",isbn:"978-1-83969-506-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-505-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-507-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e5d67464d929fda6d8c83ec20c4138a",bookSignature:"Dr. Endre Zima",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10704.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Physiology, Perioperative, Non-Cardiac Causes, Antiarrhythmic Drugs, Development, SARS-CoV2, Infection, Cardiac Arrest, Resuscitation, PPE, Arrhythmias",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 27th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Dr. Endre Zima works as the chief of Cardiac ICU at Semmelweis University Heart and Vascular Center. His fields of interest are intensive cardiac care, CPR, post-cardiac arrest care, device therapy of arrhythmias, defibrillator waveform, and AED development.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"201263",title:"Dr.",name:"Endre",middleName:null,surname:"Zima",slug:"endre-zima",fullName:"Endre Zima",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201263/images/system/201263.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Endre Zima works as the chief of Cardiac ICU at Semmelweis University Heart and Vascular Center. Dr. Zima is specialized in anesthesiology-intensive care and cardiology. He has authored 13 book chapters and more than 130 journal papers, achieved a Hirsch-index of 14, g-index of 22, and more than 650 independent citations. \nHe has been holding graduate and postraduate lectures and practices in anesthesiology since 2006, and in cardiology since 2008. He is a PhD Lecturer in Semmelweis University since 2010. He obtains an accreditation of EHRA on Cardiac Pacing and Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators, he is accredited AALS Instructor of European Resuscitation Council. \nHe is a Fellow of the European Society of Cardiology, member of the European Heart Rhythm Association and Acute Cardiovascular Care Association, board member of the Hungarian Society of Cardiology (HSC), president of Working Group (WG) on Cardiac Pacing of HSC , board member of WG of Heart Failure. Dr. Zima is also a member the Hungarian Society of Resuscitation, Hungarian Society of Anesthesiology. His fields of interest are acute and intensive cardiac care, CPR and post-cardiac arrest intensive care, heart failure and cardiogenic shock, device therapy of arrhythmias, defibrillator waveform and AED development.",institutionString:"Semmelweis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Semmelweis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"48232",title:"Radiative Heat Transfer for Curvilinear Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/59797",slug:"radiative-heat-transfer-for-curvilinear-surfaces",body:'
1. Introduction
Curved surfaces have not been thoroughly considered in radiative transfer analysis mainly due to the difficulties arising from the integration process and perhaps because of the lack of spatial vision of researchers. When dealing with them, application of the iterative method or direct calculation through integration does not provide with an exact solution, so that only approximate expressions or tables are given for a very limited number of forms [1]. In this way, a vast repertoire of significant shapes remains neglected and energy waste is evident. For this reason, further research on the matter, starting from a different approach was considered worth doing.
In previous researches from the authors, form factor calculation has been undertaken for several types of emitters. In all cases, geometric properties of those, revealed as the most powerful tool that shapes radiant interchange [3,4,5,6]. This included mainly rectangular shapes, plane forms and the volumes that can be composed with such primary geometries.
Following the same approach to radiative transfer through the basic understanding of the spatial and geometric properties of volumes, in this chapter new form factors derived from a combination of curvilinear surfaces are hereby presented. Starting from the properties of the sphere and with simple calculus, new laws are devised, which enable the authors to discover a set of configuration factors for caps and various segments of the sphere. The procedure is subsequently extended to the paraboloid, the ellipsoid or the cone, useful in issues such as rocket nozzle design and organic shapes contained in human physique. Appropriate combination of the said forms with truncated cones, produces highly articulate shapes, which frequently occur in the technical domains but were not feasible for exact calculation during a number of years. The research is duly accomplished by presenting the equations needed to evaluate interreflections in curvilinear geometries. Thus, heat transfer simulation is enhanced by such results leading to create innovative software which has been expanded in turn by the authors.
2. Outline of the problem
The reciprocity principle enunciated by Lambert in 1760 and expressed in Eqn. (1), yields the following well-known integral equation (2) that acts as the theoretical basis for form factor calculation between two surfaces.
Ebi= radiant power emitted by the corresponding surface 1 or 2
Ai= area of surface, dAi= differential of area
r = distance radiovector
θi =angle between radiovector at differential element i and the normal to the surface
Figure 1.
The reciprocity principle and equation for arbitrary surfaces A1 and A2
The previous expression states that radiant interchange for every given form depends on its shape and its relative position in the three-dimensional space (Figure 1). From the times of Lambert to our days, researchers and scientists in the fields of geometric optics and radiative transfer have sought to provide solutions to the canonical equation (2) for a variety of forms [1]. This is no minor feat, since the said equation leads in most cases to a quadruple integration and the fourth degree primitive of even simple mathematical expressions often implies lengthy calculations.
Given the fact that this equation depends on geometric parameters, it is reasonable to think that there should be an easier way to approach the problem rather than dealing directly with the integral; also, with the aid of computer simulation, mathematical solutions of complex functions can be approached in a simple and friendly way. Curvilinear forms present some characteristics that make them suitable for a different treatment in terms of radiative transfer.
3. Form factors derived from the sphere
Starting from simple forms several form factors can be calculated without hardly any calculus; later, this logic can be applied to more complex configurations. Let us consider first the simplest form, a sphere that irradiates energy from its inner surface; the irradiated energy is entirely received by itself; so that, being the sphere surface 1, the only factor that has to be considered is:
F11=1E3
\n\t\t\t
Bearing this in mind, in a similar surface, for instance a hemisphere, the form factor is accordingly F11= ½. The configuration factor of a differential area to a disk of radius r under the center of the disk at precisely the distance r, provides a hint in that it is also ½ [2]. For a point of the hemisphere the factor required is ½.
Stimulated by this result, volumes composed of only two surfaces, one being planar and the other spherical, were analyzed. The first case was the spherical cap which is a generalization of the hemisphere.
Figure 2.
A spherical cap of height h and radius of the base a
Extending the reciprocity principle to a spherical cap (Fig. 2) of radius R (surface 1), and its entire base (surface 2) the factor was obtained from the relation A1·F12=A2·F21; since F21=1, and there is no F22 for planar surfaces, F12=A2A1, in this particular case:
F12=a2a2+h2E4
F11=h2a2+h2=h2*RE5
\n\t\t\t
Two important laws are inferred from here, which have been defined as Cabeza-Lainez laws:
Cabeza-Lainez first law:
If a volume is encircled by two surfaces preseting one of them positive of thempositive curvature, and the second being planar, the exchange factor from the curved surfaceto the other equals the inverse ratio of areas of the aforementioned figures. The notion of positive curvature of the element is introduced to foresee stagnation of radiant flux.
Cabeza-Lainez second law:
Within a spherical surface the form factor of any given area over itself is precisely the fraction between that area and the sphere
The second law requires of more deduction as follows
Given that a spherical cap represents an Yth fraction of the total area of the sphere of radius R, and recalling from trigonometry that,
(h2+a2)=2·R·hE6
Thus,
Y·(h2+a2)=4·R25;Y=2·Rh6;h=2·RYE7
Consequently,
F11=h2·R=h2·Y4·R2=1YE8
\n\t\t\t
Cabeza-Lainez second law:
The configuration factor of an Yth part of the sphere over itself is precisely the inverse of Y.
Thus, the assumption for the hemisphere is confirmed; in the quarter of sphere F11 has to be 1/4 and successively for every portion of the given sphere.
This law will hold true even if we are not dealing with spherical caps but for any fragment of the surface. Taking a critical look at the canonical equation (1) adapted to the sphere, it is logical to establish a relationship between r, cosθ and the radius R (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Differential surfaces in the sphere of centre C and luminance L used to find the radiative exchange
Substituting, these terms in the canonical equation (1):
∅1-2=Eb14·π·R2∫A1∫A2dA1·dA2E9
\n\t\t\t
4πR2 is the total area of the sphere. Thus, the radiative flux transfer is dependent on the size of the surfaces but not on their position in the sphere and for given areas it is also a constant. Trying to obtain F11=∅11Eb1.A1 from equation (7) gives the expression:
F11=A14·π·R2=1YE10
\n\t\t\t
This means that spherical surfaces present these unique properties (Eqs. 3 and 8) which are crucial for our discussion crucial for our discussion.
Now Cabeza-Lainez laws can be applied to more complex volumes that involve portions of the sphere. Considering a sector of the sphere comprised between to semicircles forming an internal angle x from 0 to 180 degrees:
Figure 4.
Denomination of surfaces in a sector of the sphere, 1 and 2 are planar semicircles, 3 is curved.
As has been discussed, the Y portion of the sphere is, in this case 1Y=x360 and thus,
F33=x360E11
\n\t\t\t
Accordingly,
F31=F32=12·1-x360E12
\n\t\t\t
And introducing the areas of the semicircles, πR22
F13=F23=x90·1-x360E13
\n\t\t\t
Following the discussion, these pair of semicircles can form any angle x between 0 and 360 degrees (Fig. 5). So that, the following equation, which has not been found expressed previously in the literature, is proposed in order to obtain the energy balance between the half disks, where x represents the value of their internal angle (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Two semicircles of the same radius R with a common edge forming an angle X
F12=1-x90+x232400E14
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Radiative exchanges between two semicircles with a common edge and forming an internal angle x
The latter expression (Eq. 14) is a good indicator of the factor between two inclined and equal surfaces with a common edge. If they are not too dissimilar from the semicircle, a factor that is usually lengthy and cumbersome to calculate can be devised easily.
Let us now return to the first principle, the expression h2R(Eq. 5), applied to the spherical cap. Form factors between the contained surfaces are as follows:
F11=h2·R=h2h2+a2E15
\n\t\t\t
F12=a2h2+a2E16
\n\t\t\t
F21=1E17
\n\t\t\t
If we introduce at this point the dimensionless parameter β, we can simplify equation 16 as,
β2=h2a2E18
F12=1β2+1E19
\n\t\t\t
Since this principle is more general than the second one, we can extend it to non-spherical surfaces.
4. Application to common surfaces
4.1. Prolate semispheroid
Surface 1 is the spheroid and surface 2 is the circular disk that works as a base to the former, h>a.
Figure 7.
Prolate spheroid
Firstly the dimensionless parameter m is introduced:
m=1-a2h2E20
\n\t\t\t\t
By virtue of the first principle,
F12=a*ma*m+h*arcsin(m)E21
\n\t\t\t\t
F21=1E22
\n\t\t\t\t
F11=h*arcsin(m)a*m+h*arcsin(m)E23
\n\t\t\t\t
And making,
β2=h2a2;m=1-1β2E24
\n\t\t\t\t
F12=1-1β21-1β2+β*arcsin(1-1β2)E25
4.2. Oblate semiespheroid
Surface 1 is the spheroid and surface 2 is the circular disk that works as a base to the former, h<a
Figure 8.
Oblate spheroid
Denote the parameter m1,
m1=a2h2-1E26
\n\t\t\t\t
F12=a*m1a*m1+h*arcsinh(m1);F21=1E27
\n\t\t\t\t
By the first principle and,
F11=h*arcsinh(m1)a*m1+h*arcsinh(m1)E28
\n\t\t\t\t
With the same procedure as before to make the expression dimensionless
m1=1β2-1E29
\n\t\t\t\t
F12=m1m1+β*arcsinh(m1)E30
4.3. Paraboloid of revolution
Surface 1 is the paraboloid and surface 2 is the circular disk that works as a base to the former
F12=6*a*h2a2+4*h23/2-a3;F21=1E31
\n\t\t\t\t
F11=1-6*a*h2a2+4*h23/2-a3E32
\n\t\t\t\t
β=ha;F12=6*β21+4*β23/2-1E33
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Paraboloid of revolution
4.4. Right cone
1 is the surface of the cone and 2 is the circular base
F12=aa2+h2;F21=1E34
\n\t\t\t\t
F11=1-aa2+h2E35
\n\t\t\t\t
Introducing the parameter β,
F12=11+β2E36
\n\t\t\t\t
It is possible to compare the performance in terms of F12, of all the figures found up to now, where the cone shows better performance followed by the paraboloid.
Figure 10.
Cone
Figure 11.
Comparison of form factors for different shapes
4.5. Ellipsoid
In this case, 1 is the surface of the ellipsoid and 2 is the elliptic base; y is a parameter equal to 1.6. The example shows that the first principle is not limited to surfaces of revolution.
F12=a*b*3y2*ay*by+ay*hy++by*hyy;F21=1E37
\n\t\t\t\t
F11=1-a*b*3y2*ay*by+ay*hy++by*hyyE38
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Ellipsoid
As the area of the ellipsoid is not exact, we can expect errors on the range of 1% depending on the values of a, b and h.
This principle can be also used in other surfaces, for example, for two complementary caps within the sphere of radius r,
Figure 13.
Sphere divided in two caps of diverse heights
As an immediate consequence of Cabeza-Lainez laws, r being the radius of the inner circle and h the respective heights of the caps,
If now the caps within the same sphere are of any size and arbitrary position,
Figure 14.
Two caps of arbitrary size
In this case by virtue of Cabeza-Lainez Law,
F11=h12h12+a2;F22=h22h22+a22E41
\n\t\t\t\t
And now we need to apply the canonical equation 9 again, substituting the respective areas of the caps; A1=2.π.R.h1. ; A2=2.π.R.h2
∅1-2=Eb14*π*R2∫A1∫A2dA1*dA2E42
\n\t\t\t\t
F12=h1*h2h12+a2;F21=h1*h2h22+a22E43
\n\t\t\t\t
In the special situation that the caps are parallel, which equates a truncated cone, the flux would be Eb1.π.h1.h2 and the fraction of energy from disk 1 to disk 2 (or their surrounding caps), equates h1*h2/a2 or h1*h2/a22. In the case that the bases are of equal radius a, h1=h2=h. If the perpendicular distance between the disks, called 2b, is known (Figure 15), the height of the cap would be,
h=a2+b2-bE44
\n\t\t\t\t
Thus, the fraction is obtained as,
F12=F21=a2+2*b2-2*b*a2+b2a2E45
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 15.
Surfaces defined by a cylindrical volume used to find the radiative transfer
By virtue of equation 45 it is feasible to address radiative transfer in several figures composed of three surfaces and limited by parallel disks like truncate paraboloids, caps and especially cylinders. Appropriate equations can be easily formed in which only two values need to be found. To the circles in the extremes of the cylinder a spherical cap could be connected (fig.16) and the radiative transfer would not be altered significantly since we have previously described the performance of caps limited by circles. In the particular case that the cap is a hemisphere, the factor already determined ought to be multiplied by 0.5 and subsequently for different curvatures, bearing in mind that the unity is the circle and null would imply a “theoretical” whole sphere [1] -
The space of figure 16 has been used throughout the history of buildings in cathedrals, opera houses, museums and assembly halls. If both extremes are curved, such shape is still found at bunkers, water tanks and pressure vessels of power reactors.
Figure 16.
Volume composed of a cylinder and a spherical cap used to find the radiative transfer among those surfaces
4.6. Two opposed spherical caps with a common axis
In order to calculate the radiative exchanges in this relatively complex figure, we need to determine beforehand the following nine geometric parameters that depend on the geometric variables shown in Figure 17.
z=r12-r224*b;R=z+b2+r22E46
\n\t\t\t\t
l=(r1-r2)2+4*b2E47
\n\t\t\t\t
Q=R2-z2+b2-2*R*bE48
\n\t\t\t\t
Q1=r12-Q;Q2=r22-QE49
\n\t\t\t\t
D1=h12+r12E50
\n\t\t\t\t
D2=h22+r22E51
\n\t\t\t\t
D3=l*(r1+r2)E52
Figure 17.
Volume composed by spherical cap, truncated cone and hemispheroid.
And then we would obtain the corresponding nine form factors involved,
F11=h12D1;F12=QD1;F13=Q1D1E53
\n\t\t\t\t
F22=h22D2;F21=QD2;F23=Q2D2E54
F31=Q1D3;F32=Q2D3;F33=1-Q1+Q2D3E55
\n\t\t\t\t
In this simple way the problem is completely solved
4.7. Straight cone
This is a limit case of the previous discussion.
Figure 18.
Right cone with a circular base
As the former also includes the cone, by making r0=0 and h1=h2=0, Q2=0,z=r124b,R=z+b,Q=0,Q1=0,Q2=0
l=r12+4*b2E56
If D1=r12,D2=0then
D3=r12+4*b2E57
Only three factors remain,
F11=1E58
\n\t\t\t\t
F31=r1r12+4*b2E59
\n\t\t\t\t
F33=1-r1r12+4*b2E60
F31 is obviously the ratio of areas of the cone to its base which proves that the equation is true, by virtue of Cabeza-Lainez Law.
4.8. Paraboloid, truncated cone and spheroid
If for instance, the upper extreme of the volume is a paraboloid and the lower surface is an oblate ellipsoid (Figure 19), we can still maintain the same factors with the following simple adaptations,
Figure 19.
Volume composed by a paraboloid, a truncated cone and a spheroid.
F22=1-6*r2*h22r22+4*h223/2-r23E61
\n\t\t\t\t
as in the paraboloid alone
F21=6*h22*Qr2*r22+4*h223/2-r23E62
\n\t\t\t\t
F23=6*h22*(r22-Q)r2*r22+4*h223/2-a23E63
\n\t\t\t\t
F11=h1*arcsinh(m1)r*m1+h1*arcsinh(m1)E64
\n\t\t\t\t
as it were in the oblate elipsoid alone
m1isnow=r12h12-1E65
\n\t\t\t\t
F12=m1*Qr1*(r*m1+h1*arcsinhm1)E66
\n\t\t\t\t
F13=m1*(r12-Q)r1*(r1*m1+h1*arcsinhm1)E67
\n\t\t\t\t
F31, F32 and F33 have the same values as before as these correspond to the truncated cone and bear only nominal relation with the surfaces of the extremes,
F31=Q1D3E68
F32=Q2D3E69
\n\t\t\t\t
F33=1-Q1+Q2D3E70
\n\t\t\t\t
Similar results will be obtained when the truncate is a paraboloid instead of a cone as it is the case in rocket nozzles.
4.9. Summary of the findings
All the aforementioned form factors have been obtained by logical deduction. In order to provide researchers and designers with all this factors in a compact format, the following table is presented, which comprises all the volume configurations presented in this chapter.
5. Interreflections amongst surfaces in a closed volume
Until this point the discussion has dealt with primary transmission of energy but, in a closed space, if the surfaces have some degree of reflectivity a significant part of the flux would be re-irradiated and the concepts of emitters and receivers entwine.
Under such circumstance, the global balance of radiant power can be found through expression 71,
Etot=Edir+ErefE71
\n\t\t\t
Edir is defined as the direct power received while Eref stands for the reflected energy. The two quantities added yield the global balance of radiant energy Etot. If the problem entails several surfaces, expression 71 is expanded for an array of equations. To resolve it, we define beforehand the matrices Fd and Fr, whose elements are described as follows in a three-dimensional fashion, (see figure 16):
Each term in equations 72 and 73 is presented in the form Fij (F11, F12...). This stands for the configuration factors already found, from one of the surfaces i to another adjacent surface j. The term ρi is defined as the reflective quotient which corresponds to a given surface i.
A detailed explanation for the phenomenon is given in [3]. Formerly, as volumes considered were limited by planes, all the elements in the diagonal of matrix Fd were equal to zero and we could not deal with the problem while, for curved surfaces, the values of the diagonal are different from null and need to be calculated with the expressions hereby presented.
Once the value of these matrices is obtained, it is easy to establish the following relationship between direct and reflected radiation:
Fr*Eref=Fd*EdirE74
\n\t\t\t
Frd=Fr-1*FdE75
\n\t\t\t
Eref=Frd*EdirE76
\n\t\t\t
As the value of reflected radiation is known, the problem is solved. However, we have to bear in mind that the number of surfaces should be augmented depending on the dimensions of the case study. The procedure for interreflection can be considered iterative depending on the accuracy that is required for a particular problem [3].
The simplest case of repeated reflections appears in the sphere and is wont to be employed in lieu of the former calculations with matrices.From expression 9 and successive, it was deducted that energy impinging on a point of the sphere from an emitter contained in the same surface equates the quotient between the area of the emitting surface and the total area 4 πR2, and it can be expressed under the form W/A.
After a relevant number of reflections, the total power distributed over the sphere is defined by:
Eref=E*WA*(ρ+ρ2+...ρn)E77
\n\t\t\t
As,
limn→∞ρn+1-1ρ-1-1=ρ1-ρE78
\n\t\t\t
Eref=E*WA*ρ1-ρE79
\n\t\t\t
In the precedent discussion ρ includes the mean of all reflection quotients ρi inside the sphere, while E represents the direct power exiting from the source. Such expression would be technically applicable to all kinds of surfaces, but its accuracy dwindles when the actual volume is not akin to a sphere. If such is the case, equation 79 would be less acceptable.
Since the reflectivity of the internal surfaces can be changed on demand, the way to treat glazed elements or voids is to assign them a high absorption coefficient to ensure that those elements play a limited role in the global energy balance.
6. Conclusions
An ever-increasing number of configuration factors for curved geometries, has been deducted. The authors have extracted the former in total conformity with the procedures of optical mechanics and thus the new factors can be termed as exact in contrast with other random or discretized methods.
This represents an indubitable advance of knowledge for radiative heat transfer that is already being implemented in computer models. However, the details of the simulation procedures are not discussed in this chapter in the credence that other scientists will arrive with perfect ease to the required algorithms.
Thus, this new form factors have been programmed in computer algorithms, creating a powerful tool that is able to enrich the repertoire of forms and spaces suitable for simulation. This procedure will benefit energy-conscious engineering and architecture, as has been demonstrated by the authors in previous publications [7, 8,9,10] Indeed, the prototypes based on the science of heat transfer are sure to progress in their accuracy and sophistication. Radiative devices and fixtures can be conceived departing from the findings exposed previously on a more scientific basis and this will be beneficial to expand the innumerable boons of solar radiation.
Contemplating the ruins of the colossal statues of Ramses in Egypt, Shelley once wrote:
My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings, Look on my works ye Mighty And Despair
Acknowledgments
Jose Cabeza would like to thank his family in Japan and Spain for failing to understand his work.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48232.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48232.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48232",totalDownloads:1167,totalViews:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 4th 2014",dateReviewed:"October 30th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 6th 2015",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48232",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48232",book:{slug:"solar-radiation-applications"},signatures:"Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez, Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas, Manuel-\nViggo Castilla, Carlos Rubio Bellido and Juan Manuel Bonilla\nMartínez",authors:[{id:"98129",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:"Cabeza",surname:"Lainez",fullName:"Jose Maria Lainez",slug:"jose-maria-lainez",email:"wspole@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido Arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas",email:"jesus.a.pulido@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Outline of the problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Form factors derived from the sphere",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Application to common surfaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Prolate semispheroid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Oblate semiespheroid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Paraboloid of revolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Right cone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5. Ellipsoid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6. Two opposed spherical caps with a common axis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7. Straight cone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8. Paraboloid, truncated cone and spheroid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.9. Summary of the findings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Interreflections amongst surfaces in a closed volume",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'John R. Howell, A Catalogue of Radiation Heat Transfer Configuration Factors. 3rd ed., 2010. On-line version available at: http://www.engr.uky.edu/rtl/ Catalog/.'},{id:"B2",body:'Buschman, Albert Jr. and Pittman, Claud M., 1961, "Configuration factors for exchange of radiant energy between axisymmetrical sections of cylinders, cones, and hemispheres and their bases," NASA TN D-944.'},{id:"B3",body:'Cabeza-Lainez Jose M. Solar Radiation In buildings. Performance and Simulation procedures. InTech. 2012.'},{id:"B4",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M. New Configuration Factors for Curved Surfaces. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer (JQSRT). Vol. 117. March 2013.'},{id:"B5",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M. New configuration factor between a circle, a sphere and a differential area at random positions. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer (JQSRT). Vol. 133. November 2013'},{id:"B6",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M. Fundamentals of Luminous Radiative Transfer. Netbiblo. 256 pg. December 2010.'},{id:"B7",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M, Jimenez Verdejo Juan R. The Japanese Experience of Environmental Architecture through the Works of Bruno Taut and Antonin Raymond. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (JAABE). Pp. 33-40. May 2007.'},{id:"B8",body:'Cabeza-Lainez Jose M. Lighting Features in Japanese Traditional Architecture. In Lessons from Vernacular Architecture. Earthscan Routledge. 215 pp. August 2013.'},{id:"B9",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M. The quest for light in Indian Architectural Heritage. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. Pp. 39-46. May 2008.'},{id:"B10",body:'Cabeza Lainez Jose M, Jimenez Verdejo Juan R. The Key-role of Eladio Dieste, Spain and the Americas in the Evolution from Brickwork to Architectural Form. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering (JAABE). Pp. 355-362. November 2009.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Note that values under 0.5 can also be found for this relationship in a sort of globular cap with an area bigger than the hemisphere. "}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez",address:"crowley@us.es",affiliation:'
Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
Hokkaido University, Japan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas",address:null,affiliation:'
Canon Foundation Fellow. University of Shiga Prefecture, Japan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Juan Manuel Bonilla Martínez",address:null,affiliation:'
Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Spain
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"4569",title:"Solar Radiation Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Solar Radiation Applications",slug:"solar-radiation-applications",publishedDate:"May 6th 2015",bookSignature:"Segun Raphael Bello",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4569.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100774",title:"Ms.",name:"Segun R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Bello",slug:"segun-r.-bello",fullName:"Segun R. Bello"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"48232",title:"Radiative Heat Transfer for Curvilinear Surfaces",slug:"radiative-heat-transfer-for-curvilinear-surfaces",totalDownloads:1167,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jose Maria Cabeza Lainez, Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas, Manuel-\nViggo Castilla, Carlos Rubio Bellido and Juan Manuel Bonilla\nMartínez",authors:[{id:"98129",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:"Cabeza",surname:"Lainez",fullName:"Jose Maria Lainez",slug:"jose-maria-lainez"},{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido Arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas"}]},{id:"48356",title:"Steady State Thermal Analysis of a Tri-Wing Solar Chimney",slug:"steady-state-thermal-analysis-of-a-tri-wing-solar-chimney",totalDownloads:930,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"R. S. Bello, C. N. Ezebuilo, T. A. Adegbulugbe and K. A. Eke",authors:[{id:"100774",title:"Ms.",name:"Segun R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Bello",fullName:"Segun R. Bello",slug:"segun-r.-bello"}]},{id:"48038",title:"Performance Characteristics of Modelled Tri-Wing Solar Chimney and Adaptation to Wood Drying",slug:"performance-characteristics-of-modelled-tri-wing-solar-chimney-and-adaptation-to-wood-drying",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"R. S. Bello, C. N. Ezebuilo, K. A. Eke and T. A. Adegbulugbe",authors:[{id:"100774",title:"Ms.",name:"Segun R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Bello",fullName:"Segun R. Bello",slug:"segun-r.-bello"},{id:"135754",title:"Mr.",name:"Eke",middleName:null,surname:"Kenneth Ahanotu",fullName:"Eke Kenneth Ahanotu",slug:"eke-kenneth-ahanotu"},{id:"139042",title:"Dr.",name:"Adegbulugbe",middleName:null,surname:"T. A.",fullName:"Adegbulugbe T. A.",slug:"adegbulugbe-t.-a."},{id:"173320",title:"MSc.",name:"Ezebiulo",middleName:null,surname:"C. N.",fullName:"Ezebiulo C. N.",slug:"ezebiulo-c.-n."}]},{id:"48334",title:"Solar-Light-Assisted Photo-degradation of Azo Dyes Using Some Transition Metal Oxides",slug:"solar-light-assisted-photo-degradation-of-azo-dyes-using-some-transition-metal-oxides",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"A.V. Salker",authors:[{id:"172688",title:"Prof.",name:"A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Salker",fullName:"A.V. Salker",slug:"a.v.-salker"}]},{id:"48039",title:"Applications of Mesoporous Ordered Semiconductor Materials — Case Study of TiO2",slug:"applications-of-mesoporous-ordered-semiconductor-materials-case-study-of-tio2",totalDownloads:1958,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Antonio E. H. Machado, Karen A. Borges, Tatiana A. Silva, Lidiaine\nM. Santos, Mariana F. Borges, Werick A. Machado, Bruno P. Caixeta, Marcela Dias França,\nSamuel M. Oliveira, Alam G. Trovó and Antonio O.T. Patrocínio",authors:[{id:"172389",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Hora Machado",fullName:"Antonio Eduardo Hora Machado",slug:"antonio-eduardo-hora-machado"},{id:"172891",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Otávio",middleName:null,surname:"Toledo Patrocínio",fullName:"Antonio Otávio Toledo Patrocínio",slug:"antonio-otavio-toledo-patrocinio"},{id:"172892",title:"MSc.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo Borges",fullName:"Karen Araújo Borges",slug:"karen-araujo-borges"},{id:"172893",title:"MSc.",name:"Lidiaine",middleName:null,surname:"Maria Dos Santos",fullName:"Lidiaine Maria Dos Santos",slug:"lidiaine-maria-dos-santos"},{id:"172894",title:"MSc.",name:"Tatiana Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Tatiana Aparecida Silva",slug:"tatiana-aparecida-silva"},{id:"172895",title:"Ms.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Fornazier Borges",fullName:"Mariana Fornazier Borges",slug:"mariana-fornazier-borges"},{id:"172906",title:"Dr.",name:"Alam Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Trovó",fullName:"Alam Gustavo Trovó",slug:"alam-gustavo-trovo"},{id:"173758",title:"Mr.",name:"Werick",middleName:null,surname:"Alves Machado",fullName:"Werick Alves Machado",slug:"werick-alves-machado"},{id:"173759",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Pontes Caixeta",fullName:"Bruno Pontes Caixeta",slug:"bruno-pontes-caixeta"},{id:"173760",title:"BSc.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Manzini De Oliveira",fullName:"Samuel Manzini De Oliveira",slug:"samuel-manzini-de-oliveira"},{id:"173761",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcela",middleName:null,surname:"Dias França",fullName:"Marcela Dias França",slug:"marcela-dias-franca"}]},{id:"48002",title:"Instrumentation and Measurement of Ground-Level Ultraviolet Irradiance and Spectral Composition in Estonia",slug:"instrumentation-and-measurement-of-ground-level-ultraviolet-irradiance-and-spectral-composition-in-e",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kalju Eerme, Margit Aun and Uno Veismann",authors:[{id:"172649",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalju",middleName:null,surname:"Eerme",fullName:"Kalju Eerme",slug:"kalju-eerme"},{id:"173211",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Margit",middleName:null,surname:"Aun",fullName:"Margit Aun",slug:"margit-aun"},{id:"173264",title:"Dr.",name:"Uno",middleName:null,surname:"Veismann",fullName:"Uno Veismann",slug:"uno-veismann"}]},{id:"48387",title:"Development of Novel Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) System in Building Architectural Envelope",slug:"development-of-novel-building-integrated-photovoltaic-bipv-system-in-building-architectural-envelope",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wen-Sheng Ou",authors:[{id:"172620",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Ou",fullName:"Wen-Sheng Ou",slug:"wen-sheng-ou"}]},{id:"48248",title:"New Computational Techniques for Solar Radiation in Architecture",slug:"new-computational-techniques-for-solar-radiation-in-architecture",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jose M. Cabeza-Lainez, Jesus A. Pulido Arcas, Carlos Rubio Bellido,\nManuel-Viggo Castilla, Luis Gonzalez-Boado and Benito Sanchez-Montanes Macias",authors:[{id:"98129",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:"Cabeza",surname:"Lainez",fullName:"Jose Maria Lainez",slug:"jose-maria-lainez"},{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pulido Arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3633",title:"Solar Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-energy",bookSignature:"Radu D Rugescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3633.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"8615",title:"Prof.",name:"Radu",surname:"Rugescu",slug:"radu-rugescu",fullName:"Radu Rugescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8548",title:"Potential of the Solar Energy on Mars",slug:"potential-of-the-solar-energy-on-mars",signatures:"Dragos Ronald Rugescu and Radu Dan Rugescu",authors:[null]},{id:"8549",title:"Surface-Barrier Solar Cells Based On Monocrystalline Cadmium Telluride with the Modified Boundary",slug:"surface-barrier-solar-cells-based-on-monocrystalline-cadmium-telluride-with-the-modified-boundary",signatures:"P.М. Gorley, V.P. Makhniy, P.P. Horley, Yu.V. Vorobiev and J. González-Hernández",authors:[null]},{id:"8550",title:"Control of a 3KW Polar-Axis Solar Power Platform with Nonlinear Measurements",slug:"control-of-a-3kw-polar-axis-solar-power-platform-with-nonlinear-measurements",signatures:"John T. Agee and Adisa A. Jimoh",authors:[null]},{id:"8551",title:"Silicon Solar Cells: Recombination and Electrical Parameters",slug:"silicon-solar-cells-recombination-and-electrical-parameters",signatures:"Saïdou, Madougou, Mohamadou Kaka and Gregoire Sissoko",authors:[null]},{id:"8552",title:"Efficient Silicon Solar Cells Fabricated with a Low Cost Spray Technique",slug:"efficient-silicon-solar-cells-fabricated-with-a-low-cost-spray-technique",signatures:"Oleksandr Malik and F. Javier De la Hidalga-W.",authors:[null]},{id:"8553",title:"Efficiency of Thin-Film CdS/CdTe Solar Cells",slug:"efficiency-of-thin-film-cds-cdte-solar-cells",signatures:"Leonid Kosyachenko",authors:[null]},{id:"8554",title:"Energy Control System of Solar Powered Wheelchair",slug:"energy-control-system-of-solar-powered-wheelchair",signatures:"Yoshihiko Takahashi, Syogo Matsuo, and Kei Kawakami",authors:[null]},{id:"8555",title:"Uses of Concentrated Solar Energy in Materials Science",slug:"uses-of-concentrated-solar-energy-in-materials-science",signatures:"Gemma Herranz and Gloria P. Rodríguez",authors:[null]},{id:"8556",title:"Solar Chimney Power Plants – Developments and Advancements",slug:"solar-chimney-power-plants-developments-and-advancements",signatures:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",authors:[null]},{id:"8557",title:"Floating Solar Chimney Technology",slug:"floating-solar-chimney-technology",signatures:"Christos D. Papageorgiou",authors:[null]},{id:"8558",title:"Organic Solar Cells Performances Improvement Induced by Interface Buffer Layers",slug:"organic-solar-cells-performances-improvement-induced-by-interface-buffer-layers",signatures:"J. C. Bernède, A. Godoy, L. Cattin, F. R. Diaz, M. Morsli and M. A. del Valle",authors:[null]},{id:"8559",title:"New Trends in Designing Parabolic trough Solar Concentrators and Heat Storage Concrete Systems in Solar Power Plants",slug:"new-trends-in-designing-parabolic-trough-solar-concentrators-and-heat-storage-concrete-systems-in-so",signatures:"Valentina A. Salomoni, Carmelo E. Majorana, Giuseppe M. Giannuzzi, Adio Miliozzi and Daniele Nicolini",authors:[null]},{id:"8560",title:"Charge Carrier Recombination in Bulk Heterojunction Organic Solar Cells",slug:"charge-carrier-recombination-in-bulk-heterojunction-organic-solar-cells",signatures:"Gytis Juška and Kęstutis Arlauskas",authors:[null]},{id:"8561",title:"Numerical Simulation of Solar Cells and Solar Cell Characterization Methods: the Open-Source on Demand Program AFORS-HET",slug:"numerical-simulation-of-solar-cells-and-solar-cell-characterization-methods-the-open-source-on-deman",signatures:"Rolf Stangl, Caspar Leendertz and Jan Haschke",authors:[null]},{id:"8562",title:"Amorphous Silicon Carbide Photoelectrode for Hydrogen Production from Water using Sunlight",slug:"amorphous-silicon-carbide-photoelectrode-for-hydrogen-production-from-water-using-sunlight",signatures:"Feng Zhu, Jian Hu, Ilvydas Matulionis, Todd Deutsch, Nicolas Gaillard, Eric Miller, and Arun Madan",authors:[null]},{id:"8563",title:"Contact Definition in Industrial Silicon Solar Cells",slug:"contact-definition-in-industrial-silicon-solar-cells",signatures:"Luis Jaime Caballero",authors:[null]},{id:"8564",title:"Aerostat for Solar Power Generation",slug:"aerostat-for-solar-power-generation",signatures:"G. S. Aglietti, S. Redi, A. R. Tatnall, T. Markvart and S.J.I. Walker",authors:[null]},{id:"8565",title:"Photon Management in Dye Sensitized Solar Cells",slug:"photon-management-in-dye-sensitized-solar-cells",signatures:"Silvia Colodrero, Mauricio E. Calvo and Hernán Míguez",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72651",title:"Glyphosate Residues in Soil and Air: An Integrated Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93066",slug:"glyphosate-residues-in-soil-and-air-an-integrated-review",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
After World War II, the world was in the need to overcome food scarcity. Therefore, several pest and weed management techniques were adopted by farmers all over the world using various synthetic herbicides. The invention of glyphosate (GLY; N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) was a big breakthrough in that era. GLY with CAS No. 1071-83-6 is a broad-spectrum, postemergent, nonselective, and synthetic universal herbicide, whose commercial formulations are referred to as glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) [1, 2]. Glyphosate was first synthesized in 1950 by Swiss chemist Henry Martin, who worked for the Swiss company Cilag. The work was never published. Its herbicidal activity was not discovered until GBHs were resynthesized and tested in 1970, being used for this purpose since 1974. It was the Monsanto Corporation in 1974 that introduced and made commercially available the herbicidal formulation Roundup containing GLY as active substance. Farmers quickly adopted glyphosate for agricultural weed control, gaining the potential to kill weeds without killing their crops. Indeed, glyphosate proved able to kill weeds without killing their crops, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses known to compete with commercial crops grown around the globe by interfering with the synthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan [3].
\n
Since then, its use in agricultural and nonagricultural settings has steadily increased from a total of 0.6 Mg applied in 1974 to a total of 125.5 Mg applied in 2014, and it is currently the most widely used herbicide in the United States and throughout the world [4, 5]. Monsanto’s last commercially relevant US patent expired in 2000. Nowadays, GLY formulations that are used as a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide have been widely applied in agronomic crops and orchards. Furthermore, GLY formulations are currently approved by regulatory bodies and marketed worldwide by many agrochemical companies, such as Bayer, Dow AgroSciences, and Monsanto, in different solution strengths and with various adjuvants.
\n
GLY approval is renewed in the European Union (EU) on 16 December 2017, while its approval expires on 15 December 2022. Therefore, GLY can be used as an active substance in plant protection products (PPPs), until 15 December 2022. GLY has been thoroughly assessed, under an intense debate due to a concern about its effects on the environment and human health, by the Member States, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in recent years [6, 7]. An important prerequisite for GLY upcoming renewal as an ingredient in PPPs is that GLY should not adversely affect the environment and human and animal health as delineated by European regulation [8].
\n
\n
\n
2. Glyphosate residues in soil
\n
\n
2.1 Environmental fate of glyphosate
\n
\n
2.1.1 Glyphosate in the soil
\n
Given the widespread use of glyphosate, the investigation of the relationship between glyphosate and soil ecosystem is critical and has great significance for its valid application and environmental safety evaluation. Although herbicides containing glyphosate are not intentionally applied directly to the soil, they may contaminate soils in and around the treated areas, via spray drift during their application and after being washed off from leaf surfaces with rainfall.
\n
The fate of glyphosate in soil is complex and attributed to mineralization, degradation, immobilization, and leaching. Several studies trying to identify and understand the mechanisms that control the fate of chemicals as a source of environmental contamination have been published in previous years, especially in soils and water. Some were conducted with the acid form of glyphosate and others with formulated products, since glyphosate is not introduced into the environment as pure active ingredients but as formulated products containing co-formulant chemicals (adjuvants) and other additives. In a recent review, Mesnage et al. presented an overview of the most common surfactants containing co-formulants in glyphosate-based herbicides and explained whether the presence of such surfactant (e.g., Triton CG-110) has the potential to affect adsorption, leaching, and mineralization of glyphosate in the soil [9].
\n
The fate of glyphosate depends on soil composition, its physicochemical properties (texture, organic matter content, pH), its biological properties (microbial community, climatic conditions), the chemical properties of the specific pesticide, as well as the timing between precipitation and pesticide application [10, 11, 12, 13]. A recent study by Muskus et al. showed that temperature, pH, and total organic carbon (TOC) variations influenced the mineralization kinetics of glyphosate as well as the amount of extractable glyphosate and the extent of bio-NER formation over time in a German soil [14].
\n
Glyphosate degrades at a relatively rapid rate in most soils, with a half-life estimated to be between 7 and 60 days. The relatively rapid degradation of glyphosate has the advantage of limiting its role in polluting the environment, especially soil and water resources. However, its degradation could increase the pollution risk by its metabolites: aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and/or sarcosine. The degradation of the herbicide molecule as described in the literature (Figure 1) can follow two paths: the first is based on the breakdown of the carbon-nitrogen bond and leads to the formation of AMPA (main metabolite of glyphosate) via glyphosate oxidoreductase which is further degraded to carbon dioxide, while the second way is based on the splitting of the carbon-phosphorus (C-P) bond that is mediated by C-P lyase enzyme and results in the formation of sarcosine and glycine [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. However, AMPA also exists in the environment as a photodegradation product of aminopolyphosphonates in water [21].
\n
Figure 1.
Main glyphosate biodegradation pathways in the environment [5].
\n
Glyphosate is a small, amphoteric molecule characterized by three polar functional groups. These are the phosphonomethyl, amine, and carboxymethyl groups arranged in a linear manner. As a result of the presence of those groups in its structure, glyphosate is an ionic compound (log KOW = −3.20), highly polar and soluble in water (10.5 g L−1 at 20°C). GPS is a polyprotic acid with four pKa values, 0.7, 2.2, 5.9, and 10.6, 8 meaning that the speciation of the molecule is dependent upon the pH value of the solution. Three pKa values, 0.9, 5.6, and 10.2, characterize AMPA. Over the pH values commonly found in soils, mono- and divalent anions are the predominant species present [6, 22].
\n
Glyphosate is soluble in water, but it also binds onto soil particles under certain conditions, particularly in clays. Numerous laboratory studies have shown that the absorption constant of the molecule in the soil varies between 8 and 377 dm3/kg. This coefficient value indicates a high absorption in the soil. Glyphosate adsorption to soil, and later release from soil, varies depending on the characteristics and composition of the soil (clay, sand, or gravel), temperature, and soil moisture. So it may quickly wash out of sandy soils or last for more than a year in soils with a high clay content. Even when bound to soil particles, it may dissolve back into soil water later on, for example, in the presence of phosphates. Glyphosate can also form complexes with metal ions, potentially affecting the availability of nutrients in the soil.
\n
The mechanism of glyphosate sorption to soil is similar to that of phosphate fertilizers, the presence of which can reduce glyphosate sorption [23]. Glyphosate compared to most other pesticides strongly absorbs to soil and is not expected to move vertically below the six-inch soil layer, exception made of a colloid-facilitated transport. Its soluble residues are expected to be poorly mobile in the free pore water of soils. The mobility of glyphosate in soil is very low because, as a strong chelating agent through the carboxyl, phosphonate, and amino groups, it creates the complexes that immobilize the mineral micronutrients of the soil (calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, zinc, etc.) making them unavailable to plants [11, 24]. Similar to glyphosate, AMPA accumulates in soil and adsorbs in soils with high mineralization rates. Where strong sorption is demonstrated, glyphosate accumulation in soils can be expected. The interaction of pesticide-soil and the diffusion process lead to the formation of non-extractable residues trapped in areas not accessible to water flowing through the soil. The contamination of the environment is therefore considered to be relatively limited.
\n
Nevertheless, this adsorption is not permanent because glyphosate can also be found in lower soil layers. Many studies suggest the possibility of a slow remobilization of these residues, which could explain the low pollution level of groundwater by some pesticides at a long term. Glyphosate does have the potential to contaminate surface waters through erosion, as it adsorbs to soil particles suspended in runoff. Rain events can trigger dissolved glyphosate loss in transport-prone soils [25, 26].
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Glyphosate occurrence in soil
\n
The increase of glyphosate-based herbicides has raised concerns about the occurrence of GLY and AMPA in the environment. Reports of GLY presence in the environment from other parts of the world are numerous. A considerable attention has been given to Argentina [27, 28, 29, 30], Canada [31], across the United States [32], Mexico [33], and Portugal [34] as well to Spain [35], New Zealand [36], Austria [37], and French [38].
\n
However, although GLY is the most sold herbicide in Europe, a combined approach on the occurrence and levels of glyphosate residues in European soils and air, in conjunction with analytical methods used for this scope, is still scarce, compared to the magnitude of its use though some research articles and reviews (not only focusing on soil) started to appear (indicatively see [39, 40, 41]).
\n
The first large-scale assessment of distribution of GLY and AMPA in soils from agricultural topsoils of the European Union was recently published by Silva, where glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA were tested in 317 EU agricultural topsoils; 21% of the tested EU topsoils contained glyphosate and 42% contained AMPA, while both glyphosate and AMPA displayed a maximum concentration in soil of 2 mg kg−1. Both compounds were present at higher frequencies in northern soils, while eastern and southern regions generally had the most glyphosate- and AMPA-free soils (<0.05 mg kg−1), respectively. In addition, some contaminated soils were observed in areas highly susceptible to water and wind erosion [42]. Therefore, residue threshold values in soils are urgently needed to define potential risks for soil health and off-site effects related to export by wind and water erosion.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Analytical methods for quantification of GLY and AMPA
\n
In order to detect the presence and quantity of GLY dispersed in the environment, various laboratory analyses are performed on samples taken in situ.
\n
One of the key problems for obtaining reliable results from field samples is the use of the best suitable extraction solution, since sorption and desorption of glyphosate in soils are extremely pH dependent. Some reports showed that humic substances (substances and heterogenic mixtures dispersed and abundant in soils and sediments) adsorb glyphosate strongly due to the hydrogen bonding interactions between the two matrices. Another important aspect is that GLY is a highly polar herbicide, very soluble in water and insoluble in most organic solvents, which does not allow extraction with organic solvents and makes the extraction difficult and the preconcentration step quite lengthy. However, due to the amphoteric character of GLY and AMPA, both anionic and cationic resins have been used for preconcentration and cleanup purposes (commented in the below sections).
\n
\n
2.3.1 Extraction procedure
\n
As already mentioned, GLY has been shown to bind strongly to soils, especially to soils with high amounts of organic matter, iron, and aluminum [43, 44]. There is also evidence that glyphosate binds to clay minerals in a manner similar to inorganic phosphate [44, 45, 46]. The strength of the interactions of the phosphonate, carboxyl, and amino groups with iron oxides, silica, alumina, and organic matter depends on factors such as pH, metal cations, phosphate from fertilizers, etc. Therefore, it is hard to detect GLY without a pretreatment method [47].
\n
The choice of the best suitable extraction solution remains a problem that must be addressed accordingly.
\n
Several authors in the past reported different extraction methods of these compounds from soil, mainly using alkaline solutions with different recovery rates [48, 49, 50, 51] and most times applicable for one type of soil. In 1980 the FDA’s “Pesticide Analytical Manual” (PAM) including a procedure for the analysis of glyphosate residues in soil is published. However low and irreproducible recoveries in soil samples have been reported using this method. Later, Glass in 1983–1984 analyzed soils by alkaline extraction, followed by cleanup using flocculation with CaCl2 and anion exchange [52, 53, 54]. Yet, recoveries were still remained poor and ranged from 19 to 55%. Many extractants for soil have been tested in the years that followed with the most commonly used being aqueous bases KOH or NaOH, aqueous NH4OH or NH3, or triethylamine. Other extractants include NaHCO3, KH2PO4, mixed solutions of KH2PO4 and NH3 or NH4OH and HPO4, sodium borate buffers [55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60], or even weak acids such as 10% phosphoric acid buffers [13, 61].
\n
Moreover, it is vital to adjust the concentration of the extraction media in such a way that high recovery rates can be obtained while avoiding matrix problems provoked by excessively aggressive alkaline media, which may enrich the dissolved humic substances in the extraction solution [49]. Humic acids interfere, for example, with the derivatization and suppress the ionization in ESI-MS/MS detectors.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.2 Analytical methods
\n
Although GLY is the most widely used agrochemical in the world, it is also the most cumbersome in its determination in analytical methods, a fact known as the “glyphosate paradox.” The challenge to detect GLY using a simple analytical method is an outcome of its ionic character, low volatility and low mass, high polarity and solubility in water, poor solubility in common organic solvents, high boiling points, difficult evaporation, and poor retention on traditional analysis columns. The quantitative and qualitative analyses of GLY (and AMPA) are extremely difficult due to the absence of fluorophores or chromophores in their structure. Furthermore, its determination at the low concentration levels required for residue analysis in different matrices is very difficult. In soil its determination is even more difficult due to the complexity of this matrix and subsequent matrix effects. The derivatization process using different derivatization reagents has been extensively used to overcome some of the above problems [62].
\n
Prior to any attempt, it is important that all analysts to work with a glass that is not silanized to avoid the typical pitfall of GLY analysis. GLY has a profound affinity to glass, and any analytical solution prepared by this way will deviate substantially from its nominal concentration.
\n
Chromatography is the most used and powerful method for the determination of GLY and its main metabolite AMPA, utilizing gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) after derivatization or directly and capillary electrophoresis (CE). Conventional detectors are difficult to be used (especially for a straightforward analysis) due to the lack of chromophore and fluorophore groups in GLY. Usually, the limits of detection for GLY in soil vary between 0.01 and 0.3 mg/kg.
\n
In all cases, the analytical methodology is practically exclusive for this analyte, since the working conditions cannot be applied to the determination of pesticides different from glyphosate, except for some organophosphorus, such as glufosinate and other polar compounds, and this chemical is difficult to incorporate in the vast majority of multiresidue methods. However, many of the methods published for the determination of GLY are also suitable and report results for the determination of AMPA. The majority of developed analytical methods concerned a single matrix (most often water) and may not be suitable for other matrices. Therefore, the last decade, numerous revised methods have been published on the analysis of glyphosate and AMPA in different matrices such as water, plants, or soils. Many of them just modify several parameters of previously published methods, as the pH of the water in the extraction, cleanup procedure, and derivatization step (volume and/or concentration of the samples or reagents). Other modifications include the use of different separation techniques or detection systems or even new matrices. Fewer new methods have been reported in the past 5 years for more complex matrices such as soil. Very few articles have been published on multimatrix methods.
\n
In Table 1 numerous analytical methods that have been used for the determination of GLY and AMPA in soil matrices are summarized. Based on the given information, at present LC is the most used method since it is considered the most suitable technique for the detection of phosphonic and amino acid-type herbicides at low concentrations. Hence, the lack of chromophore or fluorophore groups makes it difficult to use conventional detection methods such as ultraviolet (UV) absorption or fluorimetry. LC–MS/MS is currently the method of choice for polar analytes due to its high selectivity and sensitivity.
Concerning soil organic matter and clay contents, the LOQ can reach 0.01 μg/g for both analytes for sandy samples, and for soil samples with a high organic matter and clay contents, LOQ is of 0.04 μg/g for glyphosate and 0.1 μg/g for AMPA
Pre-column conversion: 1. of glyphosate to glycine by Ca(ClO)2; 2. followed by reaction with OPA/ME in borate buffer (pH 9.5) to produce the fluorescent 1-(2′-hydroxyethylthio)-2-N-alkylisoindole
Pre-column conversion: 1. of glyphosate to glycine by Ca(ClO)2; 2. followed by reaction with OPA/ME in borate buffer (pH 9.5) to produce the fluorescent 1-(2′-hydroxyethylthio)-2-N-alkylisoindole
Gas chromatography methods are used after derivatization by simultaneous acylation, esterification, or trialkylsilylation reactions to convert the analytes into volatile compounds [69, 91, 92]. Typically used derivatization reagents are the mixture of trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) and trifluoroethanol (TFE) or N-methyl-N-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA) containing 1% tertbutyldimethylchlorosilane (TBDMCS) in excess producing sufficiently volatile derivatives for GC analysis. These derivatization approaches can be applied not only to soil (or sediment) but to other commodities as well [91].
\n
GLY as a compound permits its detection (in conjunction with GC) by several detectors such as the flame photometric detector (FPD), flame ionization detector (FID), electron capture detector (ECD), nitrogen-phosphorus detector (NPD),and also the more sensitive and selective mass spectrometer detector (MSD). The quantification of GLY in the soil through NPD has reached an limit of quantification (LOQ) equivalent of 0.02 mg/kg [93, 94]. GC analytical methods are reliable, sensitive, and selective, but the sample preparation is very time-consuming, complicated, and tedious as all ionic groups must be derivatized. In addition, they involve anhydrous conditions, extensive cleanup using solvent partitioning steps, charcoal elimination of pigments, and a large-volume anion of cation exchange.
\n
\n
2.3.3.1 GC-MS
\n
Borjesson and Torstensson using GC-MS managed to sensitively detect GLY and AMPA in soil [48]. One point that should have been addressed was the content of humic acids a problem mentioned above as well. Extraction was tedious, involving extraction under basic conditions, adjustment of the pH to acidic, and then subjected to column purifications to achieve ligand-anion exchanges. To derivatize GLY and AMPA TFE and TFAA were used. By this way the respective ester and acetyl derivative are formed suitable for GC analysis.
\n
Utilizing the S/N approach, they presented one of the lower LOQs of the bibliography for GLY, established at 0.006 mg/kg. The application of the method in soils collected from Swedish embankments after being treated with GLY revealed the gradual degradation of GLY along with the presence of AMPA.
\n
Bergstrom et al. investigated at laboratory level GLY and AMPA in sand and clay soils [13]. More specifically, its degradation was monitored using a GC-MS method, after derivatization with TFE and TFAA. The extraction of the soil was accomplished using an alkaline solution. Selected ion monitoring was utilized to enhance selectivity and optimize sensitivity of the method. The LOQ of the method was established at 0.01 mg/kg. The studied kinetics demonstrated that GLY had a very slow degradation rate in the clay soil. Concerning AMPA, though it is more tenacious than GLY (when derived from GLY), it degrades faster than GLY.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.3.2 GC-FPD
\n
A 2019 study on GLY and AMPA analysis in soil showed that still GC-FPD can function as an adequate tool for such demanding analyses [89]. This research was intrigued by the obstacles observed in derivatization in connection with the by-product interferences in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis (when MS/MS mode is not utilized), which lead to inferior selectivity. Consequently, the soil samples were mixed, turned to powder, and then ultrasonic extracted using water assisted by a solid-phase extraction (SPE). After derivatization, the samples were subjected to chemical analysis. A breakthrough of this process was the three-cross derivatization, and the elaborate investigation of its optimization, aided by the orthogonal experimental design. Such design is fundamental in the selection of the optimum conditions, in this case, reaction temperature, time, and ratio of the derivatizing-coupling reagents.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.3.3 GC-NPD
\n
GC-NPD was utilized by Hu and coworkers to analyze GLY in soil, using GC-MS for verification [72]. Extraction was performed in alkaline environment, followed by acidification in the dry extract. The authors stated that NH4OH was the most adequate extractant due to lesser extracted interferences than other alkaline agents, though in other works other agents are selected [48]. Derivatization was accomplished by the use of TFE and TFAA, followed by a liquid extraction using methylene chloride. The method verified the degradation of GLY in soil in apple orchards.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3.4 Liquid chromatography and derivatization
\n
\n
2.3.4.1 Fundamentals
\n
The availability of derivatization techniques compatible with an aqueous extract or sample and the chromatographic separation makes LC a more attractive pre-column derivatization [91]. Derivatization approach is used to produce fluorescent derivatives and to enhance their retention in hydrophobic stationary phases prior to detection by fluorescence detection (FLD), UV detection, electrochemical detection (ECD), or tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). In post-column procedures, the most known reactions are ninhydrin derivatization accompanied by UV detection and fluorogenic labeling with o-phthalaldehyde (OPA) in mercaptoethanol or N,N-dimethyl-2-mercaptoethylamine after oxidation of glyphosate to glycine.
\n
Although GLY and its derivatives show high sensitivity in LC determination, a laborious cleanup procedure such as ion-exchange column chromatography is required which may result in some sample loss and lower reproducibility, or many laboratories do not have the facilities required for this type of pre- or post-column fluorogenic labeling. The use of either hydrophilic/weak exchange or reversed-phase/weak exchange mixed-mode chromatography without any derivatization, followed by diverse detection techniques including tandem mass spectrometry detection, is gaining interest [77, 95]. HPLC methods are highly sensitive with fluorogenic labeling, but they lack specificity and usually require a laborious cleanup procedure such as ion-exchange column chromatography, which may result in some sample loss and lower reproducibility.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.4.2 Pre-column procedures
\n
\n
2.3.4.2.1 FMOC derivatization
\n
Pre-column procedures are a good alternative to post-column ones, and this has gradually come to play an important role in the analysis of glyphosate. The easier, less demanding and more current popular method to analyze these compounds is derivatization with 9-fluorenylmethylchloroformate (FMOC-Cl) followed by HPLC with FLD or MS/MS. A factorial experimental design was applied by a Chilean group in a critical analysis of this derivatization reaction [78]. The design was studied in aqueous soil extracts, unveiling the proper equilibrium between agents for the successful completion of the reaction. For example, excess of FMOC-Cl is required since there are also other active centers (amine-hydroxy groups) with which FMOC-Cl can react. Isotherm data verified the broad applicability of this method.
\n
Back in the 1990s, Sancho et al. established a method for the analysis of GLY in soil samples that involved a pre-column derivatization step with FMOC-Cl and subsequent estimation by coupled-column liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC–LC/FLD) [68]. However, for the determination of glyphosate in soils based on FMOC derivatization analytics, an extraction procedure including an SPE cleanup step has been used in many studies and considered more efficient [37]. In particular, Todorovic et al. extracted soils using sodium tetraborate. Once again, a group devoted substantial time in the extraction of GLY and AMPA from soil due to the complex sorption and desorption in soil which is also pH dependent. The sodium tetraborate performed better in terms of chromatographic efficiency than KOH extraction (more matrix interferences, more humic substances, etc.). The authors after derivatizing GLY and AMPA with FMOC-Cl cleaned up-enriched the extract with a polymeric SPE cartridge. Overall, the method was fit for purpose based on the analytical results on three different types of soils.
\n
Botero-Coy et al. have established a method based on LC–MS/MS, which was successfully applied to soil samples from Colombia and Argentina [77]. This work was an improvement of the previous work in the same domain [49]. In that work, the soil samples were extracted with potassium hydroxide solution and purified with SPE Oasis HLB cartridges. A pre-column derivatization step was also required in this method for which 9-fluorenylmethylchloroformate (FMOC-Cl) was used and the purification method using SPE cartridges was troublesome and expensive. Despite these difficulties, the analysis was conducted in Spanish soils with success. But, when soil samples from the mentioned countries were analyzed by the specific protocol, their high organic content proved an obstacle in the analysis. For this reason the authors introduced a dilution step of the extract assisted by pH adjustment to 9, before the SPE step. For SPE the polymeric reversed-phase Oasis HLB cartridges proved better in retaining-releasing the FMOC derivative than Oasis MAX used with good results.
\n
Internal standard’s use compensated possible downsides during sample preparation and corrected matrix effects. An additional tool in this work was the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry exploiting the time-of-flight technology. By this way additional interferences that would affect the analysis were further elucidated using the accurate mass full-acquisition data. It is noteworthy that the authors investigated MS ions used in the MS/MS mode. Interestingly, MRM transition containing the m/z 179 was problematic since it is related to FMOC and lacks specificity. In our work (see below), the specific ion was monitored only in AMPA transition, solving this issue [88]. Overall, the analysis verified the presence of GLY and AMPA in the majority of samples.
\n
Another work in the field of GLY analysis in soil/sludge using FMOC-Cl as a derivatizing agent was presented by Sun and coworkers [96]. In this context, an optimized sample preparation protocol was developed, applying extraction with sodium phosphate and trisodium citrate solutions (aqueous) and a purification step using hexane in acidified soil. The rationale behind the use of trisodium citrate was to counteract the effect of other metal ion complexing agents (such as Mg2+, Ca2+, etc.), in which GLY binds. The method was validated in three types of soils (and sludge samples) verifying that it was fit for purpose. The demonstrated LOQ was determined at 0.04 mg/kg.
\n
A pre-column derivatization was applied by Druart and coworkers, embracing glufosinate also in their portfolio [60]. A detailed study was conducted on the parameters governing the extraction of the analytes from the matrix. Accelerated solvent extraction, ultrasonic extraction, and magnetic stirring agitation were tested to achieve optimum conditions. In the end agitation was selected. The group also optimized derivatization by selecting water as the solvent of the reaction, though the previous study showed that an equivalent mixture of H2O:ACN would compromise the solubility of both GLY and FMOC-Cl reagents [97]. In the same study, it was demonstrated that a C18 column of 30 cm superseded other columns tested, even a respective NH2 column broadly used for such separations.
\n
In addition our group has developed a methodology for GLY and AMPA detection in topsoils originating from Greece [88]. The sample preparation was envisaged by previous works (one of our group) [49, 98]. The LC–MS/MS method developed was adequate for the analysis of both active substances, showing that GLY and AMPA were detected in 37 and 45%, respectively, of the samples investigated. A breakthrough of this work was the association of the results with the land use utilizing geographical information system (GIS) databases.
\n
GLY in soil is studied for registering not only its residual prevalence (including AMPA’s) but also its degradation dynamics. With this in view, Zhang et al. investigated its dynamics using an HPLC-FD method, utilizing FMOC derivatization [3]. Results of this study showed that the degradation is dependent on the physicochemical parameters of the soil, exemplified by the pH. The behavior of GLY and AMPA was investigated in compost-amended soils by Erban and colleagues [86]. Soil depth was disclosed as a key factor on the concentrations detected. GLY and AMPA though showed a different behavior when moisture and saturated hydraulic conductivity are considered. More specifically, GLY was affected principally by moisture, whereas AMPA was impacted by this conductivity.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.4.2.2 Other fluorophores
\n
Oliveira-Pereira and colleagues, in the context of adsorption studies, determined GLY and AMPA using a low-cost reversed-phase sequential injection chromatography method [90]. More specifically, GLY was converted (pre-column) to glycine (using hypochlorite). Then, by reaction with o-phthaldialdehyde, the respective fluorescent indole was formed. Expectedly, this reaction reduces the polarity of the indole derivative making it adequate for analysis under reversed-phase conditions (e.g., C18).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3.5 Direct analysis: a recent cornerstone
\n
Direct analysis of GLY and AMPA, avoiding the derivatization step, is still a challenge for the analysts. In this context, Marek and Koskinen developed a method for the straightforward analysis of GLY and AMPA in soil using for separation a Bio-Rad cation H exchange column coupled to LC–MS/MS [61]. The sample preparation involved mixing of soil with phosphoric acid solutions and sequential extractions advancing from a specific SPE technology. The combined extracts were purified using IC-Chelate cartridges known for their ability to exchange transition metals and divalent cations. A portion of the end extract was reacidified and passed through an IC-RP SPE cartridge to eliminate hydrophobic interferences prior to analysis. This work managed to provide very high recoveries for both substances regardless of the type of soil, which is a clear advantage.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.6 Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and normal phase, a new frontier for GLY and AMPA in soil analysis
\n
Due to the chemical nature of GLY, its analysis can be pursued under normal phase conditions, utilizing the same framework, the golden standard—HILIC. The latter is used in the efficient separation of a plethora of polar compounds, including pesticides. Despite its application for the separation of challenging polar pesticides, including GLY, in a variety of commodities [99], seldom are the reports for GLY analysis in soil. Marek reported a poor chromatographic performance when HILIC conditions (only one HILIC column was used; data were not shown) were used in the determination of GLY in soil and other matrices [61]. Hence, efforts need to be made in this direction, considering the inherent advantages of analyses of polar compounds under these conditions.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.7 Other methods
\n
Capillary electrophoresis methods have been reported in recent years using detection systems such as contactless conductivity, electrochemiluminescence [100], and laser-induced fluorescence [101, 102], as reviewed by Gauglitz et al. [103]. Ion chromatography [104], electrochemical method, surface resonance-enhanced spectrometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay also called ELISA methods [87], spectrophotometry [73, 85], and fluorescent spectrometry [50, 55, 57, 75, 78, 80, 90, 96] were also reported to detect GLY in current literatures. However, the selectivity of ion chromatography was limited. Unlike other pesticides, the application of immunoanalytical techniques for glyphosate determination has been troublesome, although they have made some improvements.
\n
Indicatively, El-Gendy and coworkers studied GLY in Egyptian soil samples using an optimized and sensitive linker-assisted enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (L’ELISA) [87]. To derivatize GLY succinic anhydride was used. The method was well correlated with an HPLC-FD method that used sodium tetraborate for the extraction.
\n
The advances in cutting-edge technologies can further hyphen such methods with modern mass spectrometers to provide solutions that currently are disregarded or seem problematic.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Glyphosate residues in the atmosphere
\n
\n
3.1 General aspects
\n
The environmental pollution instigated by the use of plant protection products, commonly referred to as pesticides, is one of the most serious problems that facing the world due to their potential toxicity, high persistence, and slow degradation. Pesticide fate in the environment is characterized by a number of complex processes occurring in different environmental compartments, such as air, soils, and plants [105]. A wide variety of pesticides has been detected in different environmental media, including water bodies, soil, and the atmosphere. The extended use of pesticides containing persistent active ingredients can lead to raised concentrations due to the accumulation in the environment and long-term exposure to nontarget organisms.
\n
Since the last decades, there has been an increasing global concern over the human health impacts attributed to the environmental pollution and specifically to air pollution. During applications, a noteworthy segment of applied pesticides ranged from 15 to 40% is dispersed in the atmosphere and can travel with long-range atmospheric transport [106]. Thus, the atmosphere has been considered as an important spread vector at local, regional, and global scales. It has been reported in the international literature that air pesticide contamination was observed both in urban and rural areas with concentration levels ranging from some picograms to several nanograms per cubic meter [107]. However, the contamination of air by pesticides is an aspect of atmospheric pollution that remains less documented than that of other environments.
\n
Worry over the transport of pesticides in air started in the 1960s with the detection of persistent and volatile substances such as DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin far from their application sites. The first legislation to consider air as an exposure route was in the United States in 1971. Since then the issue of pesticides in air has been subject to sporadic regulatory concern, especially in Europe [108].
\n
Milestone legislation in Europe concerning pesticides in the atmosphere occurred in 1996 with the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). This regulation covers all chemicals, including pesticides, and lays down principles to identify substances for which aerial transport may be noteworthy [108].
\n
Long-range transport in air and water can result in the exposure of remote and particularly vulnerable ecosystems such as the Arctic [109, 110].
\n
Pesticides enter into the atmosphere, and their residues can move away from the application sites resulting in accidental exposure for humans, animals, and plants, close or distant the treated sites. It is well recognized that the exposure and effect assessment of pesticides should not be constrained to the target area, and its close zone because this does not adequately cover possible hazards associated with their use.
\n
The most common routes of pesticide entry into the atmosphere could be the drift during their application, volatilization from the soil, surface water or crop foliage, as well as wind erosion of deposited residues [111, 112, 113]. Once they enter in the atmosphere, pesticides are distributed between the gaseous and particulate phases depending on parameters such as:
In the atmosphere, pesticides are distributed between particle and vapor phases based on their vapor pressure, the ambient temperature, and the concentration of suspended particulate matter. Taking into account the low volatility of the majority of the most commonly used pesticides; it could be considered that they are often absorbed on the surface of atmospheric particles. In that way they may incur transformation processes resulting in the formation of secondary metabolites which could be even more hazardous than the parent released compounds [106]. Pesticides released into the atmosphere can settle to the ground, be broken down by sunlight and water, or dissipate into the surrounding air.
\n
\n
3.1.1 Transfer processes of pesticides in the air
\n
During and after the application of a pesticide, a considerable portion of the amount applied may enter into the atmosphere through many different routes (the most important will be briefly discussed) and consequently may be transported over shorter and longer distance.
\n
Through spray application of pesticides, a fraction of the spray would exist as pesticides in the gas phase and as small droplets or particles. The latter do not reach their target due to their extremely small size and cannot be captured by drift collectors. This fraction that exists in the gas phase and as aerosol should be taken into account along with drift.
\n
Volatilization is defined as the transfer of pesticide residues into the gas phase after application. Volatilization from treated areas is a constant process and could be the main dissipative route for numerous pesticides [115]. Its extent is governed by the physical and chemical properties of the pesticide such as vapor pressure and Henry’s law constant; the application parameters such as the droplet size and the water volume; and finally the climatic conditions during and after application [108, 116]. Volatilization may be swayed by relative humidity, the atmospheric pressure, and the wind velocity [117]. The compound’s volatility with medium vapor pressure values is significantly influenced by environmental and application factors, whereas substances with high vapor pressure values present high volatilization which does not depend on other factors. It is broadly established in the literature that vapor pressure can be used to categorize pesticides with a very high or with no volatilization potential. Vapor pressure also rules the partitioning of a semi-volatile constituent between the gas and the airborne particle phases. According to Bidleman substances with a vapor pressure value higher than 10−2 Pa are mainly expected in the vapor phase, while those with vapor pressure value lower 10−5 Pa solely exist in the particle-adsorbed phase [118]. Pesticides with vapor pressure between 10−2 and 10−5 Pa values partition between these phases.
\n
A significant amount of pesticides entering into the atmosphere for several days or weeks after pesticide application comprises volatilization from the soil and plant surfaces as well as wind erosion of soil particles containing sorbed pesticides [119, 120]. Many parameters such as the physicochemical properties of the pesticide (vapor pressure, solubility, adsorption coefficient, molecular mass, and chemical nature), the soil properties (water content, soil density, soil organic matter content, clay content/texture, soil pH), the weather conditions (air temperature, solar radiation, rain, air humidity, and wind), and the agricultural practices used (application date and rate and formulation type) may influence the volatilization process [111].
\n
Volatilization from plants is considered up to three times higher than soil volatilization under similar meteorological conditions. The vapor pressure and Henry’s law constant are the physicochemical characteristics of the compound that seem to be related with the degree of volatilization. Additionally, application methods and weather conditions may also play an important role in the volatilization process from plants [121].
\n
The Focus Air group has deemed that vapor pressure is the most significant factor affecting volatilization and deemed that active ingredients applied to soil with vapor pressure values higher than 10−4 Pa and active ingredients applied to plants with vapor pressure values higher than 10−5 Pa have a high possibility to enter in the air and for that reason require a risk assessment evaluation before authorization [108].
\n
Pesticides existing in the aerial phase could be carried by wind and deposited accidentally in untreated areas by dry (gas and particle) and wet (rain and snow) deposition [122].
\n
The atmosphere could be efficiently cleaned of suspended particulate matter to which pesticides might be sorbed by rainfall, and thus gas-phase pesticides can partition directly into a falling raindrop [122].
\n
High pesticide concentrations in the air could be considered seasonal and often associated with local use and thus occur during the spraying months [123]. The physical and chemical properties of each pesticide also play a significant role in determining if a pesticide converts airborne, whether it then exists primarily in the gaseous or particle phase, and how efficiently rainfall removes it from the atmosphere. The period of time that a pesticide is applied, its amount, and the cultivated area play also significant roles in whether a pesticide exists in the atmosphere and at which concentration [113].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2 Glyphosate occurrence in the air
\n
Glyphosate (N-[phosphonomethyl] glycine), a broad-spectrum, nonselective, and post emergence herbicide, is the most widely used pesticide worldwide.
\n
Although numerous laboratory and field studies have been carried out for the determination of glyphosate and AMPA in the aquatic environment, there are limited studies in field soils. Furthermore, atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate and AMPA are shabbily documented as very few studies have monitored them in the atmosphere [124].
\n
The first report about the atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate and AMPA had been published in 1991 in order to present the results of a study that had been conducted in 1988 in northeastern Finland for measuring the workers’ exposure to glyphosate when they used sprayers connected to brush saws. In that study glyphosate was determined from the breathing zone and from urine samples. Based on the results of this study and at the end of the spraying week, two air samples were found to have measurable levels of glyphosate at concentrations 2.8 and 15.7 μg m−3. AMPA had not been detected in any of the air samples [125].
\n
In 2002, Humphries et al. examined the atmospheric samples at three different sites in east-central Alberta. For the purposes of the study, air samples were collected before the application of glyphosate and after its application and for 24 h time period at regular intervals. Glyphosate was not detected in any of the collected air samples at levels above the method LOQ; however, it was detected in few particulate samples [126]. The nonexistence of glyphosate in the polyurethane foam indicates that glyphosate is not released as the vapor forms into the atmosphere but rather is carried by a particulate matter.
\n
In 2004, glyphosate was examined in 59 atmospheric samples in Hauts-de-France Region in France, with a detection occurrence of 14% and a maximum concentration of 0.19 ng m−3 [124, 127].
\n
Chang et al. reported that both glyphosate and AMPA had been detected in the ambient air of Iowa, Indiana, and Mississippi during two growing seasons of the years 2007 and 2008. Atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate reached 9.1 and 5.4 ngm−3 in Mississippi and Iowa agricultural areas, respectively; however atmospheric concentrations of AMPA touched 0.49 and 0.97 ngm−3 in Mississippi and Iowa, correspondingly. It had been concluded that the existence of glyphosate in air is due to spray drift or wind erosion as it is not a volatile compound whereas AMPA presence is due to wind erosion as it is a glyphosate degradation product and it is formed in soil [128]. The authors provided also measurements in rainwater and estimated that 97% of glyphosate existing in the atmosphere could be removed by weekly rainfall greater than 30 mm [129].
\n
Morshed et al. determined the atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate in treated fields in Malaysia during spray applications by a mist blower [129]. The maximum concentration of 42.96 μgm−3 was measured for glyphosate, and additionally a first modeling attempt for the estimation of glyphosate emission to the atmosphere at regional level was done; however, there were no measurements to confirm the model output.
\n
In 2014, and specifically from July to November, Sousa et al. performed a study in northeastern Brazil, in the municipality of Limoeiro do Norte-Ceará, in urban and rural areas, for the determination of the atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate. Glyphosate detected at concentrations ranged between 0.313 and 2.939 μg m3 in all collected atmospheric samples [130].
\n
During the years 2015–2016, glyphosate and AMPA were searched in 142 air samples during a 2-year field campaign in France. Samples were taken from both nonagricultural and agricultural areas, while atmospheric concentrations of glyphosate were detected at an overall frequency of 7%. AMPA was not detected in any sample. The maximum concentration of 1.04 ng m−3 was measured for glyphosate in the rural site of Cavaillon. As regards the temporal distribution of glyphosate, it had been pointed out that there was no reproducible detection pattern from 2015 to 2016 [125].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.3 Monitoring studies for pesticides in the air
\n
Generally, a few number of monitoring studies have been conducted for the determination of pesticide residues in atmospheric samples. These studies could not provide consistent results due to the variability in experimental conditions, the lack of consistency in sampling methodologies, the variation in collection time and duration, the analytes selected, the analytical methods used [131], as well as the method detection limits. Most of the studies have been performed at the national level, they are short-term as they lasted from 1 to 2 years, and for that reason, the overall conclusion on the long-term trends and the atmospheric movements of pesticides could not been reached [108].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Determination of glyphosate
\n
\n
3.2.1 Sampling and extraction procedures
\n
Pesticides existing in the atmosphere are usually at very low concentrations, and thus appropriate sampling and techniques are necessary. The most common sampling techniques used for pesticides in the ambient air could be separated into two categories: the active and the passive or diffuse samplers [132].
\n
\n
3.2.1.1 Active sampling
\n
Active samplers allow the pesticides existing in gaseous and particulate phases to be trapped by pumping air through a filter followed by a solid adsorbent. Thus, pesticides standing in the gas phase are stacked by the solid adsorbent, whereas pesticides in the particulate phase are maintained in the filter.
\n
Pesticides present in the atmosphere could be sampled through low-volume or high-volume samplers. As pesticide residues in the atmosphere are at very low concentrations, high-volume samplers are usually used [121].
\n
For sampling of semi-volatile pesticides, the use of diffusion denuder systems, which consist of a series of coaxial glass tubes coated with an appropriate adsorbent through which the air flows, is proposed [121].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.1.2 Passive sampling
\n
Passive air samplers are devices that collect pesticides from the air without the use of pump, and they are comprised of an accumulating intermediate which has a high retention capacity for the target analytes. Passive samplers are able to gather only the free gaseous phase pesticides, while the length of sampling range from few weeks to several months, considerably larger than the usual time required using the active ones [121].
\n
In 1991, Jauhiainen et al. collected air samples for the determination of glyphosate from the breathing zone through a portable pump onto an absorption liquid [125]. The air samples collected were first evaporated to dryness and then dissolved with trifluoroethanol and trifluoroacetic anhydrite.
\n
Chang et al. used high-volume active samplers for collecting air samples for the determination of glyphosate. The glass fiber filters used were baked at 550°C, cooled to the room temperature, and enfolded in aluminum foil before sampling [128, 130]. The glass fiber filters after sampling were slowly grounded in a polypropylene tube and then extracted with hydrochloric acid (pH 2) and further with a potassium hydroxide solution (pH 11). Cellulose nitrate filters were used under vacuum for filtration [128].
\n
Ravier et al. used also high-volume samplers, and the particulate samples were collected on quartz microfiber filters. The filters after sampling were protected from the light and stored at −20°C [124]. Field air blank samples were also collected for the determination of the background contamination through handling and storage. The extraction of all the samples was performed in polytetrafluoroethylene or polypropylene vessels in order to avoid loss of the studied compounds via wall adsorption. According to Ravier et al., filters were extracted with ultrahigh quality water with the addition of appropriate quantities of Borax (0.05 M) and EDTA solutions. Polyethersulfone membranes were used for sample filtration. FMOC-Cl was used as a derivatization agent.
\n
Morshed et al. performed a study for the determination of glyphosate in the atmosphere by using both active and passive sampling methods. For the purposes of the study, three different air samplers were used. Cellulose filter patches and polyurethane foam were used for passive samplers. Active samplers were also used for sampling and were connected to polyurethane foam plug for the determination of glyphosate existing in the vapor phase and a quartz fiber filter for the particulate phase of airborne glyphosate [129]. Sample extraction for both active and passive extraction methods was performed with borate buffer. FMOC-Cl was used as a derivatizing agent.
\n
High-volume air samplers were used to collect suspended, airborne particulates and trap airborne glyphosate vapors in a study conducted in Alberta’s area. A volatile glyphosate was collected on a polyurethane foam plug and particulate glyphosate on a filter paper [126, 133].
\n
Sousa et al. used a glass sample holder in which a polyurethane foam (adsorbent medium) was placed. The particulate material was collected from the glass fiber filters. Glyphosate was determined in the atmosphere after extraction from polyurethane foams with a solution comprising of monobasic potassium phosphate and methanol in ultrapure water while the pH of the solution was maintained at 2 using concentrated phosphoric acid. The samples were concentrated in a C18 solid-phase extraction cartridge.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2 Analytical method
\n
The chromatographic analysis of glyphosate and AMPA is considered tough in trace analysis. Due to their low molecular weight, low volatility, thermal lability, and excellent water solubility, their extraction and determination are complex.
\n
The main analytical techniques used for the analysis of glyphosate in atmospheric samples are liquid chromatography equipped with diode array or fluorescence detectors and liquid chromatography interfaced with a quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer or mass spectrometry. However, gas chromatographic technique with ECD has also been used.
\n
In 1991 Jauhiainen et al. reported that a gas chromatographic system equipped with ECD and fused silica has been used for glyphosate determination in air samples. Additionally a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with fused silica was used for identification purposes.
\n
In 2011 a liquid chromatographic method for the determination of glyphosate in air samples was reported [129]. The analytical standards (stock and working) were prepared in a 0.025 M sodium borate buffer (pH 9) solution. Prior to HPLC chromatographic analysis, working standards were pre-column derivatized with a derivatizing agent (0.002 M FMOC-Cl). The liquid chromatographic system consisted of a florescence detector and a Hypersil NH2 chromatographic column, while the mobile phase comprised of 50% phosphate buffer (0.05 M potassium phosphate monobasic KH2PO4 adjusted to pH 6.0 with 7 N KOH). The glyphosate retention time was 5.6 min and the total run time was 10 min. The LOD of the method was 0.015 μg ml−1, while the LOQ was 0.05 μg ml−1 and determined through the linear calibration curve.
\n
Chang et al. reported another method for the determination of glyphosate and AMPA by using a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometer. Both glyphosate and AMPA were derivatized with 9-fluorenylmethylchloroformate before analysis. A gradient elution system comprised of 95% of 5 mM ammonium acetate in HPLC-MS-grade water to 100% HPLC-grade acetonitrile was used. The molecular ion and the fragment ion for glyphosate were 390 and 168. In the case of AMPA the molecular ion and the fragment ions were 332, 110, and 136 [128].
\n
Zhang et al. performed the analyses for the determination of glyphosate in the air samples of workplaces by ion chromatography using a conductivity detector. The limit of detection was found to be 0.003 mg/m3. The recovery ranged between 94.8 and 97.4% [134].
\n
According to Maria Gizeuda de F. Sousa et al., glyphosate was determined by liquid chromatography equipped with a diode array detector and a C-18 chromatographic column at 195 nm. The mobile phase consisted of 0.006 mM KH2PO4, and the flow rate set at 1.0 mL/min. Under these conditions glyphosate is eluted at 2.97 min, whereas the total analysis time was 7 min. The analytical method LOD was 0.09 μg mL−1, whereas the LOQ was 0.27 μg mL−1 [130].
\n
For the determination of glyphosate and its major metabolite AMPA, Ravier et al. used an ultra-performance liquid chromatographic (UPLC) system interfaced with a quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer and equipped with an electrospray ion source and a C18 UPLC column. The elution system consisted of water with 5 mM ammonium formate and acetonitrile. The analyses are performed in the negative ionization mode. Both the LOD and the LOQ were determined by the calibration curve and were 0.05 and 0.14 ngm−3, respectively, for glyphosate and 0.30 and 0.90 ngm−3, respectively, for AMPA [124].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
HPLC methods are highly sensitive especially with fluorogenic labeling, but they lack specificity and usually require a laborious cleanup procedure such as ion-exchange column chromatography, which may result in some sample loss and lower reproducibility. At present LC-MS in tandem mode (MS/MS) is considered the most suitable technique for the detection of phosphoric and amino acid-type herbicides at low concentrations. Derivatization is the most common way to analyze GLY and AMPA using LC-ESI-MS/MS systems, a procedure that is described in soil matrix as well.
\n
The maximum concentrations of glyphosate in atmospheric samples correspond to the time of its application. Due to the limited number of monitoring studies for monitoring pesticides and specifically glyphosate in the air, a reliable conclusion about its fate could not be reached.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"glyphosate, AMPA, soil, air, extraction, analytical methods, quantification",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72651.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72651.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72651",totalDownloads:296,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 16th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 29th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 7th 2020",datePublished:"December 23rd 2020",dateFinished:"June 29th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] (GPS) is currently the most commonly applied herbicide worldwide. Given the widespread use of glyphosate, the investigation of the relationship between glyphosate and soil ecosystem is critical and has great significance for its valid application and environmental safety evaluation. However, although the occurrence of glyphosate residues in surface and groundwater is rather well documented, only few information are available for soils and even fewer for air. Due to this, the importance of developing methods that are effective and fast to determine and quantify glyphosate and its major degradation product, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), is emphasized. Based on its structure, the determination of this pesticide using a simple analytical method remains a challenge, a fact known as the “glyphosate paradox.” In this chapter a critical review of the existing literature and data comparison studies regarding the occurrence and the development of analytical methods for the determination of pesticide glyphosate in soil and air is performed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72651",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72651",signatures:"Evagelia Tzanetou and Helen Karasali",book:{id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"315500",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Karasali",fullName:"Helen Karasali",slug:"helen-karasali",email:"e.karassali@bpi.gr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"318107",title:"Dr.",name:"Evangelia",middleName:null,surname:"Tzanetou",fullName:"Evangelia Tzanetou",slug:"evangelia-tzanetou",email:"ev.tzanetou@bpi.gr",position:null,institution:{name:"Benaki Phytopathological Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Glyphosate residues in soil",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Environmental fate of glyphosate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Glyphosate in the soil",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Glyphosate occurrence in soil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Analytical methods for quantification of GLY and AMPA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.1 Extraction procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.3 Gas chromatography - Derivatization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.3.3.1 GC-MS",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.3.3.2 GC-FPD",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"2.3.3.3 GC-NPD",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.4 Liquid chromatography and derivatization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"2.3.4.1 Fundamentals",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"2.3.4.2 Pre-column procedures",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_5",title:"2.3.4.2.1 FMOC derivatization",level:"5"},{id:"sec_13_5",title:"2.3.4.2.2 Other fluorophores",level:"5"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.5 Direct analysis: a recent cornerstone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.3.6 Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and normal phase, a new frontier for GLY and AMPA in soil analysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.3.7 Other methods",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"3. Glyphosate residues in the atmosphere",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.1 General aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.1.1 Transfer processes of pesticides in the air",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.1.2 Glyphosate occurrence in the air",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"3.1.3 Monitoring studies for pesticides in the air",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.2 Determination of glyphosate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"3.2.1 Sampling and extraction procedures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_4",title:"3.2.1.1 Active sampling",level:"4"},{id:"sec_26_4",title:"3.2.1.2 Passive sampling",level:"4"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"3.2.2 Analytical method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_35",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBlair A, Fritschi L, McLaughlin J, Sergi CM, Calaf GM, Curieux FL, et al. IARC Monographs Volume 112: Evaluation of Five Organophosphate Insecticides and Herbicides. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon-France: World Health Organization; 2015\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nPanel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment and the WHO Core Assessment Group on Pesticide Residues. Report of the Joint Committee on Pesticide Residues. Geneva: WHO/FAO; 2016\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nZhang CP, Hu XQ , Luo JY, Wu ZY, Wang L, Li B, et al. Degradation dynamics of glyphosate in different types of Citrus orchard soils in China. Molecules. 2015;20(1):1161-1175\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nBenbrook CM. Trends in glyphosate herbicide use in the United States and globally. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2016;28:3. DOI: 10.1186/s12302-016-0070-0\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nGrandcoin A, Piel S, Baures E. AminoMethylPhosphonic acid (AMPA) in natural waters: Its sources, behavior and environmental fate. Water Research. 2017;117:187-197\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nEFSA-Glyphosate. Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance glyphosate. EFSA Journal. 2015;13(11):4302\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nMyers JP, Antoniou MN, Blumberg B, Carroll L, Colborn T, Everett LG, et al. Concerns over use of glyphosate-based herbicides and risks associated with exposures: A consensus statement. Environmental Health. 2016:19. DOI: 10.1186/s12940-016-0117-0\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nEuropean-Regulation-1107/2009. Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market and repealing Council Directives 79/117/ EEC and 91/414/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union; 2009. OJ L 309, 24 November 2009. pp. 1-50\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nMesnage R, Benbrook C, Antoniou MN. Insight into the confusion over surfactant co-formulants in glyphosate-based herbicides. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2019;128:137-145\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nLaitinen P, Siimes K, Eronen L, Ramo S, Welling L, Oinonen S, et al. Fate of the herbicides glyphosate, glufosinate-ammonium, phenmedipham, ethofumesate and metamitron in two Finnish arable soils. Pest Management Science. 2006;62(6):473-491\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nGimsing AL, Szilas C, Borggaard OK. Sorption of glyphosate and phosphate by variable-charge tropical soils from Tanzania. Geoderma. 2007;138(1-2):127-132\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nSorensen SR, Schultz A, Jacobsen OS, Aamand J. Sorption, desorption and mineralisation of the herbicides glyphosate and MCPA in samples from two Danish soil and subsurface profiles. Environmental Pollution. 2006;141(1):184-194\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nBergstrom L, Borjesson E, Stenstrom J. Laboratory and lysimeter studies of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in a sand and a clay soil. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2011;40(1):98-108\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nMuskus AM, Krauss M, Miltner A, Hamer U, Nowak KM. Effect of temperature, pH and total organic carbon variations on microbial turnover of (13)CA(3)(15)N-glyphosate in agricultural soil. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;658:697-707\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nBorggaard OK, Gimsing AL. Fate of glyphosate in soil and the possibility of leaching to ground and surface waters: A review. Pest Management Science. 2008;64(4):441-456\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nBandana B, Sharma N, Joshi R, Gulati A, Sondhia S. Dissipation kinetics of glyphosate in tea and tea-field under northwestern mid-hill conditions of India. Journal of Pesticide Science. 2015;40(3-4):82-86\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nWang S, Seiwert B, Kastner M, Miltner A, Schaffer A, Reemtsma T, et al. (Bio)degradation of glyphosate in water-sediment microcosms—A stable isotope co-labeling approach. Water Research. 2016;99:91-100\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nPipke R, Amrhein N. Degradation of the phosphonate herbicide glyphosate by Arthrobacter-Atrocyaneus Atcc-13752. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1988;54(5):1293-1296\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nKishore GM, Jacob GS. Degradation of glyphosate by Pseudomonas sp.-Pg2982 via a sarcosine intermediate. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1987;262(25):12164-12168\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nShinabarger DL, Braymer HD. Glyphosate catabolism by Pseudomonas sp. strain-Pg2982. Journal of Bacteriology. 1986;168(2):702-707\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nLesueur C, Pfeffer M, Fuerhacker M. Photodegradation of phosphonates in water. Chemosphere. 2005;59(5):685-691\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSidoli P, Baran N, Angulo-Jaramillo R. Glyphosate and AMPA adsorption in soils: Laboratory experiments and pedotransfer rules. Environemental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;23(6):5733-5742\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nMunira S, Farenhorst A, Flaten D, Grant C. Phosphate fertilizer impacts on glyphosate sorption by soil. Chemosphere. 2016;153:471-477\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nOkada E, Costa JL, Bedmar F. Adsorption and mobility of glyphosate in different soils under no-till and conventional tillage. Geoderma. 2016;263:78-85\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nSaunders LE, Pezeshki R. Glyphosate in runoff waters and in the root-zone: A review. Toxics. 2015;3(4):462-480\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nRichards BK, Pacenka S, Meyer MT, Dietze JE, Schatz AL, Teuffer K, et al. Antecedent and post-application rain events trigger glyphosate transport from runoff-prone soils. Environmental Science & Technology Letters. 2018;5(5):249-254\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nAlonso LL, Demetrio PM, Etchegoyen MA, Marino DJ. Glyphosate and atrazine in rainfall and soils in agroproductive areas of the pampas region in Argentina. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;645:89-96\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nBerman MC, Marino DJG, Quiroga MV, Zagarese H. Occurrence and levels of glyphosate and AMPA in shallow lakes from the Pampean and Patagonian regions of Argentina. Chemosphere. 2018;200:513-522\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nPrimost JE, Marino DJG, Aparicio VC, Costa JL, Carriquiriborde P. Glyphosate and AMPA, “pseudo-persistent” pollutants under real world agricultural management practices in the Mesopotamic pampas agroecosystem, Argentina. Environmental Pollution. 2017;229:771-779\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nBonansea RI, Filippi I, Wunderlin DA, Marino DJG, Ame MV. The fate of glyphosate and AMPA in a freshwater endorheic basin: An ecotoxicological risk assessment. Toxics. 2018;6:3. DOI: 10.3390/toxics6010003\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nVan Stempvoort DR, Spoelstra J, Senger ND, Brown SJ, Post R, Struger J. Glyphosate residues in rural groundwater, Nottawasaga River watershed, Ontario, Canada. Pest Management Science. 2016;72(10):1862-1872\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nBattaglin WA, Meyer MT, Kuivila KM, Dietze JE. Glyphosate and its degradation product AMPA occur frequently and widely in us soils, surface water, groundwater, and precipitation(1). The Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 2014;50(2):275-290\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nRuiz-Toledo J, Castro R, Rivero-Perez N, Bello-Mendoza R, Sanchez D. Occurrence of glyphosate in water bodies derived from intensive agriculture in a tropical region of southern Mexico. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2014;93(3):289-293\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nAbrantes N, Pereira R, Goncalves F. Occurrence of pesticides in water, sediments, and fish tissues in a Lake surrounded by agricultural lands: Concerning risks to humans and ecological receptors. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 2010;212(1-4):77-88\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nSanchis J, Kantiani L, Llorca M, Rubio F, Ginebreda A, Fraile J, et al. Determination of glyphosate in groundwater samples using an ultrasensitive immunoassay and confirmation by on-line solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2012;402(7):2335-2345\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nStewart M, Olsen G, Hickey CW, Ferreira B, Jelic A, Petrovic M, et al. A survey of emerging contaminants in the estuarine receiving environment around Auckland, New Zealand. Science of the Total Environment. 2014;468:202-210\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nTodorovic GR, Mentler A, Popp M, Hann S, Kollensperger G, Rampazzo N, et al. Determination of glyphosate and AMPA in three representative agricultural Austrian soils with a HPLC-MS/MS method. Soil and Sediment Contamination. 2013;22(3):332-350\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nZgheib S, Moilleron R, Chebbo G. Priority pollutants in urban stormwater: Part 1—Case of separate storm sewers. Water Research. 2012;46(20):6683-6692\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nKoskinen WC, Marek LJ, Hall KE. Analysis of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in water, plant materials and soil. Pest Management Science. 2016;72(3):423-432\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nGrunewald K, Schmidt W, Unger C, Hanschmann G. Behavior of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in soils and water of reservoir Radeburg II catchment (Saxony/Germany). Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 2001;164(1):65-70\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nValle AL, Mello FCC, Alves-Balvedi RP, Rodrigues LP, Goulart LR. Glyphosate detection: Methods, needs and challenges. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2019;17(1):291-317\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nSilva V, Montanarella L, Jones A, Fernandez-Ugalde O, Mol HGJ, Ritsema CJ, et al. Distribution of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in agricultural topsoils of the European Union. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;621:1352-1359\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nSprankle P, Meggitt WF, Penner D. Rapid inactivation of glyphosate in soil. Weed Science. 1975;23(3):224-228\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nSprankle P, Meggitt WF, Penner D. Adsorption, mobility, and microbial degradation of glyphosate in soil. Weed Science. 1975;23(3):229-234\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nHance RJ. Adsorption of glyphosate by soils. Pesticide Science. 1976;7(4):363-366\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nShoval S, Yariv S. Interaction between roundup (glyphosate) and montmorillonite. 1. Infrared study of the sorption of glyphosate by montmorillonite. Clays and Clay Minerals. 1979;27(1):19-28\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nStalikas CD, Konidari CN. Analytical methods to determine phosphonic and amino acid group-containing pesticides. Journal of Chromatography A. 2001;907(1-2):1-19\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nBorjesson E, Torstensson L. New methods for determination of glyphosate and (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in water and soil. Journal of Chromatography A. 2000;886(1-2):207-216\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nIbanez M, Pozo OJ, Sancho JV, Lopez FJ, Hernandez F. Residue determination of glyphosate, glufosinate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in water and soil samples by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2005;1081(2):145-155\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nMiles CJ, Moye HA. Extraction of glyphosate herbicide from soil and clay-minerals and determination of residues in soils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1988;36(3):486-491\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nAubin AJ, Smith AE. Extraction of [C-14] glyphosate from Saskatchewan soils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1992;40(7):1163-1165\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nGlass RL. Metal-complex formation by glyphosate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1984;32(6):1249-1253\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nGlass RL. Liquid-chromatographic determination of glyphosate in soil and water samples. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society. 1983;185(Mar):27\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nGlass RL. Liquid-chromatographic determination of glyphosate in fortified soil and water samples. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1983;31(2):280-282\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nLaitinen P, Ramo S, Nikunen U, Jauhiainen L, Siimes K, Turtola E. Glyphosate and phosphorus leaching and residues in boreal sandy soil. Plant and Soil. 2009;323(1-2):267-283\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nAl-Rajab AJ, Schiavon M. Degradation of C-14-glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in three agricultural soils. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2010;22(9):1374-1380\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nMardian-Jansar K, Ismail BS. Residue determination and levels of glyphosate in surface water, sediments and soils associated with oil palm plantation in Tasik Chini, Pahang, Malaysia. AIP Conference Proceedings. 1614;2014:795-802\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nGonzalez-Martinez MA, Brun EM, Puchades R, Maquieira A, Ramsey K, Rubio F. Glyphosate immunosensor. Application for water and soil analysis. Analytical Chemistry. 2005;77(13):4219-4227\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nHuang XJ, Pedersen T, Fischer M, White R, Young TM. Herbicide runoff along highways. 1. Field observations. Environmental Science & Technology. 2004;38(12):3263-3271\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nDruart C, Delhomme O, de Vaufleury A, Ntcho E, Millet M. Optimization of extraction procedure and chromatographic separation of glyphosate, glufosinate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in soil. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2011;399(4):1725-1732\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nMarek LJ, Koskinen WC. Simplified analysis of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in water, vegetation and soil by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Pest Management Science. 2014;70(7):1158-1164\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nArkan T, Molnar-Perl I. The role of derivatization techniques in the analysis of glyphosate and aminomethyl-phosphonic acid by chromatography. Microchemical Journal. 2015;121:99-106\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nLundgren LN. A new method for the determination of glyphosate and(aminomethyl) phosphonic acid residues in soils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1986;34:535-538. DOI: 10.1021/jf00069a041\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nRoy DN, Konar SK. Development of an analytical method for the determination of glyphosate and (aminomethyl) phosphonic acid residues in soils by nitrogen-selective gas chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1989;37(2):441-443. DOI: 10.1021/jf00086a038\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nKawai S, Uno B, Tomita M. Determination of glyphosate and its major metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid by high-performance liquid chromatography after derivatization with p-toluenesulphonyl chloride. Journal of Chromatography. 1991;540:411-415. DOI: 10.1016/S0021-9673(01)88832-4 411\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nForlania G, Mangiagallia A, Nielsena E, Suardib CM. Degradation of the phosphonate herbicide glyphosate in soil: Evidence for a possible involvement of unculturable microorganisms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 1999;31:991-997. DOI: 10.1016/s0038-0717(99)00010\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nAlferness PL, Iwata Y. Determination of glyphosate and (Aminomethy1)phosphonic acid in soil, plant and animal matrices, and water by capillary gas chromatography with mass-selective detection. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1994;42:2751-2759\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nSancho JV, Hidalgo C, Hernandez F, Lopez FJ, Hogendoorn EA, Dijkman E. Rapid determination of glyphosate residues and its main metabolite AMPA in soil samples by liquid chromatography. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 1996;62(1):53-63\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nKataoka H, Ryu S, Sakiyama N, Makita M. Simple and rapid determination of the herbicides glyphosate and glufosinate in river water, soil and carrot samples by gas chromatography with flame photometric detection. Journal of Chromatography A. 1996;726(1-2):253-258\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nShao CY, Howe CJ, Porter AJR, Glover LA. Novel cyanobacterial biosensor for detection of herbicides. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2002;68(10):5026-5033. DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.10.5026-5033.2002\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nGhanem A, Bados P, Kerhoas L, Dubroca J, Einhorn J. Glyphosate and AMPA analysis in sewage sludge by LC-ESI-MS/MS after FMOC derivatization on strong anion-exchange resin as solid support. Analytical Chemistry. 2007;79(10):3794-3801. DOI: 10.1021/ac062195k\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nHu JY, Chen CL, Li JZ. A simple method for the determination of glyphosate residues in soil by capillary gas chromatography with nitrogen phosphorus. Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 2008;63(4):371-375\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nJan MR, Shah J, Muhammad M, Ara B. Glyphosate herbicide residue determination in samples of environmental importance using spectrophotometric method. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;169(1-3):742-745\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nIwamuro Y, Iio-Ishimaru R, Chinaka S, Takayama N, Kodama S, Hayakawa K. Analysis of phosphorus-containing amino acid-type herbicides by capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry using a chemically modified capillary having amino groups. Journal of Health Science. 2010;56(5):606-612. DOI: 10.1248/jhs.56.606\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nColombo SD, Masini JC. A sequential-injection reversed-phase chromatography method for fluorimetric determination of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid. Analytical Methods. 2014;6(2):490-496\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nTapsoba I, Paré S, Toé AM, et al. SWV determination of glyphosate in Burkina Faso soils using carbon fiber microelectrode. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 2012;6:2211-2220\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nBotero-Coy AM, Ibanez M, Sancho JV, Hernandez F. Improvements in the analytical methodology for the residue determination of the herbicide glyphosate in soils by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2013;1292:132-141\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nBaez ME, Fuentes E, Espina MJ, Espinoza J. Determination of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in aqueous soil matrices: A critical analysis of the 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate derivatization reaction and application to adsorption studies. Journal of Separation Science. 2014;37(21):3125-3132\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nPrasad BB, Jauhari D, Tiwari MP. Doubly imprinted polymer nanofilm-modified electrochemical sensor for ultra-trace simultaneous analysis of glyphosate and glufosinate. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2014;59:81-88. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.03.019\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nWang D, Lin B, Cao Y, Guo M, Yu Y. A highly selective and sensitive fluorescence detection method of glyphosate based on an immune reaction strategy of carbon dot labeled antibody and antigen magnetic beads. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2016;64(30):6042-6050. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01088\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nYang X, Wang F, Bento CPM, Xue S, Gai L, van Dam R, et al. Short-term transport of glyphosate with erosion in Chinese loess soil—A flume experiment. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;512-513:406-414. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.071\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nBento CPM, Yang X, Gort G, Xue S, van Dam R, Zomer P, et al. Persistence of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in loess soil under different combinations of temperature, soil moisture and light/darkness. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;572:301-311. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.215\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nBento CPM, van der Hoeven S, Yang X, Riksen MMJPM, Mol HGJ, Ritsema CJ, et al. Dynamics of glyphosate and AMPA in the soil surface layer of glyphosate-resistant crop cultivations in the loess Pampas of Argentina. Environmental Pollution. 2019;244:323-331. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.046\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nLarsbo M, Sandin M, Jarvis N, Etana A, Kreuger J. Surface runoff of pesticides from a clay loam field in Sweden. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2016;45(4):1367. DOI: 10.2134/jeq2015.10.0528\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nFelton DE, Ederer M, Steffens T, Hartzell PL, Waynant KV. UV-Vis spectrophotometric analysis and quantification of glyphosate for an interdisciplinary undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education. 2018;95(1):136-140\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nErban T, Stehlik M, Sopko B, Markovic M, Seifrtova M, Halesova T, et al. The different behaviors of glyphosate and AMPA in compost-amended soil. Chemosphere. 2018;207:78-83\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nEl-Gendy K, Mosallam E, Ahmed N, Aly N. Determination of glyphosate residues in Egyptian soil samples. Analytical Biochemistry. 2018;557:1-6\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nKarasali H, Pavlidis G, Marousopoulou A. Investigation of the presence of glyphosate and its major metabolite AMPA in Greek soils. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 2019;26(36):36308-36321\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nZhang W, Feng Y, Ma L, An J, Zhang H, Cao M, et al. A method for determining glyphosate and its metabolite aminomethyl phosphonic acid by gas chromatography-flame photometric detection. Journal of Chromatography A. 2019;1589:116-121\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nPereira EAO, Melo VF, Abate G, Masini JC. Determination of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid by sequential-injection reversed-phase chromatography: Method improvements and application in adsorption studies. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2019;411(11):2317-2326\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nSaito T, Miura N, Namera A, Oikawa H, Miyazaki S, Nakamoto A, et al. Mixed-mode C-C-18 monolithic spin-column extraction and GC-MS for simultaneous assay of organophosphorus compounds, glyphosate, and glufosinate in human serum and urine. Forensic Toxicology. 2012;30(1):1-10\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nDeyrup CL, Chang SM, Weintraub RA, Moye HA. Simultaneous esterification and acylation of pesticides for analysis by gas-chromatography. 1. Derivatization of glyphosate and (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid with fluorinated alcohols-perfluorinated anhydrides. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1985;33(5):944-947\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nPei MQ , Lai J. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of glyphosate. Chinese Journal Guangdong Police Science Technology. 2004;1:14-15\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nDing J, Guo H, Liu W-W, Zhang W-W, Wang J-W. Current progress on the detection of glyphosate in environmental samples. Journal of Applied Biomedicine. 2015;3(6):88-95\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nYoshioka N, Asano M, Kuse A, Mitsuhashi T, Nagasaki Y, Ueno Y. Rapid determination of glyphosate, glufosinate, bialaphos, and their major metabolites in serum by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using hydrophilic interaction chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2011;1218(23):3675-3680\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nSun LS, Kong DY, Gu WD, Guo XY, Tao WQ , Shan ZJ, et al. Determination of glyphosate in soil/sludge by high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2017;1502:8-13\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nNedelkoska TV, Low GKC. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of glyphosate in water and plant material after pre-column derivatisation with 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2004;511(1):145-153\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nKaranasios E, Karasali H, Marousopoulou A, Akrivou A, Markellou E. Monitoring of glyphosate and AMPA in soil samples from two olive cultivation areas in Greece: Aspects related to spray operators activities. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2018;190(6):361\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nVass A, Robles-Molina J, Perez-Ortega P, Gilbert-Lopez B, Dernovics M, Molina-Diaz A, et al. Study of different HILIC, mixed-mode, and other aqueous normal-phase approaches for the liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry-based determination of challenging polar pesticides. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2016;408(18):4857-4869\n'},{id:"B100",body:'\nHsu CC, Whang CW. Microscale solid phase extraction of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid in water and guava fruit extract using alumina-coated iron oxide nanoparticles followed by capillary electrophoresis and electrochemiluminescence detection. Journal of Chromatography A. 2009;1216(49):8575-8580\n'},{id:"B101",body:'\nJiang J, Lucy CA. Determination of glyphosate using off-line ion exchange preconcentration and capillary electrophoresis-laser induced fluorescence detection. Talanta. 2007;72(1):113-118\n'},{id:"B102",body:'\nCao L, Deng T, Liang S, Tan X, Meng J. Determination of herbicides and its metabolite in soil and water samples by capillary electrophoresis-laser induced fluorescence detection using microwave-assisted derivatization. Analytical Sciences. 2014;30(7):759-766\n'},{id:"B103",body:'\nGauglitz G, Wimmer B, Melzer T, Huhn C. Glyphosate analysis using sensors and electromigration separation techniques as alternatives to gas or liquid chromatography. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2018;410(3):725-746\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nMallat E, Barcelo D. Analysis and degradation study of glyphosate and of aminomethylphosphonic acid in natural waters by means of polymeric and ion-exchange solid-phase extraction columns followed by ion chromatography-post-column derivatization with fluorescence detection. Journal of Chromatography A. 1998;823(1-2):129-136\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nÖzkara A, Akyil D, Konuk M. Pesticides, environmental pollution, and health. Environmental Health Risk - Hazardous Factors to Living Species. 2016. Chapter 1. pp. 4-28. DOI: 10.5772/63094\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nSocorro J, Durand A, Temime-Roussel B, Gligorovski S, Wortham H, Quivet E. The persistence of pesticides in atmospheric particulate phase: An emerging air quality issue. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:33456. DOI: 10.1038/srep33456\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nDésert M, Ravier S, Gille G, Quinapallo A, Armengaud A, Pochet G, et al. Spatial and temporal distribution of current-use pesticides in ambient air of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur region and Corsica, France. Atmospheric Environment. 2018;192(439):241-256. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.08.054\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nFOCUS. Pesticides in air: Considerations for exposure assessment. Report of the FOCUS Working Group on Pesticides in Air, EC Document Reference SANCO/10553/2006 Rev 2 June 2008. pp. 327\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nMatthies M, Klasmeier J, Beyer A, Ehling C. Assessing persistence and long-range transport potential of current-use pesticides. Environmental Science & Technology. 2009;43(24):9223-9229. DOI: 10.1021/es900773u\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nSarigiannis DA, Kontoroupis P, Solomou ES, Nikolaki S, Karabelas AJ. Inventory of pesticide emissions into the air in Europe. Atmospheric Environment. 2013;75:6-14. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.04.003\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nVan den Berg F, Kubiak R, Benjey WG, Majewski MS, Yates SR, Reeves GL, et al. Emission of pesticides into the air. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 1999;115(1/4):195-218. DOI: 10.1023/a:1005234329622\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nBedos C, Cellier P, Calvet R, Barriuso E, Gabrielle B. Mass transfer of pesticides into the atmosphere by volatilization from soils and plants: Overview. Agronomie. 2002;22:21-33. DOI: 10.1051/agro:2001003\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nVoutsas E, Vavva C, Magoulas K, Tassios D. Estimation of the volatilization of organic compounds from soil surfaces. Chemosphere. 2005;58(6):751-758. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.09.057\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nSauret N, Wortham H, Strekowski R, Herckès P, Nieto LI. Comparison of annual dry and wet deposition fluxes of selected pesticides in Strasbourg, France. Environmental Pollution. 2009;157(1):303-312. DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2008.06.034\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nPrueger JH, Gish TJ, McConnell LL, Mckee LG, Hatfield JL, Kustas WP. Solar radiation, relative humidity, and soil water effects on metolachlor volatilization. Environmental Science & Technology. 2005;39(14):5219-5226. DOI: 10.1021/es048341q\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nWienhold BJ, Gish TJ. Effect of formulation and tillage practice on volatilization of atrazine and Alachlor. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1994;23(2):292. DOI: 10.2134/jeq1994.00472425002300020011x\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nHarper LA, White AW, Bruce RR, Thomas AW, Leonard AA. Soil and microclimate effects on trifluralin volatilisation. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1976;5:236-242\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nBidleman TF. Atmospheric processes: Wet and dry deposition of organic compounds are controlled by their vapor-particle partitioning. Environmental Science & Technology. 1988;22:361-367\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nGlotfelty DE, Leech MM, Jersey J, Taylor AW. Volatilization and wind erosion of soil surface applied atrazine, simazine, alachlor, and toxaphene. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1989;37(2):546-551. DOI: 10.1021/jf00086a059\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nMajewski MS. Micrometeorological methods for measuring the post-application volatilization losses of pesticides. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 1999;115:83-113\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nYusà V, Coscollà C, Mellouki W, Pastor A, de la Guardia M. Sampling and analysis of pesticides in ambient air. Journal of Chromatography A. 2009;1216(15):2972-2983. DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.02.019\n'},{id:"B122",body:'\nSlinn WGN. Some approximations for the wet and dry removal of particles and gases from the atmosphere. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 1977;7(4):513-543. DOI: 10.1007/bf00285550\n'},{id:"B123",body:'\nKuang Z, McConnell LL, Torrents A, Meritt D, Tobash S. Atmospheric deposition of pesticides to an agricultural watershed of the Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2003;32(5):1611. DOI: 10.2134/jeq2003.1611\n'},{id:"B124",body:'\nRavier S, Désert M, Gille G, Armengaud A, Wortham H, et al. Monitoring of Glyphosate, Glufosinate-ammonium and (Aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in ambient air of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur Region, France. Atmospheric Environment. 2019;204:102-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.02.023hal-02059173\n'},{id:"B125",body:'\nJauhiainen A, Räsänen K, Sarantila R, Nuutinen J, Kangas J. Occupational exposure of forest workers to glyphosate during brush saw spraying work. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. 1991;52(2):61-64. DOI: 10.1080/15298669191364334\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nHumphries D, Byrtus G, Anderson AM. Glyphosate residues. In: Alberta’s Atmospheric Deposition, Soils and Surface Waters. Vegreville, Alberta: Water Research Users Group Alberta Environment; 2005\n'},{id:"B127",body:'\nProuvost H, Declercq C. Exposition de la population aux pesticides dans la region Nord-Pas-de-Calais: Apports du programme PHYTO AIR. 2005:78. Project report. Available from: http://www.orsnpdc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/05-5.pdf [Assessed: 20 April 2020]\n'},{id:"B128",body:'\nChang F, Simcik MF, Capel PD. Occurrence and fate of the herbicide glyphosate and its degradate aminomethylphosphonic acid in the atmosphere. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2011;30(3):548-555. DOI: 10.1002/etc.431\n'},{id:"B129",body:'\nMorshed MM, Dzolkhifli O, Rosli BM, Samsuri BAW. Determination of glyphosate through passive and active sampling methods in a treated field atmosphere. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2011;6(17):4010-4018. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR11.533\n'},{id:"B130",body:'\nDe F. Sousa MG, da Silva AC, dos Santos Araújo R, Rigotto RM. Evaluation of the atmospheric contamination level for the use of herbicide glyphosate in the northeast region of Brazil. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2019;191:604. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-019-7764-x\n'},{id:"B131",body:'\nVan Dijk HFG, Guicherit R. Atmospheric dispersion of current-use pesticides- a review of the evidence from monitoring studies. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 1999;115:21-70\n'},{id:"B132",body:'\nEsteve-Turrillas FA, Pastor A, Yusà V, de la Guardia M. Using semi-permeable membrane devices as passive samplers. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2007;26(7):703-712. DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.05.006\n'},{id:"B133",body:'\nBoethling RS, Howard PH, Meylan WM. Finding and estimating chemical property data for environmental assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2004;23(10):2290. DOI: 10.1897/03-532\n'},{id:"B134",body:'\nZhang RN, Liu HL, Huo ZL. Determination of glyphosate in air of workplaces by ion chromatography. Zhonghua Lao Dong Wei Sheng Zhi Ye Bing Za Zhi. 2013;31(10):779-782\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Evagelia Tzanetou",address:"ev.tzanetou@bpi.gr",affiliation:'
Laboratory of Chemical Control of Pesticides, Department of Pesticides Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens, Greece
Laboratory of Chemical Control of Pesticides, Department of Pesticides Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens, Greece
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",publishedDate:"December 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"124178",title:"Dr.",name:"Aisling",middleName:"C",surname:"McMahon",email:"amcmahon@anzac.edu.au",fullName:"Aisling McMahon",slug:"aisling-mcmahon",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells and Regulation of Blood Lipoproteins",slug:"liver-sinusoidal-endothelial-cells-and-regulation-of-blood-lipoproteins",abstract:null,signatures:"Dmitri Svistounov, Svetlana N. Zykova, Victoria C. Cogger, Alessandra Warren, Aisling C. McMahon, Robin Fraser and David G. Le Couteur",authors:[{id:"76752",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitri",surname:"Svistounov",fullName:"Dmitri Svistounov",slug:"dmitri-svistounov",email:"dsvistounov@med.usyd.edu.au"},{id:"80073",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Le Couteur",fullName:"David Le Couteur",slug:"david-le-couteur",email:"david.lecouteur@sydney.edu.au"},{id:"122346",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana N",surname:"Zykova",fullName:"Svetlana N Zykova",slug:"svetlana-n-zykova",email:"svetlana.zykova@uit.no"},{id:"122347",title:"Dr.",name:"Victoria C",surname:"Cogger",fullName:"Victoria C Cogger",slug:"victoria-c-cogger",email:"victoria.cogger@sydney.edu.au"},{id:"122348",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",surname:"Warren",fullName:"Alessandra Warren",slug:"alessandra-warren",email:"alessandra.warren@sydney.edu.au"},{id:"122349",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",surname:"Fraser",fullName:"Robin Fraser",slug:"robin-fraser",email:"robin.fraser@otago.ac.nz"},{id:"124178",title:"Dr.",name:"Aisling",surname:"McMahon",fullName:"Aisling McMahon",slug:"aisling-mcmahon",email:"amcmahon@anzac.edu.au"}],book:{title:"Dyslipidemia",slug:"dyslipidemia-from-prevention-to-treatment",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"26129",title:"Prof.",name:"Roya",surname:"Kelishadi",slug:"roya-kelishadi",fullName:"Roya Kelishadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26129/images/3591_n.jpg",biography:"Roya Kelishadi, MD, is a University Professor at the Faculty of Medicine, and Child Health Promotion Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran. Her main field of study is primordial and primary prevention of non-communicable early life diseases. She has published more than 250 papers in peer reviewed biomedical journals, and 20 chapters in books. She has been awarded several times as distinguished researcher or physician. Many of her studies regarding the ethnic differences in metabolic parameters, and the association of lifestyle habits and environmental factors on the beginning and progress of atherosclerotic changes, have been acknowledged as the first of their kind.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"72057",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"73009",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",surname:"Nock",slug:"nora-nock",fullName:"Nora Nock",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Case Western Reserve University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"73180",title:"MSc.",name:"Maryam",surname:"Shalileh",slug:"maryam-shalileh",fullName:"Maryam Shalileh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"73318",title:"Dr.",name:"Qing",surname:"Qiao",slug:"qing-qiao",fullName:"Qing Qiao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Helsinki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Finland"}}},{id:"73764",title:"Prof.",name:"AnnaMaria",surname:"Fulghesu",slug:"annamaria-fulghesu",fullName:"AnnaMaria Fulghesu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cagliari",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"77578",title:"Dr.",name:"Hasniza",surname:"Zaman Huri",slug:"hasniza-zaman-huri",fullName:"Hasniza Zaman Huri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"79275",title:"Prof.",name:"Hironori",surname:"Nakagami",slug:"hironori-nakagami",fullName:"Hironori Nakagami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"80429",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanhu",surname:"Dong",slug:"yanhu-dong",fullName:"Yanhu Dong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"123089",title:"Dr.",name:"Aiswarya",surname:"Lekshmi Pillai Chandran Pillai",slug:"aiswarya-lekshmi-pillai-chandran-pillai",fullName:"Aiswarya Lekshmi Pillai Chandran Pillai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+4,800 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"893",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",parent:{title:"Applied Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:211,numberOfWosCitations:71,numberOfCrossrefCitations:62,numberOfDimensionsCitations:142,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9294",title:"Fluorescence Methods for Investigation of Living Cells and Microorganisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a97a566a3a19eb9e0c9ba61042bb06c5",slug:"fluorescence-methods-for-investigation-of-living-cells-and-microorganisms",bookSignature:"Natalia Grigoryeva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9294.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"239430",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:"Yu.",surname:"Grigoryeva",slug:"natalia-grigoryeva",fullName:"Natalia Grigoryeva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8107",title:"Yeasts in Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b3b86676fec9c1a1f34c8bd00b16c11c",slug:"yeasts-in-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8107.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6541",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e98152f28aa31bcccd648c6cc1e24379",slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Maria Isabel Queiroz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6541.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171980",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Jacob-Lopes",slug:"eduardo-jacob-lopes",fullName:"Eduardo Jacob-Lopes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6319",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",subtitle:"A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f05d502dd643d2bd94344235d6e13199",slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken and Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6319.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5733",title:"Archaea",subtitle:"New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf16076922561a7860bc5800f8efdba6",slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Haitham Sghaier, Afef Najjari and Kais Ghedira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5733.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"47210",title:"Dr.",name:"Haitham",middleName:null,surname:"Sghaier",slug:"haitham-sghaier",fullName:"Haitham Sghaier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59033",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73551",title:"The Potential for ‘Next-Generation’, Microalgae-Based Feed Ingredients for Salmonid Aquaculture in Context of the Blue Revolution",slug:"the-potential-for-next-generation-microalgae-based-feed-ingredients-for-salmonid-aquaculture-in-cont",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Sean Michael Tibbetts",authors:[{id:"228874",title:"Dr.",name:"Sean",middleName:null,surname:"Tibbetts",slug:"sean-tibbetts",fullName:"Sean Tibbetts"}]},{id:"59210",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73791",title:"Spirulina Phycobiliproteins as Food Components and Complements",slug:"spirulina-phycobiliproteins-as-food-components-and-complements",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic, Simeon Minic, Milan R. Nikolic and Tanja\nCirkovic Velickovic",authors:[{id:"69834",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Stanic-Vucinic",slug:"dragana-stanic-vucinic",fullName:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic"},{id:"69858",title:"Prof.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Cirkovic Velickovic",slug:"tanja-cirkovic-velickovic",fullName:"Tanja Cirkovic Velickovic"},{id:"225918",title:"Prof.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",slug:"milan-nikolic",fullName:"Milan Nikolic"},{id:"225919",title:"Dr.",name:"Simeon",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"simeon-minic",fullName:"Simeon Minic"}]},{id:"59469",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74043",title:"Cyanobacteria and Microalgae in the Production of Valuable Bioactive Compounds",slug:"cyanobacteria-and-microalgae-in-the-production-of-valuable-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Elena Martínez-Francés and Carlos Escudero-Oñate",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"228683",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Francés",slug:"elena-martinez-frances",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Francés"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59210",title:"Spirulina Phycobiliproteins as Food Components and Complements",slug:"spirulina-phycobiliproteins-as-food-components-and-complements",totalDownloads:1848,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic, Simeon Minic, Milan R. Nikolic and Tanja\nCirkovic Velickovic",authors:[{id:"69834",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Stanic-Vucinic",slug:"dragana-stanic-vucinic",fullName:"Dragana Stanic-Vucinic"},{id:"69858",title:"Prof.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Cirkovic Velickovic",slug:"tanja-cirkovic-velickovic",fullName:"Tanja Cirkovic Velickovic"},{id:"225918",title:"Prof.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",slug:"milan-nikolic",fullName:"Milan Nikolic"},{id:"225919",title:"Dr.",name:"Simeon",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"simeon-minic",fullName:"Simeon Minic"}]},{id:"59469",title:"Cyanobacteria and Microalgae in the Production of Valuable Bioactive Compounds",slug:"cyanobacteria-and-microalgae-in-the-production-of-valuable-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"microalgal-biotechnology",title:"Microalgal Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Microalgal Biotechnology"},signatures:"Elena Martínez-Francés and Carlos Escudero-Oñate",authors:[{id:"188725",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Escudero-Oñate",slug:"carlos-escudero-onate",fullName:"Carlos Escudero-Oñate"},{id:"228683",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Francés",slug:"elena-martinez-frances",fullName:"Elena Martínez-Francés"}]},{id:"59352",title:"Foodborne Pathogens Detection: Persevering Worldwide Challenge",slug:"foodborne-pathogens-detection-persevering-worldwide-challenge",totalDownloads:1633,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Amina Baraketi, Stephane Salmieri and Monique Lacroix",authors:[{id:"220581",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",middleName:null,surname:"Lacroix",slug:"monique-lacroix",fullName:"Monique Lacroix"},{id:"238474",title:"MSc.",name:"Amina",middleName:null,surname:"Baraketi",slug:"amina-baraketi",fullName:"Amina Baraketi"},{id:"238475",title:"MSc.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Salmieri",slug:"stephane-salmieri",fullName:"Stéphane Salmieri"}]},{id:"56434",title:"Archaebiotics: Archaea as Pharmabiotics for Treating Chronic Disease in Humans?",slug:"archaebiotics-archaea-as-pharmabiotics-for-treating-chronic-disease-in-humans-",totalDownloads:1210,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Wajdi Ben Hania, Nathalie Ballet, Pascal Vandeckerkove, Bernard\nOllivier, Paul W. O’Toole and Jean-François Brugère",authors:[{id:"43923",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:null,surname:"Brugere",slug:"jean-francois-brugere",fullName:"Jean-François Brugere"},{id:"199753",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajdi",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Hania",slug:"wajdi-ben-hania",fullName:"Wajdi Ben Hania"},{id:"201079",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathalie",middleName:null,surname:"Ballet",slug:"nathalie-ballet",fullName:"Nathalie Ballet"},{id:"201080",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Vandekerckove",slug:"pascal-vandekerckove",fullName:"Pascal Vandekerckove"},{id:"201081",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul W.",middleName:null,surname:"O'Toole",slug:"paul-w.-o'toole",fullName:"Paul W. O'Toole"},{id:"201082",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard",middleName:null,surname:"Ollivier",slug:"bernard-ollivier",fullName:"Bernard Ollivier"}]},{id:"58995",title:"Current and Emerging Technologies for Rapid Detection of Pathogens",slug:"current-and-emerging-technologies-for-rapid-detection-of-pathogens",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Lihua Wang and Jiao Hu",authors:[{id:"190889",title:"Prof.",name:"Lingwen",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",slug:"lingwen-zeng",fullName:"Lingwen Zeng"},{id:"212688",title:"Dr.",name:"Lihua",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lihua-wang",fullName:"Lihua Wang"},{id:"233750",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiao",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jiao-hu",fullName:"Jiao Hu"}]},{id:"58111",title:"Volatile Organic Compound and Metabolite Signatures as Pathogen Identifiers and Biomarkers of Infectious Disease",slug:"volatile-organic-compound-and-metabolite-signatures-as-pathogen-identifiers-and-biomarkers-of-infect",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Elizabeth Hong-Geller and Samantha Adikari",authors:[{id:"68491",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hong-Geller",slug:"elizabeth-hong-geller",fullName:"Elizabeth Hong-Geller"},{id:"231328",title:"Mrs.",name:"Samantha",middleName:null,surname:"Adikari",slug:"samantha-adikari",fullName:"Samantha Adikari"}]},{id:"58181",title:"FRET-Based Enzyme Activity Reporter: Practical Hints for Kinases as Indicators of Virulence",slug:"fret-based-enzyme-activity-reporter-practical-hints-for-kinases-as-indicators-of-virulence",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Corentin Spriet, Angelina Kasprowicz, Dave Trinel and Jean-\nFrançois Bodart",authors:[{id:"98539",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:"Laurent",surname:"Bodart",slug:"jean-francois-bodart",fullName:"Jean-François Bodart"},{id:"226954",title:"Dr.",name:"Corentin",middleName:null,surname:"Spriet",slug:"corentin-spriet",fullName:"Corentin Spriet"},{id:"230593",title:"MSc.",name:"Angelina",middleName:null,surname:"Kasprowicz",slug:"angelina-kasprowicz",fullName:"Angelina Kasprowicz"},{id:"230594",title:"MSc.",name:"Dave",middleName:null,surname:"Trinel",slug:"dave-trinel",fullName:"Dave Trinel"}]},{id:"58097",title:"Detection and Control of Indoor Airborne Pathogenic Bacteria by Biosensors Based on Quorum Sensing Chemical Language: Bio-Tools, Connectivity Apps and Intelligent Buildings",slug:"detection-and-control-of-indoor-airborne-pathogenic-bacteria-by-biosensors-based-on-quorum-sensing-c",totalDownloads:1095,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"biosensing-technologies-for-the-detection-of-pathogens-a-prospective-way-for-rapid-analysis",title:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens",fullTitle:"Biosensing Technologies for the Detection of Pathogens - A Prospective Way for Rapid Analysis"},signatures:"Claudia Ibacache-Quiroga, Natalia Romo, Rodrigo Díaz-Viciedo and\nM. Alejandro Dinamarca",authors:[{id:"211459",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Dinamarca",slug:"alejandro-dinamarca",fullName:"Alejandro Dinamarca"},{id:"211467",title:"Ms.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Romo",slug:"natalia-romo",fullName:"Natalia Romo"},{id:"211474",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Ibacache-Quiroga",slug:"claudia-ibacache-quiroga",fullName:"Claudia Ibacache-Quiroga"},{id:"230663",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz-Viciedo",slug:"rodrigo-diaz-viciedo",fullName:"Rodrigo Díaz-Viciedo"}]},{id:"56239",title:"Biocompounds from Haloarchaea and Their Uses in Biotechnology",slug:"biocompounds-from-haloarchaea-and-their-uses-in-biotechnology",totalDownloads:1305,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Javier Torregrosa-Crespo, Carmen Pire Galiana and Rosa María\nMartínez-Espinosa",authors:[{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa"},{id:"173636",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pire",slug:"carmen-pire",fullName:"Carmen Pire"},{id:"196514",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Torregrosa-Crespo",slug:"javier-torregrosa-crespo",fullName:"Javier Torregrosa-Crespo"}]},{id:"56339",title:"Plasmid Curing is a Promising Approach to Improve Thermophiles for Biotechnological Applications: Perspectives in Archaea",slug:"plasmid-curing-is-a-promising-approach-to-improve-thermophiles-for-biotechnological-applications-per",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"archaea-new-biocatalysts-novel-pharmaceuticals-and-various-biotechnological-applications",title:"Archaea",fullTitle:"Archaea - New Biocatalysts, Novel Pharmaceuticals and Various Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Tatsuki Mizuno, Takashi Ohshiro and Hirokazu Suzuki",authors:[{id:"152236",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hirokazu",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirokazu-suzuki",fullName:"Hirokazu Suzuki"},{id:"200687",title:"BSc.",name:"Tatsuki",middleName:null,surname:"Mizuno",slug:"tatsuki-mizuno",fullName:"Tatsuki Mizuno"},{id:"205148",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Ohshiro",slug:"takashi-ohshiro",fullName:"Takashi Ohshiro"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"immunology-and-microbiology-applied-microbiology-biotechnology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/124178/aisling-mcmahon",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"124178",slug:"aisling-mcmahon"},fullPath:"/profiles/124178/aisling-mcmahon",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()