\r\n\tListeria monocytogenes causes one of the most serious and life-threatening diseases (listeriosis), usually caused by eating food contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes. An estimate of 1,600 people get sick (especially at risk-groups including pregnant women, newborns, old people (65 years old and above), people with weakened immune systems, etc.) and about 260 die (Listeria is the third leading cause of death from foodborne illness in the U.S.) each year, in the U.S. from Listeriosis. \r\n\t \r\n\tThe main goal of the book is to provide accurate and updated information on Listeria monocytogenes so governments (decision-makers), food industry, consumers, and other stakeholders can implement appropriate preventative measures to control Listeria monocytogenes. This book will cover several topics including the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in developed countries, the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in developing countries, the prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food, detection of Listeria monocytogenes in Food, control of Listeria monocytogenes in food-processing facilities, etc.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6a973f92403c2834e0f2ad13a23edfc5",bookSignature:"Dr. Barakat Mahmoud",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9541.jpg",keywords:"Pathogenic Listeria monocytogenes, Gram-positive Bacterium, Foodborne, Prevalence, Ready-to-eat food, Listeriosis, Detection, Control , Food-Processing Facilities",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 13th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92016/images/system/92016.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmoud is an international food safety expert with 30 years of experience in food safety. He was an Associate Professor in the Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Health Promotion at MSU. Prior to that, he held a postdoctoral position (in Food Safety) at Purdue University. He earned his Ph.D. in Marine Biosciences (Food Safety) from Hokkaido University (Japan). Prior to that he was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Lisbon (Portugal). He held a researcher position at the NRC (Egypt) between 1994 and 2000. He received his BSc/MSc degrees in Agricultural Sciences from Cairo University. The main goal of Dr. Mahmoud’s work is to protect public health, reduce the prevalence of foodborne illness and promote the introduction of safer food using novel technologies. Dr. Mahmoud received more than $1M from the USDA, States and Food Industry to support his research (between 2008 and 2016). Dr. Mahmoud published about 100 publications (in international journals and/or conferences), two book chapters and edited a book entitled \\'Salmonella-A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen” (His publications have been cited more than 1200 times). He served as an editor-in-chief, editor/editorial board member for several international journals including Food Microbiology, Journal of Food Protection, Foodborne Pathogens & Disease, and African Journal of Food Science. 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1. Introduction
Remote locations which are far from grid electricity and islands have developed independent grids to supply power to the local populations. Even though they were not formally called microgrids, they met most of the criteria for today’s microgrid systems. With the advancement of renewable energy technologies and energy storage, the concept of microgrid emerged mainly for grid connected systems that are controlled and operated as a smaller grid.
WG6.22 of CIGRE [1] defines microgrids as “electricity distribution systems containing loads and distributed energy resources (such as distributed generators, storage devices, or controllable loads), that can be operated in a controlled, coordinated way either while connected to the main power network or while isolated.” A microgrid can offer a number of benefits to those connected to the microgrid as well as to the local utility. As micro-sources are connected closer to loads, the distribution network losses are reduced considerably. The optimum use of Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) within a microgrid further increases the efficiency of their operation. Further, microgrid connected facilities can continue in operation during a grid outage thus increasing the reliability and quality of supply. They can relieve grid congestion and improve operation of the utility grid.
Based on the purpose and regulatory regime in which they operate, microgrids can be categorise as:
“Off-grid” or “independent” – a microgrid that is not connected to the utility grid and serves a remote location or an island;
“Campus” or “Customer” – a microgrid connected to the local grid, supply power to one or more premises, and maintain some level of service in isolation from the grid; and
“Community” or “Utility” – a microgrid integrated into the utility network serving multiple customers within a community.
In this chapter, for the purpose of protection, “independent” (category a) and “grid-connected” (category b or c) will be used. When the microgrid is in “independent” mode, its protection should disconnect the faulty portion of the microgrid with minimum disruption to the loads connected to the microgrid. When a microgrid is in the “grid connected” mode, it should protect microgrid components when a fault is within the microgrid and isolate or provide fault ride through when a fault is in the utility network to which it is connected. Further, the microgrid protection should be coordinated with the utility network protection while having minimum impact on network protection.
2. Fundamental requirements of protection of a microgrid
Protection is installed to detect fault occurrence and isolate the faulted equipment. This is achieved by a fuse or a circuit breaker (CB). When using a fuse and/or CB for protecting a circuit, the following should be considered:
Selectivity or discrimination: This is the ability of the protection system to disconnect only the faulted section of a plant and to leave the rest of the power system operating.
Stability: This refers to the requirement of a protection scheme not to operate for remote or “out-of-zone” faults.
Speed of operation: Fast protection reduces the risk of damage to plant and personnel, but it is more difficult to make fast-acting protection stable for out-of-zone faults and to provide correct discrimination.
Sensitivity: This is the level of over-current at which the CB will operate.
Main protection: This is the primary protection system on any circuit or item of the plant.
Backup protection: This protection is design to operate in the event of failure of the main protection and to cover certain items of plant, which have a low probability of failing. Backup protection is generally slower than main protection and may isolate more than one circuit.
The example circuit shown in Figure 1 is used to describe the above in more detail. For a fault at the location shown, it should be cleared by fuse F1 not by CB3. This is called selectivity. F1 and CB3 should be able to discriminate whether the fault is in its jurisdiction or not. This jurisdiction (or region of operation) of a fuse or a CB is called the zone of protection. CB3 should be able to detect that the fault shown in the figure is out-of-zone. Further, CB3 should provide backup protection, in case F1 is unable to clear the fault.
Figure 1.
Grid connected microgrid.
3. Fault current contribution of different micro-sources and implications for protection
Microgrids utilise hybrid energy sources consisting of renewable energy sources and conventional power plants such as combined heat and power and diesel gensets. In contrast, conventional power plants usually employ synchronous generators. During a fault, as shown in Figure 2, if the microgrid is connected to the utility grid, then there will be fault currents from the utility grid and also from the micro-sources (marked in red lines with arrows). In an independent microgrid that is not connected to the utility grid then the only sources of fault current will be the micro-sources.
Figure 2.
Fault current within a grid-connected microgrid.
3.1 Fault current contribution from synchronous generators
The fault current contribution from a synchronous generator decreases exponentially after the fault occurs and settles down to a steady-state level. The fault current of a synchronous generator into a three-phase fault depends on the rotor construction. For a cylindrical pole machine, the direct axis has the same value of reactances as the quadrature axis and the fault current contribution to a three-phase fault is usually described by an expression of the form [2, 3, 4]:
The armature time constant (Ta) is not a fixed value but depends on the location of the fault. It is given by
Ta=X″+XeωRa+ReE2
where.
Xe
external reactance (to the fault)
Re
external resistance (to the fault)
Ra
armature resistance
The first three terms of Eq. (1) represent a symmetrical decaying ac fault current and the fourth term a dc offset.
Table 1 shows the parameters of a large (GL) and a small (GS) synchronous generator. The main difference is the resistance of GS is much higher than that of GL and the time constants of GS is much lower than GL. For a three-phase fault at the terminal of the machine, the armature time constant of GL is 163 ms and that of GS is 5.9 ms. Figure 3 shows the envelope of the current immediately after the terminal fault for both machines. As can be seen GS has a shorter transient compared to GL. However, as GL is connected far away from the microgrid, its contribution for a three-phase fault within the microgrid is much smaller and the presence of Re and Xe minimises the armature time constant and the period of transient.
Comparison of parameters of a large and small synchronous generator.
Figure 3.
Fault current at the terminal of the synchronous generator. (a) for GL and (b) for GS.
During the fault, the generator terminal voltage decreases rapidly, and as the field current is usually derived from the generator terminal, the field current also decreases. This limited field current capability reduces the airgap flux thus reducing the fault current contribution of the synchronous generator. The fault current will fall to zero within a fraction of a second or within a few seconds at the most, thus generator protection device such as a moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) may not detect the fault. This fault current without field forcing is shown by the red line in Figure 4. For the correct operation of the protective devices, field forcing, which is maintaining the field current throughout a fault condition, is often required. Fault current with field forcing is shown by the blue line. Reference [6] highlights a number of field forcing methods such as shaft mounted permanent magnet generator as a pilot exciter and auxiliary winding design that enables to obtain the field current from both current and voltage of the generator.
Figure 4.
Characteristic of the generator protection for terminal faults [6].
3.2 Fault current contribution from asynchronous generators
Fixed speed wind farms and some small hydro plants employ asynchronous (induction) generators as their power source. In these generators, the airgap flux is formed by the induction effect, and when the stator supply is lost, the airgap flux also diminishes. Therefore, as Figure 5 shows typical fault current shows a high initial current and a rapid decay to zero. Eq. (3) is used to describe the fault current contribution of an asynchronous generator to a three-phase fault at its terminals.
Figure 5.
Fault current of an induction generator with a three-phase fault at its terminals (phase shown with minimum DC offset).
It=V1X″cosωt+λe−tT″+cosλe−tTaE3
where.
X″=X1+X2′XmX2′+Xm; T″=X″ωR2′; Ta=X″ωR1.
R1
is the stator resistance.
X2′ and R2′
are the stator referred rotor reactance and resistance.
Xm
is the magnetising reactance.
V1
is the magnitude of the network voltage.
ω=1−sωs≈ωs
(as s is very small).
Any external impedance involved must be added to the stator impedance.
3.3 Fault current contribution of converter connected sources
Solar plants and variable speed fully rated wind farms are interfaced to the microgrid through a voltage source converter (VSC). The VSC effectively creates a synthesised ac voltage behind an inductor. The VSC employs an inner control loop which is usually a current controlled regulator. During a network fault, in between the time of disconnecting the upstream protection and islanded detection of VSC, the inner control loop of the VSC regulates the positive-sequence component of its output current to a constant value. Therefore, most short circuit analysis platforms such as ASPEN. CAPE, and ETAP model VSCs as a voltage controlled current source [7].
VSC usually employs Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and these will be damaged even when short duration high currents flow through them. When a transient current approaches a damaging level, the IGBTs are protected by controllers that turn off the IGBTs. Therefore, the fault current contribution from a converter connected distributed generator is very low.
The VSC’s response to negative-sequence imbalance, such as a line-to-line or line-to-ground fault, depends on the inverter’s control algorithms. Often the VSC provides a constant positive sequence current with very little negative and zero sequence current. This is shown in Figure 6, obtained from a line-to-ground fault near a 2 kW solar PV plant (simulated using a MATLAB/SIMULINK model).
Figure 6.
The solar inverter fault current for a line-to-ground fault (fault is from 2 to 3 sec). (a) Inverter current (A) – Top and terminal voltage (V) – Bottom of the faulty phase. (b) Inverter current (A) – Top and terminal voltage (V) – Bottom of the healthy phase.
4. Protection of independent microgrids
4.1 Protection for safety
When designing and implementing an electrical installation of a microgrid, the safety of the people or livestock occupying that buildings or houses connected to the microgrid, the safety of equipment connected to the microgrid, and the safety of the electrical installation of the microgrid should be considered.
In order to provide protection against electric shock resulted from contact with a conductor which forms part of a circuit and would be expected to be live, basic protection such as the insulation of live parts, the provision of barriers, obstacles or enclosures to prevent touching, and placing out of reach are commonly employed.
4.2 Over-current and short circuit protection
A protective device should automatically interrupt the supply to the line conductor or equipment in the event of a fault. For automatic disconnection, a Residual Current Device (RCD) such as a Residual Current operated Circuit Breaker (RCCB) or an over-current protective device such as fuses, Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB), Moulded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB) or Residual Current operated Circuit Breaker with integral Over-current protection (RCBO) could be used.
4.2.1 Commonly used protective devices
4.2.1.1 Fuses
A High Breaking Capacity (HBC) or High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuse is used to protect various equipment in a microgrid. When the fault current flows through the fuse, it’s fuse wire heats up and melts. The time that corresponds to this process is called pre-arcing time. Even if the fuse wire melts, the current continues to flow in the form of an arc. That time is called the arcing time. In an HBC fuse in order to quench the arc, a powered filling is used, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7.
HBC fuse.
When selecting a fuse for microgrid equipment, two currents should be considered:
Rated current: The current that the fusing element can take without melting.
Breaking capacity: The maximum current the fusing element can break without any damage to the fuse.
Figure 8 shows the time-current characteristic of a fuse. As can be seen, the operating time is inversely proportional to current.
Figure 8.
Operating characteristic of a fuse.
4.2.1.2 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
An MCB has a magnetic coil and a bimetal strip (Figure 9). For a prolonged over-load current, the bimetal strip starts bending and breaks the circuit after some time. A magnetic coil is an instantaneous element that breaks the circuit immediately after a high current is detected. This acts on a short-circuit current.
Figure 9.
Open-up section of an MCB.
Due to the presence of bi-metal strip and magnetic coil, an MCB shows two different characteristics for over-load and short-circuit currents, as shown in Figure 10. In that figure, the PQ characteristics are due to the bi-metal strip and the QR characteristics are due to the magnetic coil.
Figure 10.
MCB characteristics.
4.2.1.3 Residual current devices
Residual current devices are used for rapid disconnection of the source of electricity. Their sensitivity can be 10, 30, 100 or 300 mA. Figure 11 shows part of the operating mechanism in an RCCB. The current in the live wire passes through coil A and that of neutral wire passes through coil B. If phase current and neutral currents are equal, then the flux produced by coils A and B will cancel out. If an earth fault occurs in part of the installation or a person or animal comes into contact with the live wire, the current in one coil differs from that of the other. Then the flux of the two coils will be out of balance resulting in a net magnetic flux in the toroid. This resultant flux links with the fault detection coil and the emf induced will cause the circuit breaker to break the circuit.
Figure 11.
Simplified diagram of an RCCB.
4.2.1.4 Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB)
Functionally an MCCB is very similar to an MCB, except the rated current and breaking capacity is much higher. MCCBs are available in three types: Type B, C and D. Type B is used when the power factor of the equipment being protected is closer to 1. Type C is used for inductive loads and Type D is used for motor loads. Figure 12 shows the symbol of an MCCB and its time-current characteristics. As indicated in the symbol, the MCCB has a circuit breaking element (
), a thermal element for over-current protection (
), and a magnetic element for short circuit protection (
). A modern MCCBs comes in various frame sizes, and the current a frame can normally carry is the rated current of the MCCB.
Figure 12.
Symbol of an MCCB and its time-current characteristics.
4.2.2 Protection of solar plants
Figure 13 shows a typical medium-size solar PV plant. The dc circuits are protected by array fuses, and string fuses and disconnectors. A string fuse with a disconnector should be employed for each string. As the fuses used in the strings are subjected to constant sun irradiance and high temperatures, they should be de-rated in many applications by applying the temperature correction factor specified by the manufacturers. A PV array fuse is only required if there is another source of short circuit current such as a battery system.
Figure 13.
Typical protection arrangement for a PV plant.
IEC 62548 [8] and IEC60364–7-712 [9] provide guidance for protection against over-currents in solar plants. When there are more than two strings in a PV plant, a fuse is required to protect a string from reverse currents due to a short circuit of part of that string. The above IECs state that if Ns−1×ISC (where Ns is the number of parallel strings and ISC is the short circuit current of a PV sub-array at standard test conditions) is greater than the series fuse rating specified in the manufacturer’s data sheet (as per IEC 61730–2 [10]), then string fuses should be employed. String fuses should be selected such that 1.5×ISC<In<2.4×ISC and In≤ string fuse rating (where In is the rating of the fuse).
4.2.3 Protection of wind power plants
The electrical protection of small wind turbine generators is addressed in IEC61400–1 [11]. The wind turbine generator should have a disconnection switch and the rated current of fuses or the setting current of other over-current protective devices such as MCB and MCCB should be selected as low as possible but adequate for starting the wind turbine generator. Further, the rated short-circuit breaking capacity should be at least equal to the prospective fault current at the point of installation. The action of the bi-metallic strip in MCBs and MCCBs should introduce a time delay that affords the generator time to start and settle into the normal running current without unnecessary tripping.
4.3 Surge protection
Lightning or switching surges can enter into different expensive equipment in a microgrid and destroy or cause it to mal-function. To provide protection against surges, surge protection devices (SPD) are employed. An SPD is a metal oxide varistor or an avalanche breakdown diode or a gas discharge tube. An SPD diverts the surge into the ground, thus providing protection to the device to which it is connected.
4.4 Case study
An islanded microgrid installed in the north of Sri Lanka that feeds power to a remote island that has 120 families is considered. The microgrid has a wind farm, ground-mounted solar plant, battery bank with a grid forming inverter and a backup diesel generator. Some photos from the microgrid are given in Figure 14 and the rating of these components is given in Table 2.
Figure 14.
Some photos from Eluvithive microgrid. (a) Map of the island, (b) distance view of the island, (c) solar panel and microgrid assembly, (d) solar inverters, (e) solar inverters and multi-cluster panel, (f) diesel generator, wind turbine inverters and dump loads, (g) wind turbines, and (h) Li-ion batteries.
Source
Unit capacity
Number of units
Total capacity
Diesel Generator
30 kW
1
30 kW
Wind Plant
3.5 kW
6
21 kW
PV plant
250 Wp
180
45 kWp
Li-ion batteries
13 kW/27.5 kWh
4
52 kW/110 kWh
Table 2.
Different sources and capacity of microgrid components.
A simplified diagram was created from the single line diagram of Eluvithive microgrid and Figure 15 shows this simplified network and associated protective devices.
Figure 15.
Example isolated microgrid.
In the event of a network fault, the dc link voltage of the wind turbine will rise rapidly because the inverter is prevented from transforming all the active power coming from the wind generator. Therefore, in order to maintain the dc link voltage below its upper limit, the excess power is dissipated in a chopper circuit shown. Here the excess energy is dissipated into a resistor connected to the dc link as heat. When the dc-link voltage reaches a critical value, the dc-link is short circuited for a short period of time through the chopper. During the activation of the chopper, the dc-link discharges keeping the dc-link voltage below a critical value.
As can be seen from the figure, the wind turbine is protected by a 3 pole over-current protective device (MCCB 1). Each wind turbine is rated at 220 V, 50 Hz but operating at a variable voltage and variable frequency mode. According to the wind turbine specification (WINDSPOT 3.5 kW [12]), the power generation at the cutout wind speed (25 m/s) is 4214 W. The corresponding current is 4214/3×220=11.06 A. The current rating of MCCB 1 was selected as 125% of generator rated current, i.e. 13.8A. Even though a 16 A MCB is adequate when considering the load current rating, the wind turbine manufacturer uses a 25 A MCCB. The selection was based on the short circuit capability of MCBs. They have a breaking capacity less than 5 kA and at the terminal of the generator, the short circuit current may be higher than that. Therefore, the smallest MCCB, having a rated current of 25 A and a braking capacity of 10 kA, is employed. Also, note that as the current from the generator has a variable frequency, an MCCB suitable for operating at variable frequency was selected.
Since the grid side of the wind turbine is a single phase, the maximum current on that side is 19.15 A, thus requiring an overcurrent protective device of 23.9 A (1.25 x 19.15). Therefore, an MCCB having a rated current of 25 A and a braking capacity of 10 kA was used for MCCB 2.
Table 3 provides the specifications of the solar panels that are essential for determining the protective devices. In that table STC stands for standard test condition, i.e. irradiance of 1000 W/m2 and ambient temperature of 25°C.
STC Power (Wp)
250
STC Open circuit voltage Voc (V)
37.6
STC short circuit current Isc (A)
8.81
Series string fuse rating (A)
15
Table 3.
Details of each of the solar panels.
As there are three parallel-strings, as described in Section 3.2.2, Ns−1×ISC = 2 x 8.81 = 17.62 A. As this is greater than PV module’s series fuse rating, 15 A, string fuses are required. The current rating of the fuse should be such that 13.21.5×8.81<In<21.12.4×8.81. Therefore 15 A fuses are employed.
The output current of the inverter is 15×103/3×400=21.6 A, and the MCCB rating was selected as greater than 125% of the output current, i.e. 27 A. Therefore, for MCCB 3, 32 A, 4 pole, 10 kA, MCCB was used. A similar procedure was used to select MCCBs for other places.
As shown in the figure, Surge Protection Devices (SPD) are employed to protect sensitive electrical equipment like the inverter, monitoring devices and PV modules. Their requirement depends on the length of the dc cable between the array and inverter (Ldc) and the length of the ac cable between the inverter and main distribution board (Lac). Table 4 specifies these requirements.
5. Protection of microgrids operating in parallel with the grid
There should be adequate protection to ensure the safe operation of the components within a microgrid and external circuit to which the microgrid is connected. As discussed in Section 3, fuses, MCBs, MCCBs, and RCCBs are used for small microgrids. For large microgrids protection relays and associated circuit breakers are used. A typical microgrid connection with associated protection is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
Protection of grid connected microgrid.
In Figure 16, a number of fault locations could be identified:
Fault F1: This is a fault within the micro-source, and the generator protection should clear the fault.
Fault F2: For a feeder fault within the microgrid, both micro-sources and the main grid will provide fault currents. Fault current provided by MS2 is cleared by the relays associated with CB8. Fault current from the grid and MS1 is cleared by the relays associated with CB6. As the coordination of relays should maintain for grid connected and islanded modes, careful studies should be carried out to ensure proper coordination. Two alternative settings could be used with modern numerical relays, one for the grid connected mode and the other for the islanded mode.
Fault F3: When a fault occurs in the main grid at the location shown, it is detected by the overcurrent relays associated with CB3 and CB4 and isolates the fault by switching these two circuit breakers. Under such condition, the microgrid experiences a Loss of Mains (LoM) and adequate LoM protection should be employed to isolate the microgrid from the main grid.
Fault F4: As the fault is at the far end of the radial network, the protection relay CB10 will clear the fault with considerable time delay. During this period the voltages of the busbar C and D may experience voltage dips, and the micro-sources should be able to ride-through the fault and come back to normal operation when CB10 isolates the fault.
The different protection requirements under the above fault conditions are specified in country-specific standards. In the UK, the basic protection requirements for microgrids containing micro-sources of 16 A or less and connected to LV distribution networks are spelt out in the Engineering Recommendation G98 [13]. The protection requirements for a larger microgrid but with less than 50 MW sources and connected to distribution MV networks are given in the Engineering Recommendation G99 [14]. For all distributed energy resources (DER) connected to distribution networks in the USA, the protection requirements are given in IEEE1547: 2018 [15]. G99 specify protection requirements under four generator types classified based on the rated power and the connection point voltage. These categories are given in Table 5. IEEE 1547 also categorises generators as category I, II and III based on the abnormal operating performance, mainly voltage and frequency ride-through capabilities. As the recommended protection arrangement varies with the connection arrangement of the transformer and the generator, the readers are directed to the relevant standard for more details.
5.1 Protection of micro-sources
For an internal fault in a large generator, differential protection is usually employed. Figure 17(a) shows that if both ends of the stator windings are accessible, differential protection provides phase and earth fault protection. If only one side of the stator is accessible, earth fault protection can be achieved as shown in Figure 17(b). In some cases, differential protection covers both generator and generator transformer. In such a case, a fault F1 shown in Figure 16 is cleared by the differential protection scheme.
Figure 17.
Differential protection of generator. (a) Earth and phase fault protection and (b) restricted earth fault protection.
5.2 Protection of the microgrid
For a fault at location F2 of Figure 16, micro-sources MS1 and MS2 deliver fault current. As shown in Figure 18, an overcurrent relay (marked as 51) associated with the micro-sources can clear the fault. Suppose the micro-source is a small synchronous generator. In that case, as discussed in Section 2.1, excitation should be maintained during a fault using a field forcing technique for the over-current protection to work satisfactorily.
Figure 18.
Overcurrent protection for phase and earth fault protection.
A better scheme for providing over-current protection of the network from a small generator is to use a voltage-restrained or voltage-controlled over-current relay (51 V) (also shown in Figure 18). This relay requires both current and voltage signals to operate. The voltage restrained approach causes the pick-up current to decrease with decreasing voltage, as shown in Figure 19(a). When the voltage is at its rated value, the pick-up setting of the relay is high. As the voltage decreases (due to a fault), the pick-up value of the relay is decreased proportionally. The voltage-controlled approach has a high pick-up value when the voltage is above a preset voltage, and the pick-up current is reduced to a lower value for voltage below the preset voltage (Figure 19(b)).
Figure 19.
Operating characteristic of voltage restrained and voltage controlled relays. (a) Voltage restrained and (b) voltage controlled.
5.3 Protection for LoM
When the microgrid becomes disconnected from the grid due to an external fault as F3 in Figure 16, IEEE 1547 and G99 specify a number of ways to provide LoM protection. Some of the protection functions are associated with generators, whereas some other functions are associated with interface protection associated with the utility-tie CB at the point of connection or point of common coupling. Figure 20 shows the typical LoM protection functions associated with the generator as specified in G99. For completeness, the protection functions described under the previous section are also included in the figure by blue colour lines.
Figure 20.
Typical protection requirement for DER.
Loss of Mains may cause frequency or voltage to be outside the normal operating ranges. When the voltage and frequency are outside the limits defined in Table 6, the micro-source is tripped within the respective clearing time. For this, under-voltage (27), over-voltage (59), under-frequency (81/O), and over-frequency (81/U) protection relays are used.
Type
Output Power
Voltage to which the DER is connected
A
0.8 kW to 1 MW
< 110 kV
B
1 MW to 10 MW
< 110 kV
C
10 MW to 50 MW
< 110 kV
D
> 50 MW
> 110 kW
Table 5.
Different types defined in G99.
Parameter
IEEE1547:2018
G99
Category
Setting (pu & Hz)
Time delay (sec)
Setting (pu & Hz)
Time delay (sec)
Under-voltage (pu)
Stage 1
I
0.70
2.0
0.80
2.5
II
0.70
10.0
III
0.88
21.0
Stage 2
I & II
0.45
0.16
III
0.50
2.0
Over-voltage (pu)
Stage 1
I & II
1.10
2.0
LV – 1.14 HV – 1.10
1.0 1.0
III
1.10
13.0
Stage 2
I, II, III
1.20
0.16
LV – 1.19 HV – 1.13
0.5 0.5
Over-frequency (Hz)
Stage 1
I, II, III
62
0.16
52
0.5
Stage 2
I, II, III
61.2
300
Under-frequency (Hz)
Stage 1
I, II, III
58.5
300
47.5 Hz
20
Stage 2
I, II, III
56.5
0.16
47.0
0.5
LV: 50–1000 V ac LL HV: > 1000 V LL
Table 6.
Over and under voltage and frequency limits.
As per the G99, interface protection includes over, and under-frequency relays operating for the 2nd stage settings (Table 4), over and under-voltage relays operating for the 2nd stage settings, and a special relay employed for LoM protection.
IEEE 1547: 2018 and G99 state that under and over frequency and under and over voltage relays will not provide adequate protection for LoM, and additional means is required. G99 states that additional LoM protection is required for Type A, B and C power generating modules. Depending on the situations, rate of change of frequency (ROCOF), reverse active power, and reverse reactive power relays may be applied to provide LoM protection. However, if reverse power occurs during normal operation, then the reverse power relay cannot be used for LoM protection. Further, if the microgrid contains micro-sources that can generate reactive power and reverse reactive power flows are experienced during normal operation, then the reverse reactive power relay cannot be used for LoM. Then the ROCOF relay is the only relay that remains for protecting against LoM.
ROCOF relay senses df/dt over a number of cycles and operates when it is greater than a predetermined value. The ROCOF relay should ignore slow changes of df/dt and only should respond to rapid changes. The rate of change of the frequency is determined by the inertia constant1 of the distributed generator and captive load and governed by the following equations:
dωdt=1JTm−TeE4
The inertia can be expressed in per unit as an H constant
H=12JωS2SratedWs/VAE5
where Srated is the base MVA.
ωS is the angular velocity (rad/s) at synchronous speed.
Thus
dωdt=ωS22HSratedTm−Te=ωs2HPm−PeE6
where ωsTSrated=P is the per unit (pu) power.
Since ωs=2πf, from (6) the ROCOF can be obtained as:
dfdt=f2HPm−PeE7
where Pm and Pe are pu quantities on generator base.
A sudden connection or disconnection of a load and a fault in the network may cause a sudden shift in the terminal voltage vector of a DER with respect to its normal operating voltage. A relay that measures the voltage phase changes in consecutive cycles and compares the value with a preset value could be used to provide LoM protection. Such relay is called a vector shift relay. Even though the voltage vector shift relay is recognised in G98 as an acceptable method of providing LoM protection, it can be over-sensitive and operate incorrectly. Present revisions of G99 state that the voltage vector shift technique is not an acceptable LoM protection.
5.4 Fault ride-through for remote faults
As discussed before, a remote fault (such as fault F4 in Figure 16) may create temporary voltage disturbances. Under such conditions, the micro-sources should ride the fault and resume operate immediately after the remote fault is cleared. As per IEEE 1547, if the temporary voltage is between the lower and upper red lines in Figure 21, then the micro-source should ride-through the fault by maintaining synchronism with the grid and without tripping the generator breaker. When the remote fault is cleared, the active current output should be restored to at least 80% of the pre-disturbance active current level within 0.4 s. A similar requirement is specified in G99. The ride-through requirement for G99 Type C & D generators is also shown as the blue line in Figure 21.
Figure 21.
Fault-ride through requirements.
IEEE 1547 also specifies a rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) ride-through. Micro-sources should ride-through and not trip for frequency excursions having magnitudes of ROCOF less than 0.5 Hz/s for Category I, 2.0 Hz/s for Category II and 3.0 Hz/s for Category III DERs.
5.5 Case study
An example microgrid is shown in Figure 22. In that network all the line impedances are given on 200 MVA, 11 kV base. The transformer reactances and generator impedances are given on their own base. This network is used to demonstrate the operation of the microgrid under different faults.
Figure 22.
Example grid-connected microgrid.
5.5.1 Fault on utility network: Islanding of the microgrid
A fault at F3 (at 1 s) is cleared by CB3 and CB4 and the microgrid may continue to operate depending on the active and reactive power balance within the microgrid. Table 7 gives the voltages of different busbar before and after islanding. As can be seen from the table, even after islanding, the voltages of the busbars will be maintained within limits.
Busbar
Voltage (pu) before islanding
Voltage (pu) after islanding
A
1.02
B
1.016∠−0.06o
C
1.015∠−0.06o
0.966∠−3.53o (C′)
D
1.018∠−0.01o
0.969∠−3.49o
E
1.018∠−0.02o
0.97∠−3.47o
Table 7.
Voltages of different busbars before and after islanding.
Figure 23 shows MS1 terminal voltage and generator frequency when the microgrid is islanded due to a fault at F3. During islanded operation, the total generation within the microgrid is P = 5 MW and Q = 1.5 Mvar whereas the total demand is P = 4.3 MW and Q = 1.5 Mvar. Therefore, the surplus of generation (without considering the losses) after islanding is 700 kW. For MS1 on 5 MVA base, the inertia constant is 2.5 MWs/MVA. From Eq. (7), the rate of change of frequency can be calculated as follows:
Figure 23.
The voltage and frequency of MS1 terminal. (a) Generator busbar voltage and (b) generator frequency.
dfdt=f2HPm−Pe=502×2.5×7005000=1.4Hz/sE8
From Figure 23, it is computed that the rate of change of frequency is 0.036 Hz/s. This is because, when accounting for the losses surplus is much less that 700 kW. Further, when considering the reactive power balance, there is no significant difference to vary the voltage. Therefore, neither under-voltage or over-frequency relays will detect the islanding situation. Typically, the ROCOF relay on a small microgrid is set to operate for 1–3 Hz/s, and with the penetration of micro-sources are increasing it is reduced. For example, in the GB ROCOF setting has recently changed from 1.25 Hz/s 0.125 Hz/s. With a such setting, the ROCOF relay will not operate. Therefore, the microgrid can continue to operate in islanding mode provided that there is no significant change in the generation and load.
5.5.2 Fault external to microgrid: fault-ride-through of generator in microgrid
Figure 24 shows the voltage at the busbar D for a fault at F4 with grid connection, which is introduced at 1 s and cleared at 2 s. As can be seen, the voltage is well within the ride-through requirements specified in Figure 21, and therefore MS1 should ride-through the fault.
Figure 24.
Voltage at busbar D.
5.5.3 Fault internal to microgrid: operation of protection in grid-connected and islanded mode
For a fault at F2 (busbar E), the fault current through CB6 without MS1 is 4.5 kA, and with MS1, it is 7.76 kA. Therefore, the micro-source MS1 aid the protection by reducing the operating time of CB6. With the protection coordination settings for grid connected mode, the protection of CB6 may have mal-operate if the microgrid becomes islanded. In islanded mode, the fault current flowing through CB6 for a fault at F2 reduces to 3.38 kA. The following section explains this issue further.
In grid connected operation, relays at CB9 and CB3 should be coordinated with the fuse F800, which is a 800 A fuse. Then CB5 and CB6 should be coordinated with CB3. These settings are given in Tables 8 and 9.
Line
BC
CF
Line End
B
C
C
F
Full load current (A)
382.3 A (when MS1 and MS2 are not operating)
142.4 A
Fault current (kA)
8.46
8.07
8.07
5.65
CT ratio1
500:5
200:5
Plug setting (PS)
100% = 500 A
100% = 200 A
PSM = FC/PS
16.9
16.1
40.4
28.3
Table 8.
Data for selecting the relay for the coordination path F800-CB9-CB3.
Assuming 125% of overload current.
Line
CD
DE
Line End
C
D
D
E
Full load current (A)
195 A (when MF1 and MF2 are operating)
28 A
Fault current (kA)
8.16
8.09
8.09
7.52
CT ratio1
300:5
50:5
Plug setting (PS)
90% = 270 A
90% = 45 A
PSM=FC/PS
30.2
29.9
179.8
167.1
Table 9.
Data for selecting the relay for the coordination path CB3-CB5-CB6.
Assuming 125% of overload current.
In Table 8, full load current in line BC was obtained using load flows carried out in IPSA simulation platform with MS1 and MS2 disconnected. This is the case that introduces the highest current through the line. Similarly, the current through CF was obtained. The possible fault currents at each end of lines (neglecting load currents) was obtained by applying faults at busbars B, C and F. In order to select the primary current rating of the current transformer (CT), and overload current of 125% was considered. The secondary current rating is based on the relay to which the CT is connected and assumed as 5A. Usually, the plug setting (PS) is selected higher than the overload current and less than the fault current and 100% is selected for both relays, i.e. relay at CB3 and CB9. Plug setting multiplier (PSM) is the fault current divided by the plug setting, and it is calculated for each relay for faults at the sending and receiving end of the line.
CB9 should be coordinated with the 800 A fuse, the fuse operating current was obtained for a LV side fault at busbar F. That is for a fault current of 28.83 kA on the LV side of the transformer, from the fuse characteristic, it was found that the operating time is 5 ms. Assuming a grading margin of 0.25 s, the minimum operating time of relay at CB9 is 0.255 s (0.25 + 0.005). Assuming an extremely inverse characteristic [16] for the relay at CB9, the operating time of the relay CB9 was calculated as follows.
The operating time of the relay=80×TMS/PSM2−1E9
=80×TMS/28.32−1=0.255s
where 28.3 is the PSM of the relay at CB9 for a fault at F (see Table 8).
Therefore the time multiplier setting (TMS) of the relay = 2.55.
As the maximum possible TMS for a typical overcurrent relay is less than 1.5, the PS of the relay was increased to 130%. Then the PSM = 5650/(1.3 x 200) = 21.7 and the new TMS = 1.49. Select TMS as 1.5 (in many relays, TMS can set only in discrete steps; for this example, it was assumed that the step size is 0.025).
With PS of 130% and TMS of 1.5, the operating time of the relay at CB9 for a fault near busbar C was calculated as follows.
PSM=8070/1.3x200=31.0E10
Operating time of the relay=80×1.5/312−1=0.125sE11
By considering the grading margin of 0.25 s, the operating time of the relay at CB3 for a fault near the busbar C should be 0.375 s. Assuming the relay is very inverse [16], the TMS was calculated as follows.
The operating time of the relay=13.5×TMS/PSM−1=13.5×TMS/16.1−1=0.375sE12
TMS = 0.419, select 0.425.
Even though the above settings work ok for the given fault, when implementing the protection coordination system in the IPSA simulation platform, the curves of relays at CB9 and CB3 intercept. Therefore, the PS of the relay at CB3 was increased to 150%, and the resultant curves are shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25.
Relay and fuse characteristic for a fault after 800 a fuse.
Table 9 shows the PSM calculation for lines CD and DE for a fault at F2 (busbar E).
With the setting of the relay at CB3 calculated for the previous coordination, the operating time of that relay for a fault at C is 0.58 s. To maintain the correct grading margin, for a fault at the end C, the relay at CB5 should operate at less than 0.33 s, i.e. 0.58–0.25 s. Then assuming that CB5 is a very inverse relay, the TMS was calculated as follows.
13.5×TMS/30.2−1<0.33∴TMS<0.71E13
Therefore, TMS was selected as 0.7.
With the calculated setting of the relay at CB5, the operating time of the relay for a fault at D was calculated as 13.5×0.7/29.9−1=0.33 s. Then the relay at CB6 should operate less than 0.077 s (0.33–0.25 s) for a fault at busbar D. Assuming that CB6 is a very inverse relay, the TMS was calculated as follows.
13.5×TMS/179.8−1<0.077∴TMS<1.02E14
Select TMS as 1.0.s.
Figure 26 shows the coordination of CB3-CB5 and CB6. Also shown the operation of CB6 when MS1 is in operation when MS1 is not in operation, and during an islanded mode for a fault at F2. As can be seen, the operating time of the relay under islanded condition is highest.
Figure 26.
Relay coordination.
6. Earthing requirements
6.1 Effective earthing approaches for transformer connected micro-sources
Micro-sources are operated in parallel with the utility grid and are connected through a transformer. It is important that the proper earthing of this interfacing arrangement. Figure 27 shows possible transformer connection arrangements. It was assumed that the generator is star earthed in all four configurations.
Figure 27.
Possible transformer connection to a micro-source.
6.1.1 Earthed star: delta connection
This is connection A shown in Figure 27. This arrangement provides isolation of the generator from microgrid/utility side ground faults. As discussed in Ref. [17], high zero sequence impedance resulting from this configuration may interfere with the normal flow of fault currents on the microgrid, thus upset protection coordination, nuisance fuse operations, and false operations of upstream protective devices. These problems can be reduced by using a grounding-impedance in the neutral grounding connection of the transformer as per IEEE/ANSI C62.92 [18]. The grounding-impedance should be selected such that the ratio of zero sequence reactance (X0) to positive sequence reactance (X1) less than or equal to 3 and the ratio of zero sequence resistance (R0) to positive sequence reactance less than or equal to 1. This can be easily achieved if the utility side of the interfacing transformer is star-earthed.
6.1.2 Star-star connection
This is connection B shown in Figure 27. In order to provide effective grounding of the generator with respect to the utility grid, X0/X1 ≤ 3 and R0/X1 ≤ 1 [18]. In this configuration, interferences, especially triplen harmonics, transfer from the grid side to the micro-source side and vice versa.
6.1.3 Delta: earthed star and Delta–Delta connections
These are connections C and D shown in Figure 27. If the network on the utility side is ungrounded or delta, then these configurations might create ground over-voltages during faults. To explain this, a part of the microgrid shown in Figure 28 is used. If the HV side voltage is interrupted, the substation CB opens, and the microgrid may go into the islanded mode. This was a common incident in the Moragahakanda hydropower plant in Sri Lanka. This particular power plant has 4 generators totalling 25 MW and is connected to a 33 kV network. During the first two years of operation, this power station operated as an island with captive loads when the Naula grid, to which the power station is connected, failed. This was later mitigated using a transfer trip arrangement that sends the tripping command to Moragahakanda when the Naula trips.
Figure 28.
Single-phase fault on the islanded microgrid.
During the above operating scenario, during a single phase to ground fault the virtual neutral formed in the delta shifts to the original position of phase C as in the phasor diagram shown in Figure 29. Then phases-A and -B may experience an over-voltage as high as 173% of the original voltage. In practice, this is limited by the faulty impedance and the impedance shown to the fault from the earthing transformer. However, the over-voltages created by such a fault may damage the loads connected to the 33 kV network.
Figure 29.
Phasor diagram for the situation shown in Figure 28.
Connection arrangement C can be used with a substation having a Star-earthed, as shown in Figure 30. The transfer trip provides fast disconnection of the micro-source, thus preventing any over-voltages appearing on the circuit.
Figure 30.
Typical earthing arrangement for the transformer connection C.
6.2 Effective earthing approaches for VSC connected micro-sources
When paralleled with strong voltage sources (i.e., synchronous generators), VSCs have little impact on neutral grounding, and conventional methodologies of grounding calculation can be utilised. In most cases, VSCs interconnected with a system providing a strong short-circuit source can be ignored in grounding calculations because of their relatively small short-circuit current contribution compared to that provided by synchronous generators in an interconnected power system. There are certain circumstances where VSCs can become dominant within a sub-system when that sub-system becomes isolated from the main grid. These circumstances involve distribution feeders or systems having sufficient micro-source capacity to support significant energisation of the sub-system when islanded from their normal source.
As most solar inverters are single phase or three-phase three wire, there are no zero sequence currents from them. Therefore, for a transient over-voltage condition that occurs due to single phase fault, it is accurate to assume that the VSC as a positive sequence current source. This is shown in Figure 31. Due to the earth fault, if the substation breaker opens and the inverter continues to provide a positive sequence current, then the voltage on health phases is I0 times the equivalent load impedance between that phase and neutral. A series of tests done on a number of inverters show that this voltage is often greater than 1 pu voltage [19]. When the generation to load ratio is high, a supplementary ground source may be used to reduce the transient over-voltages. IEEE/ANSI C62.92.6 [20] indicates that the supplementary ground sources might interface with the feeder protection coordination, and therefore, case-specific analysis is required.
Figure 31.
Representation of a VSC for a single-phase fault on a distribution network.
7. Conclusions
With the formation of generation clusters connected to distribution networks, there is a high possibility of adopting smaller controllable structures such as microgrids operating in parallel to the main utility grid. Even though independent microgrids are in operations since the early ages of electricity generation, the idea of grid connected microgrid immerged more recently.
The protection of independent microgrids is somewhat similar to the protection of special installations. In them, the RCCDs are used to protect against direct and indirect contacts, MCBs or MCCBs are used to protect against overload and short circuit currents, and SPDs are used to protect against over-voltages.
The protection of grid connected microgrids depends on the complexity of the microgrid. Internal faults of micro-sources and their interfacing transformers are protected by a differential protection scheme. Overcurrent protection for faults within the microgrid network and outside is provided by properly coordinated overcurrent protection devices. As micro-sources provide limited fault current voltage operated or voltage restrained overcurrent devices are used. The applicable standards such as IEEE 1547: 2018 and G99 state that under an islanding situation due to a fault outside the microgrid, the microgrid should cease to operate with the times specified in the standards. To provide loss of main protection, under- and over-voltage and under- and over-frequency relays are employed. However, as these relays do not provide adequate protection under LoM, ROCOF relays are used to disconnect the microgrid. For remote faults outside the microgrid, micro-sources should ride-through the fault, and ride-through requirements are specified in the standards.
For correct operation of the microgrid, attention should be paid to the grounding arrangement. The grounding varies with the interfacing arrangement, i.e. transformer connection arrangement or voltage source connection arrangement. In many cases, effective earthing should be maintained as per IEEE/ANSI C62.92.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge Mr. Amalendran, Chief Engineer, CEB, Northern Province providing information and pictures of Eluvithive island microgrid. Special thank goes to Eshan Karaunaratne for providing some simulation results and Gayan Abeynayake for checking some calculations.
\n',keywords:"microgrid, micro-sources, protection, grid connected, independent, islanding",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77871.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77871.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77871",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77871",totalDownloads:283,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:0,impactScoreQuartile:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2021",dateReviewed:"June 29th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 15th 2021",dateFinished:"August 5th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The concept of microgrids goes back to the early years of the electricity industry although the systems then were not formally called microgrids. Today, two types of microgrids can be seen: independent and grid connected. The protection requirement of these two types differs as the protection needs of an independent microgrid are intended for protecting components and systems within the microgrid, whereas a grid connected microgrid demands both internal and external protection. The first part of this chapter is dedicated to independent microgrids. How protection devices such as residual current circuit breakers, miniature and moulded case circuit breakers, and surge protective devices should be selected for an example microgrid is discussed while referring to the relevant standards. In the next section, the protection of a grid connected microgrid is discussed. Particularly, micro-source protection, microgrid protection, loss of mains protection and fault ride-through requirements are discussed while referring to two commonly used distributed generator connection codes. An example with simulations carried out in the IPSA simulation platform was used to explain different protection requirements and calculation procedures. Finally, grounding requirements are discussed while referring to different interfacing transformer connections and voltage source inverter connections.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77871",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77871",book:{id:"10176",slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems"},signatures:"Janaka Ekanayake",authors:[{id:"328170",title:"Prof.",name:"Janake",middleName:null,surname:"Ekanayake",fullName:"Janake Ekanayake",slug:"janake-ekanayake",email:"ekanayakej@cardiff.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fundamental requirements of protection of a microgrid",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Fault current contribution of different micro-sources and implications for protection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Fault current contribution from synchronous generators",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Fault current contribution from asynchronous generators",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Fault current contribution of converter connected sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Protection of independent microgrids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Protection for safety",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Over-current and short circuit protection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.2.1 Commonly used protective devices",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"4.2.1.1 Fuses",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"4.2.1.2 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"4.2.1.3 Residual current devices",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"4.2.1.4 Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.2 Protection of solar plants",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.3 Protection of wind power plants",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.3 Surge protection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.4 Case study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Protection of microgrids operating in parallel with the grid",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.1 Protection of micro-sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.2 Protection of the microgrid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.3 Protection for LoM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.4 Fault ride-through for remote faults",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.5 Case study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"Table 7.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"5.5.2 Fault external to microgrid: fault-ride-through of generator in microgrid",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"Table 8.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"6. Earthing requirements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"6.1 Effective earthing approaches for transformer connected micro-sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"6.1.1 Earthed star: delta connection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"6.1.2 Star-star connection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"6.1.3 Delta: earthed star and Delta–Delta connections",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"6.2 Effective earthing approaches for VSC connected micro-sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_35",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Microgrids 1: Engineering, Economics, & Experience, Working Group C6.22, CIGRE publication 635, October 2015, ISBN: 978-2-85873-338-5'},{id:"B2",body:'Kimbark, E.W., “Power System Stability – Synchronous Machines” (IEEE Press, 1995)'},{id:"B3",body:'Kundur, P., “Power System Stability and Control” (McGraw-Hill, 1994).'},{id:"B4",body:'Hindmarsh, J., “Electrical Machines and their Applications” (Pergammon Press, 1970)'},{id:"B5",body:'Dominik Mamcarz, Paweł Albrechtowicz, Natalia Radwan-Pragłowska and Bartosz Rozegnał, “the analysis of the symmetrical short-circuit currents in backup power supply systems with low-power synchronous generators”, Energies 2020, 13, 4474; doi:10.3390/en13174474.'},{id:"B6",body:'Griffith Shan, M., “Modern AC generator control systems, some plain and painless facts”, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 1976, 12(6), pp. 481-491'},{id:"B7",body:'Tom Key, Gefei Kou, and Michael Jensen, “On Good Behavior: Inverter-Grid Protections for Integrating Distributed Photovoltaics”, IEEE PES Magazine, Nov/Dec 2020, pp. 75-85.'},{id:"B8",body:'IEC62548: 2016: Photovoltaic (PV) arrays – Design requirements, International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 978-2-8322-3635-2.'},{id:"B9",body:'IEC 60364-7-712: 2017: Low voltage electrical installations – Part 7-712: Requirements for special installations or locations – Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems, International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 978-2-8322-4006-9.'},{id:"B10",body:'IEC 61730-2: 2007: Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification – Part 2: Requirements for testing, International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 978 0 580 67895 0'},{id:"B11",body:'IEC 61400-1: 2005: Wind turbines – Part 1: Design requirements, International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 0 580 47146 2.'},{id:"B12",body:'WINDSPOT 3.5KW Owner’s manual, Available at: 50_030_001_C_MANUAL_windspot_3.5_y_1.5_Manual.pdf (renugen.co.uk); Access on 13/06/2021'},{id:"B13",body:'Engineering Recommendation G98, Issue 1 Amendment 4 June 2019, “Requirements for the connection of Fully Type Tested Micro-generators (up to and including 16 A per phase) in parallel with public Low Voltage Distribution Networks on or after 27 April 2019”, Energy Networks Association.'},{id:"B14",body:'Engineering Recommendation G99, Issue 1 Amendment 5 November 2019, “Requirements for the connection of generation equipment in parallel with public distribution networks on or after 27 April 2019”, Energy Networks Association.'},{id:"B15",body:'IEEE 1547: 2018, “IEEE standard for interconnection and interoperability of distributed energy resources with associated electric power systems interfaces”, IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21.'},{id:"B16",body:'IEC 60255-151: 2009: Measuring relays and protection equipment – Functional requirements for over/under current protection, International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 978 0 580 59473 1.'},{id:"B17",body:'Phil Barker, “Over-voltage Considerations in Applying Distributed Resources on Power Systems”, Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, 2002 IEEE, Volume: 1.'},{id:"B18",body:'IEEE Std C62.92.1: 2016: IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems—Part I: Introduction, IEEE power and energy society, ISBN 978–1–5044-3735-6.'},{id:"B19",body:'Nelson, A. Hoke, and S. Chakraborty, J. Chebahtah, T. Wang, and B. Zimmerly, “inverter load rejection over-voltage testing: SolarCity CRADA task 1a final report”, Technical Report NREL/TP-5D00–63510, February 2015.'},{id:"B20",body:'IEEE Std C62.92.1: 2016: IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems—Part VI—Systems supplied by current-regulated sources, IEEE Power and Energy Society, ISBN 978-1-5044-4315-9.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Inertia constant is the ratio between the kinetic energy and the apparent power of the rotating machine."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Janaka Ekanayake",address:"ekanayakej@cardiff.ac.uk",affiliation:'
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Cardiff University, United Kingdom
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The fossil fuel depletion and inevitable global warming have become worldwide problems; thus, significant efforts have been made to generate and utilize renewable energy to alleviate these crises. Methods for obtaining energy compounds from biomass, such as ethanol, methane, and hydrogen, have been developed using environment-friendly technology, and some of these technologies have been put to practical use. It is important to establish the technologies that are able to obtain energy in various forms according to the environments and circumstances of each region. Apart from the above technologies, biofuel cells utilizing microorganisms and enzymes, which can generate renewable electrical energy from organic matters contained in biomass, begin to attract attention as a means to obtain sustainable energy. It has not been put into practical use yet, but without the problem of by-products, electricity can be directly obtained from the devices, whereby multiple operations, such as product distillation (e.g., ethanol), are not necessary. Moreover, if biomass waste is used as the fuel, no food competition will occur. Therefore, using this method, energy can be obtained sustainably (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Environmentally friendly energy.
\n
There are various types of biomass, e.g., sustainably harvested wood, waste paper, food waste, sewage sludge, and various wastewaters. Taking wood-based biomass as a fuel example, when everything is burnt using available technology for thermal power generation, there will be nothing left, and we will lose some other useful compounds contained in it. On the other hand, in biofuel cells, although electricity is generated from the sugar obtained from the biomass, other components in the wood, such as lignin, can be used for purposes other than power generation. Generally, the energy density of the biomass used as a fuel for MFCs is high. For example, glucose and xylose, found in various plant biomass, can produce up to 20 or 24 electrons per molecule, provided that they are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide. It is possible to generate 4430 Wh power per kg of glucose according to the calculation described later. For reference, a typical lithium-ion battery has a weight energy density of about 200 Wh per kg. This comparison means that glucose and xylose are two biofuel sources of interest, especially as electron donors. Therefore, MFCs using glucose and/or xylose as their fuel have great potential as a means of obtaining high energy.
\n
In biofuel cells, biological reactions are used for the oxidation reaction of biomass, and they are divided into two based on the type of catalyst used: (1) enzymes and (2) microorganisms. When enzymes are used, the most widely studied mechanism is the two-electron oxidation system by glucose oxidase (GOx) or glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) [1]. Since purified enzymes are generally used, the reaction rate is faster than using microorganisms. However, the number of electrons obtained by one enzymatic reaction is smaller than that of a microorganism. For example, when GDH is used as the catalyst, glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid, and at most, only two electrons are obtained from one glucose molecule. Therefore, if only one enzyme is used, high-energy production per glucose consumed cannot be much expected. Further, the addition of cofactors, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), is necessary for the enzymatic reaction to enhance the energy production. Furthermore, the cost of enzyme purification is also high; hence, enzymes are better utilized in sensor applications than energy production. By contrast, as mentioned above, one completely oxidized glucose molecule gives 24 electrons when using microorganisms as the catalyst. It shows a possibility of obtaining more electrons per glucose consumed. Moreover, the addition of cofactors is not necessary, unlike when enzymes are used. These are some substantial advantages of MFCs. However, the production of low power in MFCs is still a problem because of typical processes in living organisms, such as the uptake of glucose into cells, metabolism repression, and extraction of electrons from the inside of cells (Figure 2). Many researchers are working to solve such problems, and those results are summarized in recent review articles [2, 3].
\n
Figure 2.
Electron generation and extraction in the microbial fuel cell system. Med: mediator.
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Looking back at the historical background, research on the MFCs has been conducted for a long time, whereby the first idea of using microorganisms to produce electricity was conceived and reported by Potter in 1911 [4]. Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were used as the catalyst, and platinum was used as the electrode. Further, in 1931, Cohen showed that a number of small fuel cells connected in series produced 2 mA of electricity at over 35 V [5]. Early MFCs used an artificial mediator, e.g., thionine, methyl viologen, and humic acid, to carry electrons from the microbial cells to the electrodes [6, 7]. The oxidized mediators came into contact with the microbial cells, and were reduced by accepting electrons, and they were then separated from the microbial cells. They diffused and came into contact with the surface of the electrode to release the electrons and were reoxidized thereafter. Overall, the addition of artificial mediators promotes the flow of electrons. Next, in the 1990s, several bacteria were found capable of acquiring electrons from the electrode via a self-mediator without the addition of an artificial mediator. Moreover, they used electrons for their growth; for example, a ferric-iron-reducing bacterium Shewanella putrefaciens grew on lactate by obtaining electrons from the electrode [8], and similar reports were found on Shewanella oneidensis and Geobacter sulfurreducens [9, 10]. Although the flow direction of electrons between cells and electrodes is opposite from the MFC explanation just before, these findings led to the development of mediator-free MFCs [11, 12, 13]. In the 2000s, the mechanism at the cell surface whereby bacteria directly came into contact with the electrodes and carried the electrons was reported [14, 15]. Since then, MFC research, including the analysis of the electron transport mechanism at the cell surface, has been actively conducted. In fact, the number of publications related to the MFCs grew significantly since 2010 and reached nearly 1000 in 2016 and 2017 according to ISI WEB OF SCIENCE [2]. In particular, with the discovery of new fuel cell components other than the microbial catalysts, the performance of MFCs could be increased further.
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The performance of MFCs is evaluated based on some indicators. The electrical energy (Wh) used to express the capacity of dry batteries is also an important indicator, but only a few papers have reported it so far. In most cases, the performance is expressed as the maximum power per anode electrode area (power density per area) or the maximum power per cell volume (power density per volume). The latter is a straightforward index and important for practical use. For example, a relatively high-performance small-scale fuel cell (2.5 mL) using a complex (mixed) microorganism system was reported in 2007 with a power density of 1550 W/m3 [16]. Other fuel cells performing beyond 500 W/m3 were also reported [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], but many of them are still at a microliter or milliliter scale. Owing to the low proton diffusion speed and high internal resistance, the maximum power per volume tends to be small for a large-scale fuel cell. MFCs with a volume more than 1 L were also being studied in the laboratory, but the maximum power per volume was still low at the level of several W/m3 to tens of W/m3 [23, 24]. Scaling-up is also another issue of MFCs, and further improvements are still being conducted.
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Practical applications of MFCs are still problematic because of the high cost and low-power generation. Despite this situation, research on the implementation of MFCs has been carried out. For example, an artificial stomach called Gastrobot (aka Chew-Chew train) using E. coli and sugar as the catalyst and fuel, respectively, EcoBot-III (a self-sustainable robot with its own circulatory system, such as ingestion, digestion, and excretion), and several environmental sensors using the MFCs for powering [2]. Such implementation studies are also important to understand the desired performance level for MFCs. Meanwhile, in order to bring MFCs closer to practical use, a combination of power generation and other effects is one of the promising methods. For example, MFCs that are installed at a wastewater treatment facility are expected not only to reduce the generated sludge amount from the treatment but also to cover a part of the electricity load used by the plant. Recently, the minimum performance of MFCs required for reaching energy neutrality in a wastewater treatment facility has been calculated [25], and the realization has been highly expected. Such research on MFCs installed for wastewater treatment has been actively carried out so far, and the experiments were examined at a pilot-scale plant of more than 10 L [26, 27, 28]. Accordingly, the practical use of MFCs is expected soon. Besides this, although it deviates from energy production, the use of MFCs as a sensor has also been extensively studied. In order to perform on-site real-time monitoring, it is important to recognize the toxic compounds rapidly. Several analytical techniques based on electrochemistry have been developed for this purpose, but in many cases, they lack practicality for environmental measurements. The MFC-based biosensor is one promising candidate, and it has already been shown that not only toxic heavy metals but also toxic organic compounds can be detected [29]. The sensitivity adjustment suitable for the detection of specific contaminants is left as a challenge, but there is still a great expectation for its application.
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Here, we will explain the mechanism of electron generation in microorganisms, introduce the principle of MFCs, describe the microbial catalysts used for various MFCs mentioned above, and discuss the recent topics on microbial catalysts.
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2. General principles of MFCs and various microbial catalysts
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2.1. Mechanism of electron generation in microbial cells
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MFCs utilize the decomposition energy of organic matters by the organisms to produce ATP, known as the energy currency, based on the energy obtained from this process. Taking glucose decomposition in Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an example (Figure 3), glucose taken into the microbial cells by cell membrane enzymes is oxidized and decomposed to pyruvic acid by various enzymes via an intracellular glycolysis system. Next, pyruvic acid becomes carbon dioxide and water when it is completely oxidized via the TCA cycle. The electrons generated are then collected in the mitochondrial inner membrane in eukaryotes, and in prokaryotes, they were accumulated in the cell membrane via NADH and FADH2 (both of which provide two electrons to the membrane electron flow; Figure 3). In addition, the flow of electrons in these membranes is maintained through multiple protein complexes localized in the membrane. Quinone compounds and cytochrome proteins are also included in the complex. ATP is synthesized by the membrane enzyme, ATP synthase, using the proton concentration gradient, which is generated inside and outside the membrane because of the flow of electrons. In MFCs, it is thought that it takes the electrons directly from NADH or the flow of electrons generated in the membrane by the decomposition of organic substances. A part of the electrons generated within the microbial cell is carried to an electrode outside the cell via an electron carrier called a mediator. When one molecule of glucose is completely oxidized into carbon dioxide and water in the cell, 10 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of FADH2 are also generated. In total, 24 electrons are obtained from 1 glucose molecule. If this principle were to apply to fuel cells, the Coulomb efficiency, which is an index of energy efficiency, would become 100%. Therefore, in order to obtain electrons more efficiently from the cells via such metabolism, it is important to adjust the redox balance within the microbial cells in the MFCs.
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Figure 3.
Glucose metabolism (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
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2.2. Calculation of the energy obtained from glucose
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In the case of using glucose as the fuel source, the reaction occurring in the anode tank is represented by Eq. (1), and the reduction reaction occurring in the cathode tank is represented by Eq. (2).
The oxidation-reduction potential of Eq. (1) is −0.42 V, whereas the oxidation-reduction potential of Eq. (2) is 0.82 V. Therefore, the total potential difference of the MFC reaction (Eq. (1) + Eq. (2)) as represented by Eq. (3) is 1.24 V. Theoretically, the voltage exceeds 1 V, but in most cases, it has never reached that value.
Assuming that 24 electrons are obtained from 1 glucose molecule and that they can be recovered in 1 h, the quantity of electricity (Ah) obtained from the glucose (1 kg) can be calculated using the Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol) as shown in Eq. 4. As a result, the electrical energy of 4430 Wh can be achieved if the potential is 1.24 V; accordingly, this value is the same as the value mentioned in the Introduction section.
2.3. Basic components of dual-chambered MFCs using a mediator
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A dual-chambered fuel cell consisting of an anode tank and a cathode tank is the simplest and has been used for a long time for MFCs. In many cases, they are separated by a cation exchange membrane (CEM) to create a potential difference between the two tanks (Figure 4). CEM prevents mixing of each content and allows the protons generated in the anode to migrate to the cathode. In addition, CEM selection, especially based on its proton transfer efficiency, is important because it significantly regulates the movement of the protons responsible for the pH reduction at the anode affecting the activity of microorganisms and the delivery of electrons to the oxygen at the cathode. Also, some factors to consider, such as durability and cost, are important for selecting CEM. At present, Nafion is popular for many MFCs [30, 31].
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Figure 4.
General dual-type MFC. Med: mediator, CEM: cation exchange membrane.
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Numerous research studies are being conducted to evaluate the influence of the electrode materials on the performance and cost of the MFCs. Carbon materials, which are noncorrosive, have been widely used because of their high electrical conductivity and chemical stability, e.g., carbon rod, carbon fiber, carbon felt, and carbon cloth [3]. Biocompatibility, specific surface area, electrical conductivity, and cost are important factors for its selection. Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has been attracting much attention for its use as an electrode because of its high specific surface area, electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility [32]. In fact, graphene has been already used in lithium-ion batteries, and the development of graphene-modified materials to increase the power density has progressed actively [33, 34]. Moreover, since biofilm formation by microorganisms on the electrodes affects the performance of MFCs, the preference of electrode materials tends to shift from two-dimensional to three-dimensional surfaces, where a larger surface area is obtained; thus, the contact with microorganisms increases. Furthermore, metals are also used as the electrodes. The conductivities are higher than those of carbon materials, but they are prone to corrosion in the anode solution. Therefore, metals are problematic to use, except for stainless and titanium. To improve such problem, materials in which metal is incorporated into graphite have been made [3].
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A phosphate buffer or bicarbonate buffer solution is often used for the anode electrode solution to achieve high performance [16, 35]. The pH of the solution affects not only the activity of microorganisms but also the transfer of hydrogen ions used from the anode to the cathode when the electrons are transferred to oxygen at the cathode. The solutions contain microorganisms as the catalyst, organic matter as the fuel, and mediator as the electron carrier. In addition, there are reports that the performance of MFCs was improved by adding NaCl to increase the ionic strength [36].
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Regarding the fuel, many substrates have already been studied [37]. For example, acetic acid, lactic acid, glycerol, glucose, xylose, sucrose, starch, yeast extract, malt extract, various real wastewaters, and synthetic wastewater were used depending on the purpose of each research. Generally, the fermentable substrate of microorganisms is used to generate electricity more efficiently. There is a trend where glucose is used when using S. cerevisiae, lactic acid when using S. oneidensis, and acetate when using G. sulfurreducens in the experiments. On the basis of a calculation, when lactic acid, acetic acid, and glycerol are completely oxidized, there are 14, 8, and 14 electrons obtained, respectively. The number of electrons obtained from each substrate depends on the metabolic pathway.
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Regarding the mediator, although some microorganisms can carry electrons directly to the electrode as described later, in many cases, the electrons cannot be carried, or the performance is low even if carried, so an artificial mediator that can pass through the cell membrane is added to the anode solution. The typical compounds for artificial mediators are methylene blue, neutral red, 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (HNQ), thionine, benzyl viologen, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, and various phenazines [38]. It was reported that the hydrogenase donates electrons to the neutral red [39], but the process was not yet clearly proven as to how these mediators deprive electrons of the cell. It is thought that, depending on the type of mediator, the electrons may be taken directly from NADH or obtained from the electron transfer system of the cell membrane. On the other hand, there is also a difficult aspect of using a mediator. In order to increase the electron transfer efficiency by the mediator, it requires a high concentration, but because of its high toxicity, it has a strong influence on the cells; therefore, the level of use is necessary to be controlled.
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Finally, the cathode solution is explained as follows. The electrons generated at the anode are carried to the cathode, where the reduction reaction takes place. When oxygen, the most common electron acceptor, is used as an oxidizing agent, aeration is necessary because oxygen has low solubility (about 8 mg/L DO). There are cases where oxygen generation by the photosynthesis of algae is used for oxygen supply [40, 41]. In the reaction at the cathode, H2O is produced by oxygen, whereby the electrons were carried from the anode via an external circuit and protons were carried from the anode solution via CEM. There is also a report that the addition of hydrogen peroxide leads to an improvement in power generation [42]. Besides oxygen, there are various electron acceptors [43]; for example, an oxidizing agent such as iron ferricyanide is also used for the cathode. In many cases, the ferricyanide has a high mass transfer efficiency and a high cathode potential so that a high output can be obtained. The combination of carbon electrodes and ferricyanides to achieve power 50–80% higher than the combination of Pt/carbon electrodes and oxygen was reported [44]. In the case of using ferricyanide, once the trivalent iron ion receives the electrons, it becomes divalent, and when it delivers the electrons to oxygen, it reverts to the trivalent state. However, the latter reaction is less likely to occur owing to the low solubility of oxygen. Ferricyanide is an excellent electron acceptor, but owing to its toxicity, its use is generally limited to the laboratory. Other than oxygen and ferricyanide, there are also many candidates, for example, nitrate, persulfate, permanganate, and manganese dioxide. It is also possible to use the nitrate contained in the wastewater because its redox potential is close to that of oxygen, and then, the nitrate is reduced to nitrogen gas at the cathode [43].
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2.4. Other types of MFCs
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MFCs are typically divided into a dual-chambered cell described above and a single-chambered cell (Figure 5). In the latter, a membrane-type positive electrode with oxygen permeability called an air cathode is used [45]. The electrode is coated with the platinum catalyst, and H2O is produced from the oxygen permeated from the atmosphere, the proton in solution, and the electron from the anode. However, if the permeated excess oxygen diffuses and is delivered to the microorganisms at the anode, the electrons generated in the microorganisms are then transferred to the oxygen, and the energy recovery rate decreases. Therefore, a CEM is used between the anode solution and the cathode in order to prevent a decrease in energy recovery. This single-chambered type has already been widely used currently.
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Figure 5.
Other types of MFCs. Med: mediator, CEM: cation exchange membrane.
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Moreover, there is a mediator-free type that does not require an artificial electron compound [46]. The microbial strains used here can synthesize mediators themselves and/or have an electron transfer function on the cell surface. In the former, the self-synthesized mediators are flavin compounds, hydroquinone, and phenazine that are able to transfer the electrons to the electrode. In the latter, membrane-bound proteins such as pili, c-type cytochromes, and filaments are known as cell surface structures that can directly transmit electrons. The biofilm formation on the electrodes, namely, biocompatibility of the electrodes, is also important for power generation via such direct electron transfer. Therefore, research on electrodes promoting the formation of the biofilm is actively being conducted.
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In addition, with the use of MFCs in wastewater treatment, contamination on the CEM results in reduced power generation; hence, membrane-free MFCs have also been studied [46].
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2.5. Various microbial catalysts
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Various microorganisms have been studied for a long time since the first experiments on S. cerevisiae and E. coli [4]. The classification of these catalysts is largely based on the purity and complexity of the cultured microbial systems. Many different microorganisms are used in the pure system [37, 38, 47, 48]. S. cerevisiae is a safe microorganism used in foods and can grow even in the presence of a high concentration of sugar, sulfate, and ammonium nitrogen. MFCs show high performance when using S. cerevisiae and glucose as a catalyst and a fuel, respectively [43]. E. coli can also ferment sugar well and is used for the study of MFCs using glucose as a fuel. Although it can generate electricity without a mediator, in the present situation, the power generated is low, so an artificial mediator is added in order to achieve better performance. Besides the two examples, there are also Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, Rhodoferax ferrireducens, Geothrix fermentans, Shewanella species, Geobacter species, Clostridium species, and sulfate-reducing bacteria. The possibility of utilizing extremophilic microorganisms is also being studied [49], and to add a new perspective to power generation by MFCs, the utilization of photosynthetic bacteria at the anode is also examined [40]. One of the advantages of these MFCs is the elimination of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. Meanwhile, in complex systems, the use of various wastewater and waste sludge has been reported [25, 37, 46, 50]. Many studies on bacterial communities under the control of MFCs have been conducted using those aforementioned resources. It is thought that the bacteria belonging to the phylum Proteobacteria were involved in power generation [51, 52]. However, owing to the complexity of bacterial interactions, their contribution to power generation within these communities is not well understood yet.
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In such a research situation, there are relatively many examples of research on S. oneidensis and G. sulfurreducens, and the details of their power generation mechanisms are being clarified. S. oneidensis can produce self-synthesized mediators, like flavin compounds. The strain has not only such a mediator but also an extracellular electron transport system involved in power generation. This system, present from the inner membrane to the outer membrane, plays a role in carrying the electrons to the extracellular receptors (i.e., the electrodes in this case) by contacting them directly. In particular, cell-surface-localized cytochromes (MtrC and OmcA) are important components for the electron transfer [53]. On the other hand, G. sulfurreducens has electrically conductive pili, called nanowires, which can transfer electrons to extracellular electron acceptors on the cell surface [54]. S. oneidensis also has an electrically conductive structure similar to the pili, but its structure is different, whereby the membrane structure containing the cytochrome protein described above was raised [54]. In any case, it has been confirmed that electrons can be delivered via such protrusions. It is expected that new developments will be made in the future, such as introducing the genes related to these mechanisms into other species, especially model organisms, such as E. coli and S. cerevisiae.
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3. Recent topics of microbial catalyst and future directions
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3.1. Modification of microorganisms
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The utilization of chemical and biotechnological techniques is important to modify the microbial cells as biocatalysts in the MFC system. Molecular biology approaches are effective tools to improve the performance of the biocatalysts for the desired system. In this section, recent topics about the approaches for microbial catalyst development are discussed.
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3.1.1. Chemical treatment
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Mediators and macromolecular catabolic enzymes, which are used for electron transfer and other metabolic activities, are abundant in the cytoplasm of the microbial cells used in the MFCs. However, it is not easy to transport the mediator molecules to the bacterial outer membrane so as to reach the electrode. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) layer on the Gram-negative outer membrane is compact and nonconductive; thus, most microbial cells are nonconductive [55]. It was found that chemically perforated pores and channels on the cell membranes accelerated electron transfer, leading to an improved power output for an MFC using P. aeruginosa [56]. In their study, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-treated biofilm achieved a doubled power density (41 mW/m2) compared to the control biofilms. The large pores and channels on the cell membrane created by PEI treatment promoted the diffusion of the self-produced mediators (pyocyanin and pyorubin) of P. aeruginosa. The modified cell membrane surface also promoted the adherence of microbial cells to the electrode, which further improved the electron transfer. This method was also applied to E. coli [57]. Recently, it has been reported that lysozyme treatment increased 1.75-fold of the MFC performance with K. rhizophila P2-A-5 [58]. Thus, chemical treatment is one of the important approaches to modify the microbial cells for the improvement of the MFC performance.
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3.1.2. Biosurfactant production by gene modification
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To increase the cell permeability of biocatalysts in the MFCs, Zheng et al. proposed a new approach by inducing the biosurfactant production based on a genetic modification [59]. It is true that the efficiency of membrane permeability can be improved with a biosurfactant, which ultimately increases the transport across the membrane. In addition, overexpression of the rhlA gene, which is responsible for rhamnolipid (a biosurfactant) production, was also conducted [60]. The biosurfactant directly influenced the overproduction of rhamnolipids from the electrical bacteria, such as P. aeruginosa. The electron transport across the membrane was greatly increased as the membrane permeability increased. The power output of the MFC-catalyzed process by the biosurfactant-producing bacterium was enhanced up to about 2.5 times compared with the wild type.
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3.1.3. Introducing the extracellular electron transfer pathway
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The sparse availability of genetic tools in manipulating electricity-generating bacteria and the multiple overlapping pathways for extracellular electron transfer make it challenging to modulate electron transfer and/or introduce other functions of interest. In response to this challenge, several studies have taken the complementary approach of engineering portions of the extracellular electron transfer pathways into the well-studied industrial microbe E. coli [61]. In these studies, MtrCAB of S. oneidensis was successfully expressed in the E. coli cells, and the activity of these proteins was confirmed by the metal reduction. Although the introduction of MtrCAB permits extracellular electron transfer in E. coli, the low electron flux and the absence of growth in these cells limit their practical application. Recently, in addition to surface-localized cytochromes, it has been further confirmed that CymA, the inner membrane component of S. oneidensis, significantly improved the extracellular electron transfer rate or cell viability. This recombinant E. coli achieved current generation in an MFC system without the addition of mediators [62, 63]. Our research group is trying to develop an excellent E. coli biocatalyst for the anode in an MFC system based on the combination of engineering of central metabolism and introduction of extracellular electron transfer in the presence of an HNQ mediator.
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3.2. Extremophilic microorganisms
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An extremophilic microorganism thrives in physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to most life on Earth. They thrive in extreme hot niches, ice, and salt solutions, as well as acid and alkaline conditions; some may grow in toxic waste, organic solvents, heavy metals, or several other habitats that were previously considered inhospitable for life. Extremophiles can be used to oxidize sulfur compounds in acidic pH to remediate wastewaters and generate electrical energy from marine sediment microbial fuel cells at low temperatures. The MFC performance of these extremophilic microorganisms has been well summarized in several review papers [49, 64]. In this section, the recent advances of MFCs using extremophilic microorganisms as catalysts are briefly introduced and discussed.
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3.2.1. Acidophiles and alkaliphiles
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An increase of cell voltage is seen at increasing anode pH because of the additional pH gradient representing a source of energy. The practical implication of an elevated cell voltage is that more energy can be gained from MFC systems at higher pH values. By contrast, operating the anode of MFCs at an acidic condition has an advantage that the protons will not cause diffusion limitations in the cathode compartment for the reduction of oxygen, and therefore, it will not limit the current production [65]. However, under a low-pH condition, the microbial cells have to maintain a near-neutral cytoplasm [66] which consumes a portion of the energy derived from the electron transport for other processes, such as proton export, that increases the anode overpotential, leading to decreasing power generation. At pH 2.5, Acidiphilium sp. isolated from the environment mediates a direct electron transfer from the glucose metabolism to the anode at a rate of 3 A/m2 even in the presence of air [67]. This interesting strain produces extracellular polymeric substances and forms a biofilm between the carbon microfibers and in pores on the graphite rod surface [68].
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Meanwhile, at high pH, the lower anode potential results in an increased cell voltage. In general, the anode becomes acidified during the MFC operation, and the cathode becomes more alkaline, followed by a reduced cell voltage and power output. Pseudomonas alcaliphila is capable of electricity production at high pH, excreting phenazine-1-carboxylic acid that acts as an electron shuttle during the oxidation of citrate [69]. An MFC has also been developed to treat food wastes that comprise 30–55% of all refuse in urban societies. The waste was first treated by anaerobic digestion, the resulting food waste leachate was amended with 100 mM NaCl, and then, electricity was generated in a pH 9 MFC that had a maximum of 63% Coulombic efficiency [70]. Recently, a tubular upflow MFC utilizing seafood processing wastewater has achieved a maximum power density of 105 mW/m2 at pH 9 [71].
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3.2.2. Psychrophiles and thermophiles
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Temperature also has a major impact on the output of MFCs. It influences the activity of microorganisms, the electrochemical reactions, and the Gibbs free energy change of the reactions. There exists an optimum temperature for enzymes in the MFCs, and the electrochemical reaction rate increases with increased temperatures. A lower operating temperature adversely influences the output, start-up time, and substrate oxidation rate in the MFC system. This negatively impacts the MFCs for processes such as wastewater treatment because the streams are generally at low temperatures. However, the advantage of low temperature for the MFCs is that they typically produce higher Coulombic efficiencies [72, 73]. The microbial community was enriched from the anaerobic sludge at the anode of an acetate-fed MFC operated at 15°C with psychrophiles Simplicispira sp. and Geobacter sp. [74]. Another study at 5–10°C enriched the low-temperature microorganisms from the genera Arcobacter, Pseudomonas, and Geobacter [75]. One promising application of the low-temperature MFCs is that for low-power-consuming devices like sensors that are intended to last for an extended period of time.
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On the other hand, the advantages of operating at high temperatures are higher microbial activity, better substrate solubility, high mass transfer rate, and lower contamination risk. An example of an improved current generation at a high temperature (60°C) is a marine sediment MFC that generated 209–254 mA/m2 compared with 10–22 mA/m2 at 22°C [76]. Recently, an MFC with a higher operating temperature (70°C) has generated 6800 mA/m2 [77]. Furthermore, the hyperthermophilic MFCs were operated at above 80°C [78]. However, a negative point of thermophilic MFCs is higher rates of evaporation than the MFC system itself. Therefore, a continuous mode of MFCs was proposed to allow a replacement of the anolyte and catholyte [79].
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In this section, recent topics of microbial catalysts for MFCs were introduced. There are two approaches in developing the microbial catalysts. One is the modification of existing microorganisms using chemical treatments or biotechnological techniques, including gene editing. The other is exploring new microorganisms from the environment, including extreme conditions. Although new findings and knowledge were obtained from both approaches, a drastic improvement on the MFC performance to achieve a paradigm shift has not appeared yet. In parallel with the improvement of microbial catalysts, the development of the fuel cell system, including the electrodes, was intensively studied to increase the output of MFCs. In particular, the application of graphene-modified electrodes [33] and the investigation of electron acceptors [43] have shown remarkable progress in the past decade. In order to actualize the practical use of MFCs, a synergistic impact from the combination of microbial catalyst and fuel cell system is essential.
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4. Conclusion
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This chapter focuses on the significance of MFC development, the historical background and fundamental principles of MFCs, and their recent developments, especially on microbial catalysts. MFCs have not reached the desirable level of power generation that supports daily life because of the problems such as scaling-up. On the other hand, developments of technology combining wastewater treatment and power generation, and application for environmental sensors are progressing to a stage close to practical use. If these popularizations continue, it will further develop its application in broader fields. Owing to their limitations, it may be difficult to force MFCs to become the main power supply in our daily life in the future, but it seems possible to use them as an auxiliary power supply. In addition, MFCs may become useful as a power supply in areas where the infrastructure is not well developed, for example, a portable power supply generating electricity if water is added. Regarding microbial catalysts, it is also known that various microorganisms can generate electricity, and if this superior power-generating function of these microorganisms can be integrated into a microbial cell using the synthetic biological method developed recently, the ability of the microbial catalyst will dramatically increase. Soon, its power generation ability could be greatly improved in combination with the progress of other constituents.
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Acknowledgments
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This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K06932.
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Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest associated with this text.
\n',keywords:"microbial fuel cell, MFC, catalyst, renewable energy, bioelectrochemical device, microorganism, biomass",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64014.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64014.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64014",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64014",totalDownloads:1989,totalViews:75,totalCrossrefCites:4,dateSubmitted:"July 2nd 2018",dateReviewed:"September 11th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"August 7th 2019",dateFinished:"October 11th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we focus on microbial fuel cells (MFCs) that convert the energy from organic matters into electrical energy using microorganisms. MFCs are greatly expected to be used as a relatively low-cost and safe device for generating renewable energy using waste biomass as a raw material. At present, however, it has not reached the desired practical application because of the low-power generation; hence, improvements on fuel cell efficiency, such as electrode materials, are still being examined. Here, we focus on the microorganisms that can be used as catalysts and play a central role in improving the efficiency of the fuel cells. Several kinds of microbial catalysts are used in MFCs. For example, Shewanella oneidensis has been well studied, and as known, since S. oneidensis transports the electrons generated within the cell to the surface layer, it does not require a mediator to pass the electrons from the cells to the electrode. Furthermore, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a model organism for MFCs, are also used. The improvements of such microbial catalysts have also been proceeding actively. Here, we elaborated on the principle of MFCs as well as the current situation and latest research on the catalyst development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64014",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64014",signatures:"Masayuki Azuma and Yoshihiro Ojima",book:{id:"7594",type:"book",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7594.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-210-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-209-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-211-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"265735",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Azuma",fullName:"Masayuki Azuma",slug:"masayuki-azuma",email:"azuma@bioa.eng.osaka-cu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"265738",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Ojima",fullName:"Yoshihiro Ojima",slug:"yoshihiro-ojima",email:"ojima@bioa.eng.osaka-cu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. General principles of MFCs and various microbial catalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Mechanism of electron generation in microbial cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Calculation of the energy obtained from glucose",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Basic components of dual-chambered MFCs using a mediator",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Other types of MFCs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Various microbial catalysts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Recent topics of microbial catalyst and future directions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Modification of microorganisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.1. Chemical treatment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.2. Biosurfactant production by gene modification",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.3. Introducing the extracellular electron transfer pathway",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2. Extremophilic microorganisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.2.1. Acidophiles and alkaliphiles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.2. Psychrophiles and thermophiles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ivanov I, Vidaković-Koch T, Sundmacher K. Recent advances in enzymatic fuel cells: Experiments and modeling. Energies. 2010;3(4):803-846. DOI: 10.3390/en3040803\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Santoro C, Arbizzani C, Erable B, Ieropoulos I. Microbial fuel cells: From fundamentals to applications: A review. Journal of Power Sources. 2017;356:225-244. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.03.109\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Choudhury P, Prasad Uday US, Bandyopadhyay TK, Ray RN, Bhunia B. Performance improvement of microbial fuel cell (MFC) using suitable electrode and bioengineered organisms: A review. Bioengineered. 2017;8(5):471-487. 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Anodic biofilm in single chamber microbial fuel cells cultivated under different temperatures. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2012;37:15792-15800. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.03.084\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Zhang L, Shen J, Wang L, Ding L, Xu K, Ren H. Stable operation of microbial fuel cells at low temperatures (5-10°C) with light exposure and its anodic microbial analysis. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 2014;37:819-827. DOI: 10.1007/s00449-013-1054-8\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Mathis BJ, Marshall CW, Milliken CE, Makkar RS, Creager SE, May HD. Electricity generation by thermophilic microorganisms from marine sediment. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2008;78(1):147-155. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-007-1266-4\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Shehab NA, Ortiz-Medin JF, Katuri KP, Hari AR, Amy G, Logan BE, et al. Enrichment of extremophilic exoelectrogens in microbial electrolysis cells using Red Sea brine pools as inocula. Bioresource Technology. 2017;239:82-86. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2017.04.122\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Fu Q, Fukushima N, Maeda H, Sato K, Kobayashi H. Bioelectrochemical analysis of a hyperthermophilic microbial fuel cell generating electricity at temperatures above 80°C. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 2015;79(7):1200-1206. DOI: 10.1080/09168451.2015.1015952\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Carver SM, Vuoriranta P, Tuovinen OH. A thermophilic microbial fuel cell design. Journal of Power Sources. 2011;196:3757-3760. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.12.088\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Masayuki Azuma",address:"azuma@bioa.eng.osaka-cu.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Department of Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
Department of Applied Chemistry and Bioengineering, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. 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