Type of plastics [plastic Europe – Online].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Textile art in the Malay world, especially in Malaysia have been detected since the start of the historical development of the culture of the archipelago. Since the Sultanate has recorded about how different types of fabric and textiles is taken as an omen to the status of goods in individual position in society and benchmark the progress of Malay civilization.
According to Raffles in The history of Java [1] has described how different types of clothing and fabrics are unique with the technique of patterning the surface of the fabric such as tie and
In a note, Winsteadt [3] Malay Industries Part I, Art and Craft, he also describes the surface design techniques on fabric produced by the Malay community at the time. Techniques that have been applied are such as coloring, weaving, embroidering, embroidering and knitting techniques for the production of textile patterns and ornaments. Obviously tradition surface design of decorative fabric or Malays textile surface have long practiced and it has been developed and passed down from generation to generation until now in the development of traditional cultural arts in Malaysia.
Essentially, batik making is a method of creating beautiful textile materials or cloth involving the use of candles and coloring materials based on natural or synthetic colors. In creating batik, candles are the main medium used to create the required pattern and, at the same time, serve as the medium to separate the colors. To help create artistic batik, several techniques can be used, including tradition technique, the use of
Tritik is indeed not a new discovery in textile history. This technique has existed for a long time when society began to explore fabrics and colors in dyes for fabric coloring. Instead, there was previously in India called Bandhani and Japan called Shibori, in Malaysia and Indonesia called Tritik. In fact, there is a much older tie-dye motif found in Peru in 500. The designs found include circles and small lines with bright colors, such as red, yellow, blue, and green.
But in Japan and China have developed tie-dye techniques since the sixth century using silk cloth. Silk fabric is evaluated as a suitable material for a more perfect color absorption process. These skills are also likely to have evolved in the Malay Archipelago as a result of trading activities involving the exchange of goods in the past. Skills staining on fabrics, ornaments and decorations technique is adapted according to the nature of Malay culture and become a work of art in the textile design community in the archipelago.
Tritik or
Moreover, the application and combination of colors also play an important role in establishing the required motif and pattern on the surface of the batik design. Surely, the knowledge and skills in pattern design of fabric surfaces are a critical element in designing exquisite motifs on such surfaces [4].
Consistent with the current trend in fashion designs, the new, contemporary tritik batik, with its exquisite aesthetical effects visibly appearing on the surface of the fabrics, helps make its wearers look elegant and attractive. Despite the uniqueness in such pattern design, tritik technique has gradually being neglected in today’s batik pattern design, which is partly attributed to the complicated process involved in making such design.
To help sustain the use of batik in Malaysia as a national attire, the Malaysian government had made it compulsory for the public servant to wear batik shirts or
Despite such development, however, some of the traditional designs, such as batik blocks, batik drawing, and batik printing, have managed to survive the test of time, with many fashion fans keeping their loyalty with such designs. As such, the use of tritik technique can be re-energized to create batik that has a new appealing design with high aesthetical and artistic values and exquisite pattern design that projects unique beauty. Admittedly, due to the rapid development of the fashion world taking place at an unprecedented rate, the tritik technique has started to decline in its use in the making of batik textile. Unmitigated, such a decline will see such a unique technique becomes obsolete – a thing of the past – in batik-textile making. Obviously, more efforts have to be put in place to address this pressing predicament by encouraging practitioners to adopt the tritik technique in designing intricate batik patterns. Another problem that contributes to the declining use of such a technique lies in the lack of proper learning or training in pattern design of batik textile, especially with respect to the structure of patterns that needs to be discerning learned. For example, the knowledge regarding the closely aligned stitches to create intricate patterns with amazing characteristics, such as sharp teeth, base,
Seen from the socio-cultural viewpoint, such a problem is the manifestation of the lack of knowledge among the members of the society, in particular, Art students, with respect to the societal impact of the tritik technique, effecting a decline in the awareness or appreciation of such a culturally enriched method of producing traditional batik. Clearly, to help overcome such a problem, the tritik technique needs to be used in the pattern design process to produce elegant and immaculate patterns, which are on par with those created by other techniques, such as tie
Based on a practical studio experimenting with the tritik technique in the making pattern - design process of batik motifs on the surface of a fabric. In addition, the effect of this technique on the surface of the fabric, also has been examined which began from the creation of the Napthol color through the mixing of Diazo salt and Remazol coloring dye to the complete tritik process performed on the fabric. Through practiced studio process, focusing on the process prior to sewing was carried out, the inherent constraints encountered during the process of sewing a particular polar of a pattern and the effects of untying knots on the fabric, also able to identify the outcome of the pattern design of the tritik technique.
Definitely, the selection of suitable fabrics in creating tritik batik is of paramount importance. Obviously, the use of quality fabrics will improve the rate of absorption, enabling the coloring materials to penetrate deeply into the fabrics to produces stunningly attractive, intricate, and appealing effects of the tritik technique. In this regard, the use of suitable fabrics has a profound impact on the effectiveness of the tritik technique that helps the Naphthol color to seep deep into every fabric of the batik materials. To date, several types of fabrics have been widely used with this technique, such as cotton fabric, rayon fabric, and silk fabric, which are clothes made from natural sources. Essentially, such fabrics contain natural fibers with good “working characteristics”, with which the tritik technique can produce amazing effects.
In Malaysia, the majority of people prefer to wear clothes made of cotton. Such a preference is not surprising as cotton can easily absorb sweats produced by the human body in countries in the tropical region of the world, such as Malaysia. In essence, this type of cloths is made from cotton fibers that are used to make short, soft, and fluffy fibers In general, these cotton fibers are used as the primary material in making shirts, robes, bedspreads, and others. Given their delicate characteristics, cotton fabrics are suitable for batik practitioners who manually use their hands with some degree of force in making batik materials (Figure 1).
Cotton fabrics are suitable for batik practitioners.
In general, this type of stitching has a number of diverse sewing techniques, but to create a pattern on the fabric will entail the needle to move in a spiral. Effectively, such a spiral motion of the needle, in which it moves according to a prescribed pattern based generally on a distance of I cm, can help achieve the desired effects.
Furthermore, the threads need to be tightened when the sewing or stitching process has completed. Subsequently, colorings will be swiped over the entire surface of the fabrics that have been completely sewn (Figures 2 and 3).
Illustration of sewing or stitching process in a spiral.
Sewing process in a spiral moves according to a prescribed spiral pattern.
The followings are some of the patterns of the cotton cloth created by the effects of the stitching technique used. Clearly, such forms and shapes of the patterns were the results of a sewing or stitching processing a particular direction or polarity, effecting the desired effects that helped create such amazing pattern designs (Figure 4).
Spiral patterns of the cotton cloth created by the effects of the stitching technique.
Principally, Rayon is a fabric that can be weaved or merged, depending on its diverse use. In fact, the effectiveness of stitching Rayon is relatively higher than those of other fabric materials, such as
The rayon fabrics.
The type of sewing or stitching as shown above is based on horizontal sewing that cuts the surface of the fabric neatly. Ideally, the distance of the stitched fabric should be in the range between 1 cm and 2 cm. obviously, the direction of sewing that is straight and compact will create an amazingly appealing effect. In particular, the end of the cloth must be tied to achieve a better effect (Figure 6).
The process of horizontal sewing performed on a fabric.
As shown in Figure 7, the result of using the tritik technique on the Rayon fabrics showed stunning effects, visibly highlighting the effects of colors and stitching on such fabric. Evidently, the stitching the fabric horizontally did not in any way compromise the quality of the fabric. On the contrary, such a stitching method was able to project the undulation of the movement of colors together with the desired pattern on the fabric.
Tritik technique on the rayon fabrics showed stunning effects, visibly highlighting the effects of colors and stitching on rayon fabric.
As contended by almost all practitioners, the satin fabric is regarded as the most elegant fabric compared to other types of fabrics, making it a high-class fashion material. This contention is not without reason, as this type of fabric has a surface is delicately soft and glossy, the characteristics that create stunning reflections under the light. In general, satin cloth consists of silk or Rayon, which makes its surface extremely soft. The drawback of this fabric, however, is that it needs constant care, given the delicate nature of its material, which is made up of the softest fibers. To date, satin fabrics have been widely used in many designer fashions throughout the world, notably in developed countries (Figure 8).
Satin fabric.
The appropriate configurations of such stitching for such fabrics are circular and horizontal. In this study, the configuration examined was based on circular sewing involving a single direction of movement, of which the closer the distance of the stitches the more attractive the effects on the surface of the fabric.
As shown in the Figure 9, spiral stitching based on the close distance among the stitches will create stunningly beautiful effects on the fabric. Furthermore, the edges of the cloth have to be permanently fastened by pulling the thread forcefully to create the desired effects.
Spiral stitching based on the close distance among the stitches will create stunningly beautiful effects on the fabric. Furthermore, the edges of the cloth have to be permanently fastened by pulling the thread forcefully to create the desired effects. The process of spiral stitching performed on a fabric.
Figure 10 shows the effects of the tritik technique on the surface of the satin fabric. Revealingly, it shows that a well-balanced use of colors can create spectacularly attractive and beautiful effects compared to those that use colors that are too bright or too dull. Through this practical studio-based study, the researchers examined the practice of the tritik technique in the batik-making process involving three types of fabrics, namely cotton fabric, rayon fabric, and satin fabric.
Tritik technique on the surface of the satin fabric.
Based on the observations, it can be reasonably argued that each type of fabric has its own unique and beautiful tritik effects, despite using the same sewing or stitching configuration. Surely, such differences in the tritik effects lie in the properties of the fabrics, with each having different thickness and structure of fibers, which produce the unique texture of the fabrics. Clearly, the different types of fibers make some fabrics soft while others coarse, the impact of which will have a profound impact on the rate of absorption and the rate of evaporation of liquids that result in different effects on the patterns of the fabrics. Given such inherent differences, the selection of appropriate fabrics should be treated with caution – in fact, it should be treated as the basis – to help create specular and stunning patterns using the tritik technique.
Moreover, the quality of stitching also depends on the sewing configuration that can help create beautiful effects by controlling the form or the structure of such a pattern. Also observed in this study was that pattern designs in various organic forms or shapes seemed to be the dominant pattern in the tritik technique to produce patterns with high aesthetical values. In addition, the distance between stitches can strongly influence the effects on the patterns made on the fabrics. Likewise, the strength of the knots is also important in creating such attractive patterns.
Evidently, the closer the stitching on the surface of the fabric, the more stunning the patterns will be. Similarly, the tighter the threads are tied, the more spectacular the tritik effects will be in producing beautiful, delicate lines of various sizes and quality. Undeniably, the tying technique and the stitching configuration play an important role in the tritik technique in creating beautiful, unique patterns. In terms of the use of coloring materials, the tritik technique heavily relies on relevant colors to create the desired tritik patterns on fabrics. In fact, such a technique emphasizes well-balanced and judicious use of colors, given that the tritik pattern entails the tone of colors that is neither too strong not too weak.
Clearly, a well-balanced use of colors in the tritik technique can produce patterns that harmoniously blend the chosen color to produce pleasing effects, highlighting a spectacular contrast of colors that enrich the beauty the batik fabric. In this regard, the mixing of Naphthol color and Diazo salt can help produce a color tone that represents the color of the earth’s soil. Thus, it cannot be overstated that the coloring effect is an important element in designing beautiful, intricate patterns on the surface of fabrics, which can be carried out by experimenting with colors and sodium silicate. The effect of tritic techniques on fabrics has indirectly created new patterns with very unique organic and abstract shapes. The effects of color patterning the shapes on the surface of the fabric is one of the characteristic privileges tritik technique that can provide confirmation of the identity of batik fabrics are processed. The followings figure showcase the pattern designs of various fabrics created by the tritik technique (Figure 11).
Type of fabrics: Cotton. Technique: Dipping Tritik. Medium: Naphthol color. Soaking duration (in sodium): 6 hours.
The experimentation of the tritik technique in designing patterns is a new learning process that effectively has helped create a new, diverse technique in batik textile industry. Specifically, practitioners can use this unique technique, which is slowly being forgotten, to manipulate the method of sewing or stitching threads on the surface of fabrics, which, in principle, the experimentation with ways to create beautiful pieces of fashions with colorful pattern designs (Figure 12).
Type of fabrics: Satin. Technique: Brush-swiping Tritik. Medium: Remazol color. Soaking duration (in sodium): No soaking involved.
As demonstrated, the effects of decorative arrangements created by the tritik technique is both refreshingly amazing and attractively mesmerizing, with the surface of fabrics infused with design elements and principles that give rise to high aesthetical values of the fabric materials. In addition, both the intended effects and the unintended effects resulting from the application of colors in the tritik technique can help create the desired forms, shapes, lines and spaces on the fabric materials. Furthermore, exploring the techniques and integrating the knowledge and skills pertaining to synthetic coloring materials can pave a way for the improvement in the learning of pattern designs.
According to a study conducted by Bintan Titisari, Kahfiati Kahdar and Intan Rizky Mutiaz in writing an article entitled Development of Dye Sewing Techniques (Tritik) with patterns geometris [5] suggests a very significant finding on how the application of Dye Sewing techniques (Tritik) can be implied in the fashion world. The effect of the use of geometric patterns on political techniques will produce motifs with the effects of direction, depth, and movement (optical illusion) by using the composition of balance, rhythm and harmony. In addition to the presence of effects optical illusions that give the impression of depth, direction and motion, they can be used to create dimensions and illusions in fashion products. The effect of Sewing Techniques (Tritik) from this traditional heritage can also be adapted using the latest technology with the help of computer applications and industrial-scale sewing machine technology that can make new contributions in textile technology, for example, geometric patterns using vector graphics editor can be used as preliminary data for development in the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) program (Figure 13).
Type of fabrics: Rayon. Technique: Swiping and dipping Tritik. Medium: Naphthol color. Soaking duration (in sodium): No soaking involved. Year 2016.
The effect of the Sewing Pattern design (Tritik) can also be commercialized in the Fashion industry design where the illusion effect of this geometric design gives a soft finish to the fabric and further highlights the design to visualize the camouflage effect (see Figures 14–17). The result of the tritik technique adapted from this traditional technique is an alternative effect that can be designed on the surface of batik fabric. Traditional techniques from hand sewing skills can further highlight the value of the beauty of decorative patterns on batik fabrics.
Tritik techniques that can be used as an illusion pattern design for the fashion industry. Photo credit to Titisari et al. [
Fashion design that adapts sewing techniques (tritik) in Malaysia.
Fashion design that adapts sewing techniques (tritik) by SEYMOUR. Photo credit to BLOG DESIGN BY LABINA @ PLEXICOD.
Fashion design that adapts sewing techniques (tritik) by Humbang Shibori x Purana at JFW 2019. Photo credit to (
On the international scene, batik has already taken its place in the contemporary fashion industry. Now the fabric is not only used for traditional clothing, but has also found its way to applications such as haute couture as well as being used in accessories such as handbags [7]. Many popular figures have walked the red carpet proudly wearing batik, from Bill Gates, Nelson Mandela to Barack Obama, and from Beyoncé Knowles to Jessica Alba. The international fashion scene has seen batik designers introduce batik to the world through the mixing of fabrics with modern designs and production methods. For example, Malaysian fashion designer Fern Chua presented handmade batik designs to the world stage through the British Council’s global campaign. Highlighting the theme of Crafting Futures, the campaign also brought together fashion and craft designers from around the world to explore and build the future of batik’s potential globally. The works of others from the world’s batik designers, and many more have also supported batik on the international stage.
These advances have also influenced well -known designers from other countries to include batik in their design collections. Notably, Belgian-American designer Diane von Furstenberg’s batik dress worn by Duchess of Cambridge Kate Middleton; while Angelina Jolie was seen wearing a batik dress by US designer Nicole Miller. Other international designers who also feature batik in their collections include Dries van Noten from Belgium, Ek Throngprassert Thailand, and Milo Milavica from Italy. In addition, one of the oldest fashion schools in Italy, Koefia, not only incorporates batik fashion in its curriculum, but also parades its stylish designs on the catwalk. Therefore, the practitioners of batik fashions can capitalize on the effects of the tritik technique to help them create spectacularly stunning and beautiful pattern designs on the surface of the fabrics of batik textile in global. To help realize this aim, it becomes the imperative of the stakeholders and practitioners to rejuvenate such a technique that is capable of creating immaculate and unique pattern designs with high aesthetical values.
Synthetic polymers appeared at the end of the nineteenth century around the 1860s, but it was not until after World War II that the “rise of plastics” really began [1]. Plastic has become one of the most ubiquitous materials since its inception as a phenol-formaldehyde resin (i.e., bakelite) [2]. Basically, plastic was designed to improve the conditions of human life, but today it is becoming a real environmental concern [1].
Nowadays, plastic is ubiquitous in all environmental compartments (air, water, and soil) [3]. Simonneau et al., [4] report that rain and snow contain a significant number of MP, invisible to the naked eye and less than 5 mm in size. The presence of MP in soil ecosystems has been detected [5, 6]. Scientific literature reports the environmental occurrence of MP in surface waters [7], coastal sediments [8], beach sands [9], freshwater sediments [10], and deep-sea environments [11]. Indeed, the intensive exploitation of plastic associated with poor performance of waste management systems, including end-of-life collection and capture, have resulted in a massive accumulation of plastic waste in the environment [12]. The release of plastic materials into the environment is recognized as an important pollution related issue [13, 14, 15].
The proliferation of MP in the environment causes serious pollution all over the world [16]. According to their characteristics, namely, synthetic materials with a high content of polymers, solid particles, less than 5 mm, insoluble in water, and not degradable, they are easily introduced into the environment and persist there due to their low solubility [17]. Food chains are subject to significant pollution from the release of hydrophobic organic chemicals [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Being present in different aquatic ecosystems (surface water, oceans, estuarine waters, etc.), organisms are directly or indirectly exposed to microplatiscs [17]. Scientific literature reports negative impacts of microplastics on benthic organisms [23, 24]. The toxic effects of these pollutants have been studied on the feeding habits, growth and reproductive systems of several aquatic species [25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. Human beings are therefore exposed through the consumption of seafood, fish and crustaceans [30].
The purpose of this paper is: (i) to do a bibliographical review of the physical and chemical properties, as well as the toxicological profile of MP, (ii) to identify the environmental hazards associated with MP contained in urban waste in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince.
Scientific and technical information from several world-wide documentation databases was used. Academic social networks, scientific databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, academia.edu, researchgate.net, academic presses (springer.com, sciendirect.com, Wiley Online Library, ACS Publications, etc.) were consulted in this way as electronic data available on the sites of certain research universities. The search equations launched on the various sites consulted were implemented from the crossing of the following keywords: “Microplastics”, “Microplastics (and) definition”, “Microplastics (and) plastics”, “Microplastics (and) thermodynamics”, “Microplastics (and) Epidemiology”, “Microplastics (and) physical and chemical properties”, “Toxicological profile of microplastics”, “Microplastics (and) Human health effects” , “Microplastics (and) Environment” , “Microplastics (and)) partition coefficient” , “Microplastics (and) Haiti”, “Haiti (and) solid waste” , “Fate and Microplastics” , “Microplastics (and) Ocean” , etc.
The results obtained have been the subject of a critical examination. Each article read, referred the authors of this study for the reading of another article cited in the list of his references. We considered articles that were published from 2005 to 2021. The number of times cited (citations analysis).
The term plastic refers to “a material which contains as an essential ingredient a high polymer and which, at some stage of its transformation into finished products, can be shaped by flow,” [31]. However, elastomeric materials (also shaped by flow) are generally not considered plastics [32, 33].
Plastics are mainly produced from non-renewable substances, extracted from petroleum and natural gas [1, 34, 35], or renewable like sugar cane, starch, or vegetable oil or even of mineral origin like salt [36]. The evolution of plastic, correlated with its major strengths, makes it a substitute material, to the detriment of metals, for example [37]. Thus, the increase in plastic, and its multiple applications, place it at the forefront of market share, ahead of traditional materials [38].
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [31] recommends the use of the term “macromolecule” for individual molecules, the term “polymer” being reserved for a substance consisting of macromolecules, further stipulating that the term “high polymer” or more generally “polymer” denotes a product consisting of molecules characterized by a large number of repeats of one or more species of atoms or groups of atoms (constitutional units), linked in sufficient quantity to lead to a set of properties which hardly vary with the addition or elimination of a single or a small number of constituent motifs [31]. The denomination of “plastics” comes from the characteristic plasticity property of many polymer materials which can be deformed at will under the effect of temperature (the notion of temperature is relative here: certain plastics are deformable at room temperature) [39]. Thus, most of the plastic materials placed on the market result from complex formulation steps intended to give the macromolecules the desired properties of use. Adjuvants such as stabilizers and additives will be used to limit the degradation of the chains under the effect of heat, radiation, abrasion (antioxidants, mineral fillers, etc.) and give them specific properties (plasticizers, dyes, flame retardants, reinforcements …) [39].
A main classification of plastics is based on the durability or non-durability of their shapes, or whether they are thermosets or thermoplastics [40]. According to Plastics Europe [36], plastics can be classified into various types. A typology of plastic as well as their applications and benefits are published on the website of this institution, which is an association of plastic manufacturers in Europe (Table 1).
Jiang et al. [40] note that the degradation of plastic waste generates microplastic (MP) or nanoplastic particles (NP); this division is based on the diameter of the plastic fragments or particles, MP being less than 5 mm in diameter and NP being 1 to 100 or 1000 nm in diameter [40]. The scientific literature on the diameter of plastic particles provides several information and divisions of microplastics. Arthur et al. [41] report when it was reported in 2004, the term microplastics was used to describe fragments of plastic approximately 20 μm in diameter. However, while these early reports referred to truly microscopic particles, they did not provide a specific definition of microplastic. In 2008, the United States National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) hosted the first International Microplastics Workshop in Washington and, as part of that meeting, formulated a broader working definition to include all particles. Less than 5 mm in diameter [41]. Other authors consider that particles>5 mm are macroplastics, mesoplastics 5 to>1 mm, microplastics 1 mm to>0.1 μm and nanoplastics as 0.1 μm [5].
Microplastics samples are usually sorted into different shapes according to observed morphology. The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) [42] recommends five general categories of recommends, including fragment, foam, film, line, and pellet. Figure 1 presents the standardized size and color sorting system (SCS) for categorizing microplastics [43]. It is recommended the original data in these finer subdivisions with the recognition that subdivisions can be combined for ease of harmonizing and comparing data [42].
The standardized size and color sorting (SCS) system [
According to Crawford et al. [43], the SCS system generates unique codes to process microplastic abundance data, requiring an efficient categorization system. Table 2 presents a categorization of plastic according to size, while the Table 3 gives the categorization of microplastics according to morphology.
Plastics | Description |
---|---|
Fluoropolymers | |
Type of plastics [plastic Europe – Online].
Category | Abbreviation | Size | Size definition |
---|---|---|---|
Macroplastic | MAP | ≥25 mm | Any piece of plastic equal to or larger than 25 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Mesoplastic | MEP | <25 mm–5 mm | Any piece of plastic less than 25 mm–5 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Plasticle | PLT | <5 mm | All pieces of plastic less than 5 mm in size along their longest dimension |
Microplastic | MP | <5 mm–1 mm | Any piece of plastic less than 5 mm–1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
Mini-microplastic | MP | <1 mm–1 μm | Any piece of plastic less than 1 mm–1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Nanoplastic | NP | <1 μm | Any piece of plastic less than 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Categorization of pieces of plastic based on size [43].
Abbreviation | Type | Size | Definition |
---|---|---|---|
PT | Pellet | <5 mm–1 mm | A small spherical piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in diameter |
MBD | Microbead | <1 mm–1 μm | A small spherical piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in diameter |
FR | Fragment | <5 mm–1 mm | An irregular shaped piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFR | Microfragment | <1 mm–1 μm | An irregular shaped piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FB | Fiber | <5 mm–1 mm | A strand or filament of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFB | Microfibre | <1 mm–1 μm | A strand or filament of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FI | Film | <5 mm–1 mm | A thin sheet or membrane-like piece of plastic less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFI | Microfilm | <1 mm–1 μm | A thin sheet or membrane-like piece of plastic less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
FM | Foam | <5 mm–1 mm | A piece of sponge, foam, or foam-like plastic material less than 5 mm to 1 mm in size along its longest dimension |
MFM | Microfoam | <1 mm–1 μm | A piece of sponge, foam, or foam-like plastic material less than 1 mm to 1 μm in size along its longest dimension |
Categorization of microplastics based on morphology [43].
There are many hundreds of different types of polymer and mixtures of polymer in commercial production, but the market is dominated by: polyethylene (as both high-density HDPE, and low-density LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These six polymers make up about 80% of plastics production and are likely to form a large proportion of most marine litter (GESAMP, 2019). The most common human-produced and petroleum-derived polymers found in microplastics are listed in Table 4.
Main polymers found in microplastics [32].
According to Lambert, et al. [16], “Microplastic” is an umbrella term that covers many particle shapes, sizes, and polymer types, and as such the physical and chemical properties of environmental microplastics will differ from the primary microbeads commonly used for ecotoxicity testing. In the Figure 2 is presented the physical and chemical properties of MP, by concentrating particle size, particle shape, surface area and crystallinity, as well as chemical composition, while considering the type of polymer, additive compounds, and changes in surface properties) [16].
Different microplastic physical and chemical properties to be considered in a prioritization framework [
Microplastics are subdivided into two groups: primary microplastics and secondary microplastics [26]. The distinction between primary and secondary microplastics is based on whether the particles were originally manufactured to be that size (primary) or whether they have resulted from the breakdown of larger items (secondary) [44]. It is a useful distinction because it can help to indicate potential sources and identify mitigation measures to reduce their input to the environment. Primary microplastics include industrial ‘scrubbers’ used to blast clean surfaces, plastic powders used in molding, micro-beads in cosmetic formulation, and plastic nanoparticles used in a variety of industrial processes [44, 45]. In addition, spherical or cylindrical virgin resin pellets, typically around 5 mm in diameter, are widely used during plastics manufacture and transport of the basic resin ‘feedstock’ prior to production of plastic products. Secondary microplastics result from the fragmentation and weathering of larger plastic items. This can happen during the use phase of products such as textiles, paint, and tires, or once the items have been released into the environment [44]. The rate of fragmentation is controlled by several factors [46].
Plastics can be lost to the environment across their entire value chain [47], which creates different opportunities (and challenges) to prevent leakage into technical and natural systems [48]. In this context, it is useful to frame the separate but interconnected issues of plastic pollution, which are nestled into one another [47]. A list of microplastic sources entering the environment is presented in Figure 3.
Environmental sources of pollution by microplastic [
Some sources and pathways are interconnected (e.g., mechanical stress, plastic waste, plasticulture) and some sources are stand-alone (e.g., primary microplastics in products, targeted applications, or transportation losses), but collectively all sources are part of the puzzle of how microplastic enters the environment.
Microplastics in the environment are generally supposed to be a heterogeneous aggregate of particles, which can be of both primary and/or secondary origins. However, whatever the group to which they belong, depending on their physical and chemical properties, the size and shape of the particles, the crystallinity, the surface chemistry and the composition of the polymers and additives, the toxicity of microplastics can be crucial for the environment [49]. In a critical review on the sources and instruments of microplastics in marine ecosystems, Wang & al [50] present a figure in which the landbased origins of primary and secondary MP are well explained (Figure 4).
Sources of microplastics in natural ecosystems [
Although there is no specific international marine legislation regarding microplastics so far, many proactive countermeasures have been taken – voluntary or legally binding practices at international, regional, and national levels [47]. Indeed, the available literature on marine pollution reports the existence of three global international conventions that deal with the problem of plastic waste in the marine environment at the beginning of the 1970s: (i) the United Nations Convention (UN) on the Law of the Sea [51], (ii) the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973) as amended by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) [52] and (iii) the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention or LC, 1972) [53].
Table 5 shows an overview of current legislation, regulations and instruments related to microplastics. Considering the abundance of microplastics in the environment, their ability to absorb pollutants, their impact on living organisms, the health and environmental authorities in several countries have applied the precautionary principle by adopting a legal framework on MP. However, uncertainties and gaps in the evidence regarding the effects of microplastics on the environment and on human health prevent the adoption of more restrictive measures, with the precautionary principle - in line to the World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations on international trade - only playing a minor role [54]. Available information on current regional and national instruments related to microplastics is discussed in Wang & al. [50].
International instruments | Period | Specific contents |
---|---|---|
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea | 1982 | Part XII (Articles 192–237): protection and control of marine pollution from sea−/ land-based sources |
MARPOL 73/78 | 1973 | Annex V prohibits “the disposal into the sea of all plastics, cargo residues, fishing gear including but not limited to synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets and plastic garbage bags”. (revised in 2011 and come into force in 2013) |
London Convention | 1972 | To prevent the “deliberate disposal at sea of wastes and other matter from vessels, aircraft and other structures, including the vessels themselves”. (Annex I, paragraph 2) |
London Protocol | 1996 | To prohibit the dumping of any wastes or other matter including the export of waste to countries for dumping and incineration at sea except for the materials listed in Annex I. (Article 4.1.1, 5 and 6) |
Basel Convention | 1989 | Include plastic waste and microplastics issues into the Basel Convention workstream at COP 13 (Plastic waste in Annex II Y 46 (Household wastes) and Annex VIII (Non-hazardous wastes)) |
United Nations Environment Programme – Regional Seas Programme and Global Programme of Action | 2003 | Regional activities in 12 regional seas |
Manila Declaration | 2012 | Prevent marine litter from land-based sources and agree to establish a Global Partnership on Marine Litter (GPML) |
G7 Summit | 2014 | G7 Marine Litter Action Plan |
G20 Summit | 2017 | G20 Marine Litter Action Plan |
United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) I | 2014 | Resolutions 1/6: put forward the issue of “Marine plastic debris and microplastics”. |
UNEA II | 2016 | Resolutions 2/11: measures to reduce marine plastic litter and microplastics |
UNEA III | 2017 | Resolutions 3/7: combating the spread of marine plastic litter and microplastics. |
Overview of current legislation, regulations and instruments related to microplastics [50].
The global plastics production has increased from 1.5 million tons in the 1950s to 335 million tons in 2016, with plastics discharged into virtually all components of the environment [55]. The MPs present in the environment result from the successive breakdown of larger plastic pieces or from the direct input of micro- and nano-sized particles used in various industries and products available to consumers [56]. Indeed, during their production, industrial and domestic use, and after such processes, a considerable part of the plastics produced globally end up in the environment. Moreover, Plastics rarely biodegrade but through different processes they fragment into microplastics and nanoplastics, which have been reported as ubiquitous pollutants in all marine environments worldwide [55]. In fact, plastics represent one of the fastest-growing portions of the urban waste contributing to environmental contamination and pollution, with plastic debris accounting for approximately 60–80% of all marine litter, reaching 90–95% in some areas [55, 57, 58, 59].
According to Lambert et al. [5] “Upon their release to the environment MPs are transported and distributed to various environmental compartments. The distances that an individual item will travel depends on its size and weight. Lightweight materials can be readily transported long distances via a windblown route or carried by freshwater to eventually accumulate in the oceans. During heavy rainfall events, roadside litter can be washed into drains and gullies, and, where the topography is favorable for it, can be carried to the sea”. Figure 5 shows a conceptual model illustrating degradation pathways for polymer materials [5].
Conceptual model illustrating degradation pathways for polymer materials [
Once in the environment MPs are degraded through abiotic or biotic factors working together or in sequence; these processes cause the polymer matrix to disintegrate, resulting in the formation of fragmented particles of various sizes and leached additives [5]. According to Lambert et al. [5] “there is a broad literature dealing with the degradation of various polymer types under various conditions. Most of these studies were performed in the laboratory and had a major focus on samples exposed to high-energy UV irradiation”.
In the environment, MPs constitute a matrix of pollutants, composed of several monomers and polymers (PE, PP, EPS, PET, PMMA, PTFE, PA, PU, etc.), metal catalysts, additives: phthalates, retardants. Flame, bisphenols A and F, etc.), loading materials (talc, Ti dioxide), adsorbed environmental pollutants (organic and inorganic, pathogenic agents, etc. The exposure of living organisms to MPs leads to consider the interactions between the combined effects of different pollutants. The characterization of exposure to microplastics will depend on: (i) the number of particles; (ii) size distribution, shape, surface properties, polymer composition and particle density; (iii) the duration of the exposure; (iv) the kinetics of absorption and desorption of contaminants, vis-à-vis the plastic and the organism; and (v) the biology of the organism [44].
Microplastics have been detected in sediments, surface waters, estuarine and marine waters [60, 61, 62]. The negative effects of microplastics on algae, mussels, fish, and other organisms have been the subject of several studies and have shown [20, 63, 64, 65, 66]. Given the difficulty for large filter-feeding organisms (fins, whales, ..) and zooplankton to differentiate between microplastics and food itself [27, 67], cellular intoxication has been documented by ingestion by inadvertently adhered microplastics with other pollutants [26, 25]. Flame retardants (chemicals derived from plastics) have been found in birds [29] and phthalates in whales and filter-feeding sharks [27]. Microplastics can affect growth and reproduction in daphnids [28].
Alimba and Faggio [55] observed effects of MPs on marine vertebrates and invertebrates, including asphyxiation by drowning, restricted diet and increased starvation, skin abrasions and skeletal injuries (which are the basis of intestinal mucosal damage, morbidity, and mortality), oxidative stress, altered immunological responses, genomic instability, endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, reproductive abnormalities, embryotoxicity and transgenerational toxicity [55].
Present in an environment, MPs can mimic the natural food sources of living species [5]. 135 species of marine vertebrates and 8 species of invertebrates susceptible to entanglement, and 111 species of seabirds have been identified, among others, among the species that ingest plastic objects [67]. Other studies have shown that MPs wrapping loops are a threat to sea lions in California and fur seals in Australia, respectively [68, 69]. Plastic bags have been identified as the main type of debris ingested by sea turtles [70]. Figure 6 shows a conceptual model illustrating the potential effects produced during the degradation of polymer-based materials [5].
Conceptual model illustrating the potential effects produced during the degradation of polymer-based materials [
The primary route of human exposure to MPs is the ingestion of foodstuffs, in particular seafood which has ingested microplastics [30], processed commercial fish [71], sea salt [72], honey [73], beer, food components [73]. Most of these food products are sometimes contaminated by the presence of impurities in processing materials and contaminants in packaging [74]. The second route of exposure is inhalation of air and dust containing MPs [30]. Due to their nutritional value, seafood plays an important role in human nutrition. Indeed, the consumption of seafood represents 6.7% of all protein and about 17% of animal protein in 2015 [75]. The risk of exposure is therefore great and increases with small fish eaten whole [46].
Several studies have highlighted the evidence for the presence of microplastics in several commercial aquatic species such as mussels, oysters, crabs, sea cucumbers and fish [76, 77, 78]. The results of this work suggest that humans are exposed to microplastics through their diet and the presence of microplastics in seafood could pose a threat to food safety [76]. The potential accumulation of microplastics in the food chain, especially in fish and shellfish (species of mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms) could have consequences for the health of human consumers [44]. In this trophic context, the fate and toxicity of microplastics in humans constitutes a major lack of knowledge which deserves special attention. The potential accumulation of microplastics in food chains, particularly in fish and crustaceans (mollusks, crustaceans, and echinoderms), appears to be the main source of human exposure to microplastics [44]. Contamination of food products with MP could have consequences for the health of human consumers. In this trophic context, the fate and toxicity of microplastics in humans constitutes a major lack of knowledge which deserves special attention.
The translocation of microplastics from the intestine to the circulatory system and various tissues and cells in humans has been studied by several authors [44]. Indeed, Hussain et al. [79] have shown the absorption of PE particles captured in the lymph and the circulatory system from the gastrointestinal tract. Exposure of human macrophages to fluorescent microspheres of PS (1, 0.2 and 0.078 μm), demonstrated particle capture driven by non-endocytic processes (diffusion or adhesive interactions) [44].
Urban cleanliness and its variations over time reflect the aspects of each civilization, […], the capacity of societies to legislate, to mobilize techniques and to organize the complexity of urban services [80]. In developing countries (DCs), however, the issue of urban cleanliness a priori highlights the weakness of urban managers and institutions in terms of their capacity to manage the growing and very heterogeneous flow of waste produced [81].
In Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, solid waste management is practiced in a context of rapid population growth and extreme urban poverty [82]. Indeed, urban cleanliness and its variations over time highlight a clear discrepancy between the objective of the waste management service (making and maintaining the city clean) and the realities on the ground. The combination of the low rate of garbage collection and high human densities accentuates unsanitary conditions in the city and represents a risk factor not only in terms of human health but also of the environment. Also, vacant spaces, voids in the urban fabric of Port-au-Prince very quickly become public landfill spaces [81]. In this urban space, notes Lacour [83], urban cleanliness is established in the mix of most urban waste management systems where state and private services coexist, as well as public funds and international funding, through development organizations. In addition, the negative impacts (pollution, nuisance, proliferation of rodents and insects, risk of disease, etc.), linked to the size, nature, and unsuitable management methods of organic waste (landfill with other categories, combustion, etc.), are generally very pronounced [83].
The characteristics of the waste management system in Haiti have been defined as follows [84]:
“At source, the general behavior tends to immediately remove unsorted waste. Consequently, the nearest (common) public space becomes the preferred outlet. This reflex is particularly predominant in rural and peri-urban areas and the precarious neighborhoods of so-called “low-standing” urban areas.
The existence of an informal circuit, said to be rather pragmatic, compensates for the absence of an institutional waste management service in rural areas or the dysfunction of this service in urban areas. This circuit is characterized by a pre-collection by voluntary contribution, an individual (rural and peri-urban) or private (urban “medium standing” and “high standing”) collection, waste disposal in non-dedicated spaces (vacant lots, gullies, etc.) spontaneously transformed into wild dumps.
The total absence of a landfill site that meets environmental standards, in terms of waste categorization, development work for the control of discharges and the recovery of leachate and biogas, odor management, animal control, etc.
The practices of recycling organic waste, by feeding pets and livestock (free and rope) are quite frequent at the level of pre-collection and collection points.
The lack of information relating to the deposits of waste, in terms of their masses, their compositions and their bio-physico-chemical characteristics, through the seasons and rural, peri-urban and urban spaces, constitutes an obstacle to the implementation, the monitoring and anticipation of management strategies” [84].
According to the World Bank (2019) [85], in the Caribbean and elsewhere in the world, marine pollution is linked to poor waste management on land: illegal dumping, open burning or dumping of waste in streams. In addition, the quantity of plastics reaches a concentration of 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer in the northeast of the Caribbean. In this region of the world, about 85% of wastewater is discharged into the ocean without having been previously treated; and, in island countries more particularly - Bahamas, Greater Antilles (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico) and Lesser Antilles - approximately 52% of households are not connected to sewers. However, 14 Caribbean countries (more than a third) have banned single-use plastic bags and / or styrofoam containers (Figure 7).
Caribbean countries that have banned single-use plastic bags and/or expanded polystyrene containers [
In Haiti, the government issued on August 9, 2012, a decree prohibiting the production, import, marketing, and use, in any form whatsoever, of polyethylene bags and expanded polystyrene objects (PSE or PS or Styrofoam) for single food use, such as trays, trays, bottles, sachets, cups and plates. On July 10, 2013, a second decree was issued to ban once again “the importation, production or sale of expanded polystyrene articles for food use”. In support of the second decree, the ministries of the Environment, Justice and Public Security, Trade, and Industry as well as Economy and Finance announced in a note published in January 2018 that brigade’s specialists will be deployed on the territory to force the application of the said decree.
To better approach the problem of plastic and microplastic waste management in Port-au-Prince, it is important to look at the waste management system. In Haiti, the National Solid Waste Management Service (
In the agglomeration of Port-au-Prince, there is a single space that has been officially designated to receive any type of waste. Due to the insufficient capacity of public actors to collect all waste, it ends up in different types of space according to different logics [86]. The uncontrolled presence of waste induces a certain number of potential nuisances. It is therefore necessary to consider the health risk classically associated with waste [87], as a vector of pathology and contamination of natural resources [86]. Beyond the environmental dangers generated by chemical substances and pathogenic microorganisms present in solid waste, the latter not only obstruct traffic routes, but are also a source of flooding by blocking irrigation canals and gullies (Figure 8).
Uncontrolled presence of waste in public spaces in Port-au-Prince. (left illustration - unauthorized deposit of household waste along a road [
Port-au-Prince’s marine ecosystem is liable to suffer locally profoundly serious damages caused by the direct discharge of urban effluents [88]. Indeed, the discharge of contaminants in natural ecosystems, by example water bodies pose a significant concern to water quality and to the health of aquatic organism because of not only the varied types of pollutants that impact these systems, also because of the many ways pollutants can affect the health of aquatic organism [89].
With the tropical temperature of Haiti and the average daily duration (12 hours / day), the plastics present in the urban water canals could degrade more quickly by generating microplastics. Their discharge in the bay of Port-au-Prince exposes this ecosystem to environmental dangers [90], that of pollutants contained in wastewater, and that of climatic hazards, in particular the acidification of the oceans. The stress of benthic organisms (coral reefs, bivalves) should then be observed and monitored.
The presence of microplastics in the environment first and foremost generates environmental health hazards, which need to be increasingly identified and assessed. Most of the research in the field of environmental pollution from microplastics has been carried out on aquatic ecosystems. There then arises the need to initiate research programs on terrestrial ecosystems.
The future of MPs in the environment represents real research challenges. Indeed, there is a lack of knowledge at the local and national level of the different flows. At the global level, the toxicological reference values have not yet been obtained. Human dose–response relationships need to be investigated on the basis of still possible animal species exposures.
The field of environmental assessment of MPs, in the Caribbean for example, a priori calls for transdisciplinary approaches. Indeed, this region of the world, thanks to its tropical climate and the Caribbean Sea, makes tourism one of its main development niches. Pollution from plastic waste exposes its economy to a risk of economic imbalance. In the case of Haiti, beyond the urgent need to review its public policies in terms of urban water and solid waste management, the pollution of ecosystems by MPs highlights the need to initiate real research work. in the field of marine ecotoxicology.
The authors are thankful to the “One Health” University Space of Quisqueya University, FOKAL-Open Society Foundation Haiti, the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF), the Representation of the Institute of Research for Development (IRD) in Mexico, Cuba, and Haiti, the SCAC (Service de Coopération et d’Action Culturelle) of the France Embassy in Haiti, and the AOG (Association Communautaire Paysanne des Originaires de Grande Plaine), for their support in carrying out this study.
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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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