreated subclinical ABMR is an important predictor of poor renal allograft outcomes [36]. However, the lack of long-term follow-up data has prevented the development of strong guidelines for effective therapeutic interventions.
\nNowadays, hyperacute rejection is a rare event in kidney transplantation affecting mostly presensitized patients (previous transplantation, blood transfusions, or pregnancy) [37]. It occurs due to preformed DSA present in high titers and presents as graft failure that can occur within minutes (but sometimes may be delayed for a few days) after transplantation [38]. The occurrence of this type of rejection is extremely rare, as preformed antibodies can usually be excluded by CDC crossmatch. However, there is growing evidence that there may exist hyperacute rejections mediated by endothelial, non-HLA antibodies that cannot be detected in standard T and B lymphocyte crossmatch techniques [39].
\nTreatment for ABMR is not standardized, and there is still no evidence-based treatment guidelines. A recent therapy of ABMR in renal allografts is systematically reviewed by Wan et al. [2]. In addition to plasma exchange and intravenous immunoglobulin, which still present a backbone of treatment, a number of other therapies have been tried in small studies without consistent benefit, including anti-CD20, proteasome inhibitors, complement inhibitors, anti-interleukin-6 receptor blockers, and immunoglobulin G-degrading enzyme of
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is used for treatment of ABMR, and it is used as an element of desensitizing protocols for ABO- and HLA-incompatible renal transplantation [40].
\nIVIG is prepared by human plasma from approximately 50,000–100,000 of healthy donors, composed of 90% intact IgG, a few dimers, Fabs (fragment antigen-binding) and traces of IgM and IgA [41].
\nThere are many postulated immunomodulatory mechanisms of IVIG. Investigations in the early 1990s suggested the therapeutic potential of IVIG was due primarily to anti-idiotypic interactions with HLA antibodies [42]. Apart from its effects on B cells and phagocytes via Fc-gamma receptors, IVIG also functions as a scavenger of activated complement [43, 44].
\nTwo general treatment protocols have been developed utilizing IVIG. The first is the use of high dose IVIG (2 g/kg) alone and the second is to combine lower dose IVIG with other modalities, usually plasmapheresis [45]. After the first successful report of Jordan et al. in 1998 [46] who treated acute ABMR in kidney and heart allografts by high-dose IVIG and methylprednisolone, there were more studies with usage of IVIG alone or in combination with plasmapheresis to show effectiveness in treatment of ABMR [47, 48].
\nAdditional benefit of IVIG is its ability to replenish gamma globulin lost during therapeutic apheresis, decreasing infection risk [49].
\nBoth immunoabsorption (IA) and plasmapheresis (PP) are known to lower HLA-specific antibody levels in a variety of clinical settings [49]. Despite the substantial reductions in the titer of donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies achieved by IA and PP, the graft survival in these patients is significantly reduced, due to rebound synthesis of de novo alloantibodies.
\nPP is the most frequent modality applied and generally involves 1.0–1.5 volume exchange, using albumin as replacement. It is usually performed daily or every other day for an average of six sessions (up to 14 days). The initial treatment is typically a one-and-one-half-volume exchange with albumin, and subsequent treatments are a one-volume exchange with albumin. To avoid fresh frozen plasma administration, most clinicians prefer an every-other-day PP schedule as albumin alone can often be administered for replacement with interval recovery of the prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and fibrinogen to acceptable levels. This avoids the risk of antigen sensitization. IA is a more selective modality that uses adsorbent membranes for antibody elimination [49, 50].
\nFew studies have been published where PP modalities are the sole or primary form of antibody reducing therapy [51, 52, 53, 54]. However, PP alone has limited success in the treatment of ABMR, and this finding has led to the addition of therapies to prevent immunoglobulin resynthesis and B-cell proliferation. Therefore, PP is often used in combination with other antibody blocking (IVIG), suppression (rituximab, mycophenolate, calcineurin inhibitors), or depleting (bortezomib) modalities [2].
\nRituximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody directed against CD20, which is found on immature and mature B cells but not on plasma cells. Following treatment with rituximab, B cells undergo apoptosis and lysis [55]. Most adverse events are first infusion effects of generally mild severity. Additionally, an increased incidence of infections has been described including cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy [56], late onset Pneumocystis pneumonia [57] and fatal pneumococcus sepsis [58].
\nIn renal transplantation rituximab is used for desensitization of highly sensitized patients or awaiting ABO-incompatible renal transplantation [59].
\nIn case of ABMR, rituximab is used for the treatment of ABMR as a solo agent adjuncted to standard of care therapy [60, 61] or in some instances combined with bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor causing apoptosis of mature plasma cells [62]. Treatment of ABMR with rituximab or bortezomib or combination in addition to standard therapy was in most instances partially effective on the short term, whereas treatment did not result in sufficient long-term graft survival [59, 60, 61, 62].
\nThe potential role of the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab and the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib in decreasing the production of donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies and improving allograft survival in patients with antibody-mediated rejection was recently evaluated in two randomized, controlled trials RITUX ERAH [63] and BORTEJECT [64], but neither trial showed clinical benefits.
\nActivation of the complement cascade in acute ABMR rejection has been identified as a major pathophysiological mechanism leading to allograft damage and dysfunction [65]. As a consequence, it has been proposed that specific inhibition of the recipient’s complement system of limited duration may be useful to prevent acute ABMR.
\nThe anti-C5 monoclonal antibody eculizumab, which inhibits terminal complement activation, was reported to decrease the incidence of early antibody-mediated rejection in HLA-sensitized renal-transplant recipients [66], although it failed to prevent chronic antibody-mediated rejection in recipients with persistently high levels of donor-specific anti-HLA antibodies [67]. It was also shown that preemptively usage of eculizumab following positive B-cell flow cytometric crossmatch transplant resulted in a reduced incidence of early ABMR from 41.0% in historical controls to 7.7% in eculizumab-treated patients [68].
\nBinding of anti-HLA DSAs to complement fraction C1q, the first component in the activation of the complement cascade, has been associated with poor graft outcomes and severe phenotypes of ABMR [69]. These findings have provided the rationale for the use of proximal complement inhibition using C1 inhibitors (C1 INHs) in the treatment of ABMR. C1-INH is a serine protease inhibitor that inactivates both C1r and C1s and has multiple effects. Following antibody/immune complex activation of C1qrs, C1-INH dissociates C1r and C1s from the activated C1 macromolecule. This prevents proteolytic activation of C4 and C2 that form C3 convertase, which is important in the context of C4d deposition in AMR [70]. The use of a plasma-derived C1 INH in the treatment of active ABMR was evaluated in trial of 18 kidney transplant recipients with biopsy-proven, active ABMR [71], who were randomly assigned to receive C1 INH or placebo as adjunct therapy to standard-of-care treatment with PP, IVIG, and rituximab. Although there was no significant difference between the groups in posttreatment renal histopathology or graft survival on day 20, a trend toward sustained improvement in graft function at day 90 was observed in the C1 INH group.
\nSimilar findings were reported in six kidney transplant recipients with active ABMR that were unresponsive to treatment with PP, IVIG, and rituximab [72]. All patients received the C1 INH Berinert (20 units/kg on days 1, 2, and 3 and then twice weekly) and high-dose IVIG (2 g/kg once per month) for 6 months. At 6 months, all patients showed an improvement in eGFR compared with baseline at the time of inclusion in the study. Renal allograft biopsies at 6 months revealed no significant change in histologic features; however, C4d deposition was observed in only one of six patients compared with five of six patients at baseline. In addition, of the six patients who were positive for a C1q-binding circulating DSA at the start of the study, only one had a positive DSA at 6 months.
\nThe potential of proinflammatory cytokine blockade in kidney-transplant recipients with chronic ABMR has recently been highlighted [73]. Tocilizumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against the interleukin IL-6 receptor that has been used for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Recently, tocilizumab was also evaluated as rescue therapy in 36 kidney transplant patients with chronic ABMR who failed standard-of-care treatment with IVIG and rituximab, with or without plasma exchange [74]. Tocilizumab was administered as 8 mg/kg monthly for 6 to 25 months. Significant reductions in DSAs and stabilization of renal allograft function were observed at 2 years. No significant adverse events or severe adverse events were reported.
\nIgG-degrading enzyme of
A desensitization protocol may be required to avoid ABMR in patients that are highly sensitized, have positive crossmatch or ABO incompatibility, however current protocols are not always effective to prevent ABMR and in some cases fail to convert subjects to a negative crossmatch before transplantation. Studies have shown that splenectomy can be successfully performed alone or in association with other treatments like bortezomib, rituximab or eculizumab to overcome severe ABMR, resistant to standard treatment [78, 79, 80, 81, 82].
\nIn an effort to spare recipients the morbidity of a splenectomy, splenic irradiation in addition to other therapy may provide an effective intervention for rescuing and preserving allograft function [81].
\nAntibody-mediated rejection is an important cause of acute and chronic graft failure. Diagnosis of acute and chronic ABMR is based on typical histological hallmarks, positive C4d in peritubular capillaries and presence of donor-specific antibodies (DSA). Among standard of care treatment based on PP and IVIG, new treatment options have become available: B cell depletion (rituximab), plasma cell depletion (bortezomib), complement activation inhibition (c1 and c5 inhibitors), recently also IL-6 inhibitors and ideS. However, the high cost of novel medications and a lack of prospective studies evaluating their efficacy and safety limit the routine use of these agents in the treatment of ABMR in kidney transplant recipients.
\nAuthors declare no conflicts of interest.
The first entrepreneurship course was introduced as early as in the 1940s at Harvard University. In the 1970s, entrepreneurship education began to gain more attention and many business schools started to offer one or more courses in small business or entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education has developed very fast across the world since the 1990s until now [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Although entrepreneurship education growing fast, technology-based entrepreneurship education for engineering students was rather later and fewer [8, 9]. In a survey of 160 academic institutions, Streeter et al. [10] found that entrepreneurship-related courses have been offered in nearly 90% of the bachelor programs in business schools while less than 40% engineering bachelor programs contain entrepreneurship courses. On research side, Bailetti [11] reviewed 93 articles on technology entrepreneurship, but none of these articles is related to technology-based entrepreneurship education (TEE).
It has been widely believed that the technology-based entrepreneurship has great potential to increase wealth and competitiveness at both national level [12, 13] and regional level [14]. Researchers believe that Technology Entrepreneurship Education (TEE) may raise students’ awareness about the entrepreneurial opportunities for technology and commercialization [15]. Starting a new company (entrepreneurship) or a new business in an existing company (intrapreneurship) is the final step to commercialize a new technology via providing values to the end users.
This paper will first use the 4W1H framework by Fayolle [16] to review previous TEE models and then summarize the basic factors and TEE model as well as its difference from market-driven entrepreneurship. The paper will then introduce the TIPE Model (Technology-Idea-Product-Enterprise) as a detailed example with a view to elaborate the 4W1H framework at the operational level. The PIPE model was implemented in a course titled Technological Innovation and Entrepreneurship for master students since 2001 in one department and now has expanded to five master programs in systems engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, health-care & bio-engineering and electronical engineering as an elective or core course.
In this section, the 4W1H framework by Fayolle [16] is used to systematically review eight previous models on TEE courses or programs in engineering schools. The 4W1H framework by Fayolle [16] contains five dimensions: i.e., “For whom” (the audience or students), “Why” (the objectives), “What” (the contents), “How” (the teaching methods) and “For which results” (the evaluation and assessment levels). Another dimension is added in this paper, i.e., “By who” (the offering schools/departments). This structure is very similar to other review papers on entrepreneurship courses or programs (e.g., [9, 17]). The structured review is illustrated in Table 1 and elaborated below.
Ref & country | For whom (Students) and by who (host) | Why (Objectives) | What (Contents) | How (Methods) | What result? (Assessment) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Markham et al. [15] | Engineering and management graduate students, by College of Engineering and Management, USA | Turn engineers into technology entrepreneurs by technology evaluation and commercialization (TEC) | Technology search, Product idea generation, potential analysis Commercialization strategy and business plan | Use technology startup as a pedagogical tool teach technology entrepreneurship in a 3-semester program. | Student can initiate their own technology companies after graduation or enter corporate venturing division |
Kingon, et al. [18] | Two engineering entrepreneurship minor programs, by both engineering and business schools USA | create awareness among engineering students of entrepreneurial opportunities, and the business dimension of product development, | Business models, Communication, Cross functional teams, and Entrepreneurial thinking | From experience-based teaching to process-based teaching approach | Creation associated with the development of the entrepreneurial opportunity and finally a business proposal, create, rather than a new venture creation. |
Collet and Wyatt [19] | A degree program for undergraduate students in biotechnology, by a Department of Biotechnology, Australia | Provide students with commercial imperatives and meet the demand of bio-industry for talents with skills in product development, business, IP, law and commercialization. | 32 subjects: 19 for bio technologies, 8 for entrepreneurship, innovation and management, 1 for IP and law and 4 for project in virtual student companies. | Student self-driven, team-based learning in a virtual company environment or company based internship projects. |
|
Boocock et al. [20] | Master students in a MBA program, based on the TEC Algorithm [15] | Understanding of academic knowledge about technology based product ideas development and application of business concepts to technologies Selection | Search & ideation, assessment & analysis, commercialization strategy | n/a | From a business proposal up to a few new businesses, |
Hartmann [21] | An elective course for master, PhD students and employees of a technical university, by Department of Innovation management and entrepreneurship, the Netherlands, | Connect technological research with education using patented technologies developed at the research faculties of a technical university | The technology and patent, the problems, the solutions based on the technology, the potential end users, the potential price and the alternatives in the market. | Seven four-hour sessions that combine lectures, participant-centred case studies, classroom exercises, real-life case studies, and trial presentations by interdisciplinary teams. | Cases of new technology startup |
Karim [22] | An entrepreneurship course for civil engineering students, by Department of Civil Engineering, Malaysia | To nurture the ability to venture development and leadership in energy related business, and engages in activities to enhance knowledge in their professional works. | New product development Idea generation Market research Feasibility of idea Finance Production Management Teamwork Business Marketing Management | Didactic (read/lecture) Skill building (case studies group discussions, presentations, problem solving, simulations, teamwork, projects) Discovery | Personal development, entrepreneurship and management knowledge, problem solving skills, decision making, presentation, risk taking) Career development. |
Kazakeviciute et al. [9] | Undergraduate students in science, health, engineering, design, information technologies etc. (By lecturers from business school and guest speakers) | Knowledge about entrepreneurship itself, the importance of skills, values to entrepreneurial mindset and entrepreneurial skills. | Individual, team-based and business-related topics and activities, while applying the lean business model as well as the fundamentals of technology entrepreneurship. | Theory and cases, interaction sessions and monitoring sessions. | The first is based on students’ evaluation of course delivery and content, the second on students’ evaluation of their progress. |
STVP [23] | STVP program for both undergraduate and postgraduate students, by An entrepreneurship center at the School of Engineering, USA | To learn about identifying market opportunities and assuming leadership roles in business. | A series of courses on creativity, innovation and entrepreneurial marketing, finance, strategy, and other management areas. | Conventional course, large public lecture series and intensive, year-long extracurricular programs such as the Mayfield Fellows Program | STVP produces a large and growing collection of online content and experiences for people around the world. |
The review of previous TEE models based on the 4W1H framework [16].
The reviewed models serve either undergraduate or postgraduate students or both (graduate students in US terms in some reference such as [15]). They range from a single course, a minor program or a multi-semester program. For those undergraduate entrepreneurship programs in engineering schools, a concern is how the credits from those entrepreneurship courses can be recognized in an engineering field. Lacking space and time for elective credits in engineering degree programs is a major and common barrier to entrepreneurship courses for engineering students Standish-Kuon, [8]. This is not a big problem in the business school since entrepreneurship courses are accepted as management or management related courses. For master level courses or programs, it is not very clear whether the TEE course is a credit bearing course in a master program or an extra curriculum course (e.g., [21]).
Markham et al. [15] believe that TEE may raise their awareness about the entrepreneurial opportunities to promote technology commercialization. There are basically two types of objectives among the reviewed programs/courses, namely, a) nurturing students’ generic entrepreneurial skills and enhance entrepreneurial awareness [18, 23], b) nurturing students’ entrepreneurial skills and enhance entrepreneurial awareness based on new technologies. Three courses claim their objectives are launching, managing, and growing technology-based businesses which can be regarded as TEE (e.g., [15, 21]). Therefore, not all entrepreneurship programs/courses for or by engineering schools are necessarily TEE. Some course or programs offered by engineering schools can be similar to those offered at the business school except the audiences are engineering students.
All entrepreneurship courses and programs offer pretty similar set of contents including creativity, innovation, opportunity identification and business plan. However, TEE courses and programs provide unique contents on technology search and identification, new product development and intellectual property etc., which normal EE courses may not need to cover. This is perhaps the major uniqueness of TEE in terms of the content.
Talking about the teaching methods, the business schools have traditionally used case study method but more new methods are being adopted such as action learning, project-based learning and team learning. Whether the entrepreneurship projects will be presented to real investors for investment depends on the relationship with industries and the support from the universities.
In relation to teaching approach to initiate the entrepreneurship project, EE in business schools is mostly based on the market-pull approach while TEE courses in engineering schools are technology-push approach [24, 25]. The “Turning Technology into Business” approach is a clear example of technology-push [21]. Business schools follows the following path: Market opportunity, customer need, a product idea and business plan while. In contrast, the TEE course follows the path from technology identification, business idea, product concept, and then business plan with a view to transferring the technologies and at the same time solve a problem.
The two different approach was even reported in the same university, for example, MIT [25]. The grand challenge project by the X Prize Lab at MIT takes a very obvious “market-pull” approach. Students identify a market need first via the empathy with customers and then think about how to solve it later. However, the Innovation Teams course at MIT takes a technology-push approach by which students develop commercialization strategies for MIT ready technologies.
Talking about the assessment of the results, there are two levels on the reviewed courses and program [16]. One level is the contribution to the community development and economy and the other level is the success of the programs in terms of startup new companies. However, as an education course or program, there is a missing in the assessment of students learning. No references report the detail learning assessment criteria and the methods to assess the learning objectives of the courses or programs, which most teachers will be interested to know.
Traditional entrepreneurship courses and programs are mostly offered by business schools, the offers are very obvious. However, for those entrepreneurship courses in engineering schools, who offer these courses is a concern and an important issue. Standish-Kuon (2002) reported three models in terms of who is the host schools of engineering entrepreneurship courses, namely, business school (model A), engineering school (model B) and combined (model C). Among the TEE courses/programs reviewed in this paper, two are offered by business schools [9, 20, 21], four are offered by engineering schools [15, 19, 22, 23] and only one is offered jointly by engineering and business school [18].
After reviewing and comparing the above eight TEE models, it can be found that technology-based entrepreneurship (TEE) education programs offered by engineering schools or in collaborations with business schools aim to teach engineering students to identify business opportunities from existing or under developing technologies with a view to transferring and commercializing the technologies from universities to research laboratories. The teaching approach by TEE is mainly based on technology-push strategy. The audiences are mainly science and engineering students but business and other students are not excluded. Technology-based entrepreneurship education (TEE) incorporates the key elements of conventional entrepreneurship education, but concentrates on the creation of economic value from technology and innovation [20]. The direction and objectives of TEE are very obvious and unique. However, a major problem with the programs and courses reviewed is that they miss a clear and simple model on the operational level. The model and details are still general (maybe due to space limitation in the papers) and the assessment of student learning is mostly missing.
It is necessary to distinguish the EE by business schools from the TEE in engineering schools since the audience and teaching approaches are different [18]. Back to the 1990s, there has been EE courses offered to science and engineering students. However, these courses are not necessarily technology-based entrepreneurship but similar to traditional EE. The only difference is the audiences (target students). Authors suggested that TEE programs should be designed differently especially when it is taught to engineering students [18, 20]. In the next section, a model for TEE at a university in Hong Kong will be introduced.
The TIPE is an acronym stands for Technology, Idea, Product and Enterprise. The TIPE model is a step-by-step concise and effective teaching tool that aims to help students to identify technologies, generate new business ideas, design a new product and finally develop a simple business plan. The PIPE model was implemented in a course titled Technological Innovation and Entrepreneurship for a master program and doctor students since 2001. The TIPE model will be introduced following the 5W1H model [16] as highlighted in Table 2 and elaborated below.
TIPE Details: | Technology | Idea | Product | Enterprise |
---|---|---|---|---|
Content (What) | Exploration and discovery | Creativity and creative thinking | Innovation and new product development | Entrepreneurship and business plan |
Learning objectives (Why) | To identify technologies from patents or their own research | To generate new business ideas based on the technology | To propose and design a product under the business idea | To incorporate all the above factors into a business plan |
Teaching and learning activity(How) | Eye (Explore & search) | Brain (think creatively) | Hand (Design and make) | Feet (Go to market) |
Assessment criteria of the learning outcome (For which) |
|
|
|
|
Milestone assessment (How assess) | Technology search report | Business idea report | Product design report | Business plan report |
The PIPE model for teaching technology-based entrepreneurship.
A course based on the TIPE model was first offered in 2001 for a master program in manufacturing engineering and engineering management. The students are both part-time and full-time. The class sizes range from 50 to 80. So as to the background, most students have a bachelor degree in engineering or science subjects while a few from management schools majoring in information systems or technology management. For the moment, about 60% are from mainland China, 15% from Europe (mostly from France) and 25% from local.
Now it is planned to be expanded to 5 master programs in its college of engineering including system engineering and engineering management (core), bio-engineering (core), mechanical engineering (elective), e-commerce and computer science (elective), and electrical and electronical engineering (elective). For this expansion, two or more classes will be offered due to the number of students increase.
The course was developed and offered by the Department of Advanced Design and Systems Engineering, College of Engineering. The course was run by one lecturer plus one tutor plus one or two guest speakers with entrepreneurial experiences. Students can also join entrepreneurship competitions run by Technology Transfer Office (TTO) and the other external organizations.
The course based on the TIPE model aims to train students to identify business ideas from new technologies of their interest with a view to commercializing the technologies via new startups. The objective is shortened as turning engineers into technology entrepreneurs or technology transfer service and consultation in the future. One uniqueness of this TIPE model is the step by step process along which the learning objectives of students can be elaborated and implemented. Along the 4 steps of the PIPE model, the student learning objectives under the outcome-based education theory are:
To identify technologies from patents database or their own research,
To generate new business ideas based on the technology,
To propose and design a product under the business idea and finally
To incorporate all the above factors into a simple business plan.
The content of this course is highlighted by the TIPE model, including abilities to identify technologies, generate new business ideas, design a new product and finally develop a simple business plan, which are corresponding to discovery, creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. The course was designed to be a 39-hours course bearing 3 credits according to the credit calculation formula by the university. The course was run in one semester. So far there is no concern about the credit in terms of time and space for this technology entrepreneurship course since it is either a core or elective designed into the master and doctor programs.
The content of this course is at the stage of preparing technology-based entrepreneurship. Implementation is not a compulsory due to time limitation. In the future, the implementation or execution should be considered. That means more hours or courses will be needed. One course is not sufficient to deal with both preparation and the implementation.
The TIPE model was designed to guide student-centered learning from multi-disciplinary perspectives. The course is based on a team project. The team contains of 5–8 students. The final outcome is a business plan to pitch to an industrial panel. The project is also the learning vehicle, by which students work together and learn collaboratively. The course is process-oriented. It goes step by step along the TIPE model. Students know where they are at any time. However, process orientation does not mean the learning is a linear process instead, there are a lot of back and forth along the process, which students have to get familiar with. The course following the philosophy of learning by doing or experiential learning. It is student centered: i.e., the course is for the students, the project is run by the students, and ideas come from the students. At each step, students know what to do and how to do. Teachers are more or less a facilitator and helper. Case studies are used to the minimum level while mini-cases are presented as examples to stimulate students. The technology-push action case is encouraged for engineering students. For example, we normally started with previous student examples of our university. The following is a recent one:
An engineer developed a tiny equipment that can generate various types of smell and registered in the US and China Patent Offices. That research project finished! A group of students who were involved in an entrepreneurship competition try to use this patent technology to develop new products. The end of the day, the proposal is a new VR with smells of flowers! They joined the local competition and earned the ticket to join the poster competition in the US Grand Challenge Scholar Program.
Then two assignments will follow the mini-cases for students to practice the concept “from technology to product ideas”:
A scientist develop an instrument that can understand the singing of a bird. He registered a patent of the technology, can you think of any business ideas based on this technology?
Nano-materials can be so clean that they do not need to be washed. Can you think of any product ideas that are based on this feature of the Nano-materials?
To initiate the team projects, the students will be encouraged to search patents database of the university as well as any other public patents sources that the students may get access to with a view to looking for technologies that they are familiar with and interested in. They can also talk to their technical professors that they are familiar with during previous bachelor studies about this possibility to commercialize the professors’ technologies. In the past years, roughly 40% technologies are from university patent data base, 30% from public patent websites, 10% from students’ previous studies and 10% from others sources such as their own research, companies and parents.
Although technology-push approach is strongly recommended in this course, it does not mean the market-pull approach is excluded. A few students who do not have technological backgrounds may come out of business ideas based on a market need. But they are encouraged to look for technologies to solve the problem so that their projects are still regarded as technology-based. If they still cannot make a technology-based project, they are advised to join other teams based on technologies.
There are two levels of assessment criteria and assessment scheme, one is about the assessment of student learning while the other is about the effectiveness of the course in terms of startup or contribution to the community. As a credit bearing formal course, the top important one is the assessment of student learning since the all students joining the course has to be graded.
The student outcomes assessment under the TIPE model cover two aspects, namely, the accomplishment in terms of the learning objectives and the preparation of a simple business plan. The assessment scheme is based on continuous assessment philosophy at 4 major milestones by presentation or discussion with the lecturer/tutor, as shown in Table 2. The assessment reports include: the technology search report, the business idea report, the product design report and finally the Business plan report for pitching to industry panel.
The whole assessment scheme includes class activities and assignment (30%), group project (30%), final test (30%) and within team peer assessment (10%). The within team peer assessment was introduced recent years since it was found that some students tended to take a lift during the whole semester. It was also found that the peer assessment can pretty easily identify those who take a free ride.
The course based on the TIPE model can be regarded as successful from education perspective. Students’ feedback are very positive and the teacher got teaching excellence award twice for this course. However, there is no data to justify whether it is a successful course in term of real technology commercialization and startups. There are mainly two reasons to explain this.
First, the master program is a one year program for full-time students and two years for part-time students. For the moment, the course is in the last semester and focuses on the preparation stage and does not require the implementation due to time and resources limitation. The part-time students will be busy with their work and will not have additional time to follow up the startup of a companies, while the full time students will leave the universities for jobs one year after and do not have time to utilize the startup supports from the TTO and the government. Some students are international and will go back to their home countries after the graduation.
Second, although the university encourages technology commercialization and promulgated a very clear policy on technology commercialization, the academic promotion and annual evaluation of the faculties (researchers) are still based on academic performance like publishing academic papers and raising research fund. Academic faculties are happy to support the students who selected their technologies in their project but will not have time and incentives to go further for real commercialization afterwards.
Technology-based Entrepreneurship is related to discovery, creativity, invention, innovation and technology, which are likely to be confused and are difficult to be taught in one course [26]. It is not useful to discuss which covers which since there are overlapping. The TIPE model distinguishes discovery, creativity, and innovation and entrepreneurship, focuses on the core of these concepts and then integrates them into one model. It is based on the technology-push approach to support technology transfer, although the market-pull approach is not forbidden since a few students do not have strong engineering backgrounds.
The PIPE model is not only for designing and developing a TEE course, but most importantly also for the students to learn the course by doing the projects. The model should be simple and clear without too complicated managerial theories and concepts. Engineering students are relatively logical and linear thinkers and are action oriented. They are weak in management theories. So the model has to be simple, concise, visual and easy to remember and understand at the first glance and then can be elaborated step by step. Figure 1 is the simplified visual version of the TIPE model shown to students in the first introduction class. The diamonds stands for so-called diamond thinking, starting with divergent thinking and ending with convergent thinking.
The TIPE model for teaching and learning technology-based entrepreneurship.
The TIPE model has been running for many years and will be expanded to more master programs. The preparation of this paper provides an opportunity to study previous TEE models, review the TIPE model and the course, identify limitations and explore implications for future development. The paper and the program trigger the following discussions.
Talking about the content, the course based on the TIPE model covers only the stage of preparing technology-based entrepreneurship. Implementation is not a compulsory. In the future, the implementation or execution should be considered. One course is not sufficient to deal with both preparation and the implementation in one semester. That means more hours or more courses are needed for the implementation in terms of investment, marketing, company management, and company registration etc. For a master program in engineering direction, there will be space and time limitation to include more management courses. So a more entrepreneurship oriented program jointly offered by business and engineering school may solve the problem. This focused program may be run by the college of engineering, instead of individual departments. If students are weak in management, it will be difficult to implement the business plan.
This limitation is not alone with the TIPE model. Audretsch et al. [27] found that technological entrepreneurs out of the university context focus much more on the scientific and technological aspects of their start-up ideas than managerial aspects. When reviewing a TEE self-study manual by Swamidass [28], Hutchinson [29] found out the major weakness is the insufficient coverage of business model and the business plan. This is perhaps a common problem in other TEE courses as well. How to turn engineers into entrepreneurs need not only technology but also managerial contents. With only one course on entrepreneurship is a good beginning to plant the seeds of technology entrepreneurship but may not be sufficient to prepare technological entrepreneurship in terms of business model and business plan, which can be two separate courses in a MBA program by business schools. This problem is related to both the content, the length of the course or program and the deliverers of the course. This implies that the collaboration between business school and engineering school is necessary to develop an interdisciplinary comprehensive program on TEE.
As the previous models of TEE, the teaching methods in the TIPE model include team-based project, student centered learning, and pitch to an industry panel etc., which will be maintained in the TIPE model in the future. However, these methods are not really unique with TEE. What is really unique and special with TEE is the way to initiate the entrepreneurial project. As reviewed before, there are two opposite approaches to initiate entrepreneurial projects, namely, market-pull and technology-push [24]. It is very obvious that the TIPE model is based on the technology-push approach. Having said that, it does not mean market is ignored along the TIPE process. Comparing the two different approaches used simultaneously by two programs, respectively, at MIT, Wolfson [25] believes that market-pull and technology-push is the two sides of the same coin of entrepreneurship. A successful startup needs both a well-defined problem to solve and a well-formed technology that solves the problem. However, a project has to start somewhere, either market or technology. Technology-based entrepreneurship from the technology transfer perspective will start with technology normally. But no matter where to start with, the market need or the problem (the pain) and the technology or solution will meet sooner or later. It is only a time issue. In fact, it is better for the technological solution and the market need to meet as early as possible to justify the match or fit. Whenever talking about a match, it involves two sides, like a man and a women in love. Consistent with the discussions on the content, TEE students need to know both technological and managerial concepts like customer and market need in order to match and integrate both. Munro and Noori [24] has recommended the integration between the market-pull and the technology-push approaches in new product development. The balance mindset between the technology and the market should be introduced into TEE.
While we emphasize the priority of technology-push in this paper, it does not mean all technology-based entrepreneurship course always starts with a technology. Kang and Lee [30] report a capstone course of technology entrepreneurship at a software department, where students identify a social problem first and then try to solve the social problem with technologies like Arduino, Raspberry Pi, and sensors.
In the assessment of the TEE effectiveness at community level, some TEE models report cases of startup after the course running. Number of startups is attractive and impressive and should be encouraged. However, the number of short term startups may not reflect the real future potential of TEE from education point of view [10]. Pretty much research on what factors influence the intention and action of students and finally becoming entrepreneurs in the future has been conducted in the context of EE in business schools. The effectiveness of TEE from a long term perspectives has not been well researched. Such research on TEE seems to be at the preliminary stage without solid theoretical basis (i.e., Militaru et al. [31, 32]). The theory of planned behavior (TPB)[33] and empirical research methods (i.e., [7, 34]) can be applied in the TEE context as well.
As discussed before, there are two levels of outcome of entrepreneurship courses. One is student learning in terms of achieving learning objectives while the other is the effectiveness of the course in terms of startup or contribution to real technology transfer and commercialization. Since a course normally lasts just one semester, it normally ends with preparation of a business plan and there is not enough time and resources to implement what students have proposed in the course. Therefore, there should be relevant downstream policies for going further.
Nelson and Monsen [35] reviewed several references on technology commercialization and concluded that technology commercialization coves a broad range of activities, including startups, spinouts, licensing, collaboration, contract research, consulting and open innovation [36, 37, 38, 39]. Therefore, it is necessary to explore relevant policies in the following areas:
How to encourage students to go further to implementation?
Where students can find investment?
Where students can find managerial training and supports?
Where students can find support to explore potential clients and market?
Where students can find suppliers and materials?
Are there sufficient incubation capacity in the community?
Are there relevant tax polices for new technology start-up?
This paper reviewed previous models on TEE and reveals that entrepreneurship education (EE) and engineering entrepreneurship education (EEE) are not very different except audiences and delivering departments. However, TEE and EE are quite different in terms of the objectives, the contents and especially the teaching approaches. What makes TEE special is the technology-push approach and the possibility to be linked with another stream of research and education, namely, technology transfer (TT).
The TIPE model introduced in this paper distinguishes technology, creativity, and innovation and entrepreneurship and then integrates them into one process-oriented model. It helps to remove the confusion among creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. The TIPE model belongs to the category of TEE in term of the audience, objectives and teaching approach. The TIPE model is implemented in a one-semester course for master programs in an engineering school. The step by step continuous assessment of student learning was reported. However, the effectiveness in terms of students’ startups cannot be justified yet since it focuses on the preparation stage due to time limitation.
There are a few limitations of the paper which can lead to future research. First, compared with entrepreneurship education at business schools, there are not many examples of technology-based entrepreneurship models to review. This can be enhanced in the future if more cases emerge. Second, although the TIPE model have been implemented for some times, we did not conduct assessment yet. The assessment models by Kazakeviciute et al. [9] and Purzer et al. [40] can be adopted for this purpose. Finally, this paper reviews the TEE at a course level, future research can also review TEE at program level. There was report of technology entrepreneurship course for PhD student [41], which was not included in this paper since this paper covers only undergraduate level. Of course, the policy issues for downstream technology entrepreneurship action will be a new area of future research. Whatever, the review and the model in this paper can be a reference for any teacher to develop technology-based entrepreneurship education courses.
This paper was supported by the Strategic Public Policy Research Funding Scheme from the Policy Innovation and Co-ordination Office of the Government of the HKSAR (S2020.A1.033.20S) and an Applied Research Grant (ARG 9667215) by the City University of Hong Kong.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Material properties are continually being improved to meet safety and operational standards in line with prevailing technological developments. Modern technological requirements, together with the consumers’ demands for systems and machines that are more energy efficient, stronger, light-weight, cost-effective, etc., dictate that the search for new and advanced materials will remain a subject of interest all the time. The difficulty in designing materials for such stringent specifications cannot be overstated, owing to the conflicting nature of these specifications. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AlMMCs) are a class of materials that have proven successful in meeting most of the rigorous specifications in applications where light-weight, high stiffness and moderate strength are the requisite properties. With a variety of reinforcement materials and flexibility in their primary processing, AlMMCs offer great potential for the development of composites with the desired properties for certain applications. In this review, the development, utilisation and future potential of AlMMCs in various industrial and commercial applications is discussed, together with the existing challenges hindering their full market penetration.",book:{id:"8862",slug:"aluminium-alloys-and-composites",title:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites",fullTitle:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites"},signatures:"Francis Nturanabo, Leonard Masu and John Baptist Kirabira",authors:[{id:"286492",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Nturanabo",slug:"francis-nturanabo",fullName:"Francis Nturanabo"},{id:"299246",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Masu",slug:"leonard-masu",fullName:"Leonard Masu"},{id:"299247",title:"Prof.",name:"John Baptist",middleName:null,surname:"Kirabira",slug:"john-baptist-kirabira",fullName:"John Baptist Kirabira"}]},{id:"58367",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71826",title:"Creep Lifing Models and Techniques",slug:"creep-lifing-models-and-techniques",totalDownloads:1933,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The deformation of structural alloys presents problems for power plants and aerospace applications due to the demand for elevated temperatures for higher efficiencies and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The materials used in such applications experience harsh environments which may lead to deformation and failure of critical components. To avoid such catastrophic failures and also increase efficiency, future designs must utilise novel/improved alloy systems with enhanced temperature capability. In recognising this issue, a detailed understanding of creep is essential for the success of these designs by ensuring components that do not experience excessive deformation which may ultimately lead to failure. To achieve this, a variety of parametric methods have been developed to quantify creep and creep fracture in high temperature applications. This study reviews a number of well-known traditionally employed creep lifing methods with some more recent approaches also included. The first section of this paper focuses on predicting the long-term creep-rupture properties which is an area of interest for the power generation sector. The second section looks at pre-defined strains and the re-production of full creep curves based on available data which is pertinent to the aerospace industry where components are replaced before failure.",book:{id:"6172",slug:"creep",title:"Creep",fullTitle:"Creep"},signatures:"Zakaria Abdallah, Karen Perkins and Cris Arnold",authors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}]},{id:"69724",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89797",title:"Experimental Investigations on AA 6061 Alloy Welded Joints by Friction Stir Welding",slug:"experimental-investigations-on-aa-6061-alloy-welded-joints-by-friction-stir-welding",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Aluminum and aluminum composites play important role in aerospace, automobile, marine and structural applications. Literature shows that some of the conventional fusion welding processes in joining of aluminum metals result in defects like porosity, distortion owing to elevated thermal conductivity and solidification shrinkage. To overcome such issues, experimental investigations are conducted using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process in joining of metal plates of aluminum 6061 alloy. Weld joint samples are cut to required sizes and secured them in position by mechanical clamps. The setup is loaded onto Vertical Machining Centre. Nonconsumable tool tips of four different shapes of tungsten carbide and H13 materials are prepared and attached to the spindle. The machine is started and allowed spindle to rotate the tool to plunge onto metal plates along joint line. An axial force is continuously applied until sufficient heat is generated at mating surfaces for joining. Experiments are repeated at different levels by varying welding parameters. Joints are tested for their mechanical properties. The microstructural analysis is studied by SEM. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) simulation model is developed for validation. ANOVA is applied for validation of output results of mechanical properties and optimal process parameters are determined. Research shows that joints are influenced by profile of tool pin and, therefore, the rotational speed of the tool.",book:{id:"8862",slug:"aluminium-alloys-and-composites",title:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites",fullTitle:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites"},signatures:"Pothur Hema",authors:[{id:"285121",title:"Dr.",name:"P.",middleName:null,surname:"Hema",slug:"p.-hema",fullName:"P. 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As such, significant effort is now being placed in identifying suitable alternative characterisation techniques. The small punch creep (SPC) test is now widely regarded as an effective tool for ranking and establishing the creep properties of a number of critical structural materials from numerous industrial sectors. Over recent years, the SPC test has become an attractive miniaturised mechanical test method ideally suited for situations where only a limited quantity of material is available for qualification testing. Typically, the method requires only a modest amount of material and can provide key mechanical property information for highly localised regions of critical components. As such, SP creep testing offers a feasible option of determining the creep properties of novel alloy variants still at the experimental stage and the residual life of service-exposed material.",book:{id:"6172",slug:"creep",title:"Creep",fullTitle:"Creep"},signatures:"Robert J. Lancaster and Spencer P. Jeffs",authors:[{id:"207762",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:"Joseph",surname:"Lancaster",slug:"robert-lancaster",fullName:"Robert Lancaster"},{id:"208043",title:"Dr.",name:"Spencer",middleName:null,surname:"Jeffs",slug:"spencer-jeffs",fullName:"Spencer Jeffs"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56982",title:"Fundamental Models for the Creep of Metals",slug:"fundamental-models-for-the-creep-of-metals",totalDownloads:1589,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Analysis of creep properties has traditionally been made with empirical methods involving a number of adjustable parameters. This makes it quite difficult to make predictions outside the range of the original data. In recent years, the author has formulated basic models for prediction of creep properties, covering dislocation, particle and solid solution hardening. These models do not use adjustable parameters. In the present chapter, these models are further developed and utilised. The dislocation mobilities play an important role. The high-temperature climb mobility is extended to low temperatures by taking vacancies generated by plastic deformation into account. This new expression verifies the validity of the combined climb and glide mobility that has been used so far. By assuming that the glide rate is controlled by the climb of the jogs, a dislocation glide mobility is formulated. The role of the mobilities is analysed, and various creep properties are derived. For example, secondary creep rates and strain versus time curves are computed and show good agreement with experimental data.",book:{id:"6172",slug:"creep",title:"Creep",fullTitle:"Creep"},signatures:"Rolf Sandström",authors:[{id:"191540",title:"Prof.",name:"Rolf",middleName:null,surname:"Sandström",slug:"rolf-sandstrom",fullName:"Rolf Sandström"}]},{id:"67052",title:"Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites",slug:"novel-applications-of-aluminium-metal-matrix-composites",totalDownloads:2795,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:"Advanced materials have offered the materials designer a wide range of options in the specification and selection of materials for various applications. Material properties are continually being improved to meet safety and operational standards in line with prevailing technological developments. Modern technological requirements, together with the consumers’ demands for systems and machines that are more energy efficient, stronger, light-weight, cost-effective, etc., dictate that the search for new and advanced materials will remain a subject of interest all the time. The difficulty in designing materials for such stringent specifications cannot be overstated, owing to the conflicting nature of these specifications. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AlMMCs) are a class of materials that have proven successful in meeting most of the rigorous specifications in applications where light-weight, high stiffness and moderate strength are the requisite properties. With a variety of reinforcement materials and flexibility in their primary processing, AlMMCs offer great potential for the development of composites with the desired properties for certain applications. In this review, the development, utilisation and future potential of AlMMCs in various industrial and commercial applications is discussed, together with the existing challenges hindering their full market penetration.",book:{id:"8862",slug:"aluminium-alloys-and-composites",title:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites",fullTitle:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites"},signatures:"Francis Nturanabo, Leonard Masu and John Baptist Kirabira",authors:[{id:"286492",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Nturanabo",slug:"francis-nturanabo",fullName:"Francis Nturanabo"},{id:"299246",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Masu",slug:"leonard-masu",fullName:"Leonard Masu"},{id:"299247",title:"Prof.",name:"John Baptist",middleName:null,surname:"Kirabira",slug:"john-baptist-kirabira",fullName:"John Baptist Kirabira"}]},{id:"58367",title:"Creep Lifing Models and Techniques",slug:"creep-lifing-models-and-techniques",totalDownloads:1925,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The deformation of structural alloys presents problems for power plants and aerospace applications due to the demand for elevated temperatures for higher efficiencies and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The materials used in such applications experience harsh environments which may lead to deformation and failure of critical components. To avoid such catastrophic failures and also increase efficiency, future designs must utilise novel/improved alloy systems with enhanced temperature capability. In recognising this issue, a detailed understanding of creep is essential for the success of these designs by ensuring components that do not experience excessive deformation which may ultimately lead to failure. To achieve this, a variety of parametric methods have been developed to quantify creep and creep fracture in high temperature applications. This study reviews a number of well-known traditionally employed creep lifing methods with some more recent approaches also included. The first section of this paper focuses on predicting the long-term creep-rupture properties which is an area of interest for the power generation sector. The second section looks at pre-defined strains and the re-production of full creep curves based on available data which is pertinent to the aerospace industry where components are replaced before failure.",book:{id:"6172",slug:"creep",title:"Creep",fullTitle:"Creep"},signatures:"Zakaria Abdallah, Karen Perkins and Cris Arnold",authors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}]},{id:"62120",title:"Aluminum Mineral Processing and Metallurgy: Iron-Rich Bauxite and Bayer Red Muds",slug:"aluminum-mineral-processing-and-metallurgy-iron-rich-bauxite-and-bayer-red-muds",totalDownloads:1457,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Bauxite is the main source for alumina production. With the rapid development of iron and steel industry and aluminum industry, high-quality iron ore and bauxite resources become increasingly tense. However, a lot of iron-rich bauxite and Bayer red mud resources have not been timely and effectively recycled, resulting in serious problems of environmental pollution and wastage of resources. The comprehensive utilization of iron-rich bauxite and red mud is still a worldwide problem. The industrial stockpiling is not a fundamental way to solve the problems of iron-rich bauxite and red mud. As to the recovery of valuable metals from iron-rich bauxite and red mud, there are a lot of technical and cost problems, which are serious impediments to industrial development. Applying red mud as construction materials like cement, soil ameliorant applications face the problem of Na, Cr, As leaching into the environment. However, the high-temperature reduction, smelting and alkaline leaching process is a feasible method to recover iron and alumina from iron-rich bauxite and red mud. 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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