Dates and the bath affected by drain.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"960",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cancer of the Uterine Endometrium - Advances and Controversies",title:"Cancer of the Uterine Endometrium",subtitle:"Advances and Controversies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book Cancer of the Uterine Endometrium - Advances and Controversies brings together an international collaboration of authors who share their contributions for the management of endometrial carcinoma. 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\r\n\tIn recent years, epidemiological studies, paired with genomic analyses have shed light on specific interactions of Helicobacter pylori and the increased risk of development of digestive and extradigestive outcomes. Genomic tools such as genome sequencing, restriction fragment length polymorphism genome mapping and analytical methods are enhancing the molecular epidemiological methods currently used to study H. pylori pathogenesis. Besides, new drugs and different combinations of them have been suggested to eradicate the microorganism and scientists around the world have discussed the management of the infection, considering the host characteristics.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is an invitation for having a different look at Helicobacter pylori infection, since its first isolation by Warren and Marshall in the 80´s until nowadays.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-292-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-291-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-293-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f90afe88d326a6554b6e094e93f0f0e7",bookSignature:"Dr. Bruna Maria Roesler",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10141.jpg",keywords:"Virulence Factors, Genotyping, Pathogenicity, Host-Pathogen Interaction, Gastritis, Peptic Ulcer Disease, Gastric Cancer, Development of Gastrointestinal Disorders, Management of Antimicrobial Resistance, New Drugs, Antibiotics, Helicobacter pylori and Extradigestive diseases",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 29th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 28th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 17th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Roesler is a pharmacist biochemist and holds a Master’s degree in Pharmacology and a Doctoral degree in Basic Sciences - Internal Medicine from the State University of Campinas. Her research includes the etiology, epidemiology, and physiopathology of gastrointestinal diseases.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/54995/images/system/54995.jpg",biography:"Dr. Bruna Maria Roesler is a pharmacist biochemist and holds\r\na Master’s degree in Pharmacology and a Doctoral degree in\r\nBasic Sciences—Internal Medicine from the State University of\r\nCampinas (Campinas, SP, Brazil) where she has identified the\r\nprincipal genotypes of Helicobacter pylori strains in patients with\r\nchronic gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, and gastric cancer (early\r\nand advanced stages) through molecular biology techniques. She\r\nhas published her work in several peer-reviewed journals and given oral and poster\r\npresentations at various congresses. Her research also includes the etiology, epidemiology, and physiopathology of gastrointestinal diseases. She has also participated\r\nin studies that reported the possible relationship between H. pylori and idiopathic\r\nthrombocytopenic purpura, as well as between H. pylori and liver diseases.",institutionString:"State University of Campinas",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"State University of Campinas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3839",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3dc63cbee177c36f568ff67aa6ec1413",slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",bookSignature:"Bruna Maria Roesler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5102",title:"Extradigestive Manifestations of Helicobacter Pylori Infection",subtitle:"An Overview",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c8c185be3bce68ede380640a14661ac4",slug:"extradigestive-manifestations-of-helicobacter-pylori-infection-an-overview",bookSignature:"Bruna Maria Roesler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5102.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7937",title:"Gastritis",subtitle:"New Approaches and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de6520787ae127c8a78170e40caff3f7",slug:"gastritis-new-approaches-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Bruna Maria Roesler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7937.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6965",title:"Helicobacter Pylori",subtitle:"New Approaches of an Old Human Microorganism",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"acf3954c4d9d440038f3074fb81d7411",slug:"helicobacter-pylori-new-approaches-of-an-old-human-microorganism",bookSignature:"Bruna Maria Roesler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6965.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71302",title:"Characterization and Treatment of Real Wastewater from an Electroplating Company by Raw Chitin",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89058",slug:"characterization-and-treatment-of-real-wastewater-from-an-electroplating-company-by-raw-chitin",body:'Generally, a chain of surface treatment consists of sequences of functions (pretreatment, treatment, finishing), consisted of several posts (treatment bath, rinsing, passivation …). The composition of industrial waste water of treatment surface contains a lot of heavy metals such Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd and the other toxic materials such as the alkalines, the acids and the cyanides. More and more it contains several complexing agents which influence the used process Na+, OH−, SiO3 and Na2CO3, These products are generated in the operations of rinsing of materials before treatment. A variety of acids, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, H3PO4, HCrO3, etc. is used to eliminate the oxidized films. The rejection of the stage of electroplating deposit contains widely metals and the following anions: BO3−, CO2−3, Cr2O2−7, F−, PO43−, Cl−, NO−3 and SO42−. Generally, wastewater contains many heavy metals. The most important of cations are Cr6+, it is reduced to Cr3+, while CN-is oxidized in the preliminary treatment.
Different treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals have been developed in recent years both to decrease the amount of wastewater produced and to improve the quality of the treated effluent. Although various treatments such as chemical precipitation, coagulation-flocculation, flotation, ion exchange and membrane filtration can be employed to remove heavy metals from contaminated wastewater, they have their inherent advantages and limitations in application [1].
Chemical precipitation is widely used for the treatment of electroplating wastewater [2, 3]. It consists of adding a base followed by sedimentation. The pH is adjusted to the minimum solubility, so it is difficult to treat multiple metals simultaneously. Coagulation-flocculation has also been employed for heavy metal removal from inorganic effluent [4]. Sorptive flotation has attracted interest in Greece and the USA [5, 6, 7] for the removal of non-surface active metal ions from contaminated wastewater. In recent years, ion exchange has also received considerable interest in Italy and Spain [8, 9] as one of the most promising methods to treat heavy metals. Starch xanthate (XA) synthetic polymers resins grafted cellulose natural zeolites are used. This process is particularly effective for the recovery of metals, but the cost of the process is very expensive and often justified only metals are recovered [10]. Due to its convenient operation, membrane separation has been increasingly used recently for the treatment of inorganic effluent. There are different types of membrane filtration such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Membrane filtration has used in Taiwan and in South Korea [11, 12].
The adsorption treatment is widely used with activated carbons, this process has several advantages: it is very effective in removing heavy metals even at low pH [13] with different adsorbent materials such as polymers [14, 15, 16] and clays [17, 18, 19]. Electrolysis is generally used to treat water with high metal content. One of the major obstacles encountered in this technique is the complexity of the environments to be treated that leads to a series of redox reactions [20]. In recent year, the clean Technology constituted preventive actions to review and question the production concept, these actions converge to a common point: Targeting the pollution source rather than its reverse vector example osmosis [21] and zero discharge principle [22, 23].
In general, control of water flow requires the establishment of means for counting and control flow at the entrance of each channel. In addition, it reduces the consumption of reagents and production of sludge treatment plant, which is a significant gain in operating costs. Several techniques exist to recover the flow pollutants at the source to mention a few key principles:
The decrease in volumes trained by parts by adjusting the drainage time.
The establishment of additional rinse tanks such as rinsing tank death after degreasing, pickling, hot metal deposition and passivation, it traps the metal salts which are then reassembled in the treatment bath to compensate for evaporation. Rinsing; in which the parts are dipped before and after the cold metal plating baths, it can recover from 30 to 50% of the entrained flow.
Finally, the development of production lines to reduce pollution is an opportunity to optimize production (questioning of manufacturing ranges, the products used and streamlining the flow of parts) and improves quality and working condition.
The objective of this research was to study the ability of raw chitin to purify wastewater loaded with a mixture of heavy metals. This chapter first focused on the physicochemical characterization and the determination of heavy metals levels in wastewater followed by adsorption treatment. We started the study by the global rejection of the society then by the rinsing waters running at the exit of the electroplating baths. Finally, we have studied the comparison between the efficiency of the treatment of heavy metals by chitin shrimps - Ccre or chitin crab -Ccra thus analyzing the possibilities of in situ treatment and recycling.
A study unit is MAFER located at CASABLANCA in MOROCCO. Its activity is surface treatment. The studied unit of surface treatment consists of five chains. Every chain is determined by the succession of tanks. The average capacity of baths varies between 950 and 1710 l. The majority of baths has a volume of 1440 l and is fed by well water except the bath of metallic deposit and the baths of rundown which are filled by the drinking water. Waters of the baths of the dead rinsing are recycled in the bath of metallic deposit. The water supply of well often matches 1 h a day. Whereas the drinkable water supply is made after draining of bath.
the shells of Shrimp (Ccre) and the shells of crabs (Ccra) are isolated at first by their mild part (protein) washed in bidistilled water then dried at 100°C during 48 h [17], then crushed and sieved. The size grading is understood between 100 and 125 μm.
A mass of the adsorbent is placed in contact with the rejection to be treated (100 ml). The suspensions were stirred (500 rev/min) in constant temperature (25 ± 2°C) until adsorption equilibrium obtained for a duration of 4 h [17]. The supernatant is filtered and the equilibrium concentration (Ceq) is determined after mineralization by flame atomic absorption using a Philips type PU 900.
*Physico-chemical analysis of the rejection quality:
PH: Measured using a pH meter ORION RESEARCH type and a combined glass electrode.
Electrical conductivity (CE): measured using a conductivity type ORION RESEARCH mod 101 and a 1 cm cell.
Chemical oxygen demand (DCO): Determined according to AFNOR T90-101. The principle consists in oxidizing the organic matter contained in wastewater by an excess of silver sulfate.
Suspended solids (MES): Determined according to standard AFNOR T90-105, the filtering is done on Whatman paper (0.45 mm). The drying of the already weighed filter is done at 105°C for 1 h and weighed.
Dissolved oxygen (OD): Determined using a pulse oximeter, the assay is performed directly by immersing the electrodes in water for analysis. The oxygen reduction at the cathode generates a proportional current to the partial pressure of oxygen in the cell.
In order to determine the degree of pollution caused by this unit, we were brought during this work to study the physical–chemical quality of rejection to be treated. We will translate the physicochemical parameters evolution during a period of study 20 days, study period from 7 to 9-08 to 3-10-08 in Figure 1 below.
Temporary follow-up of the physico-chemical parameters of the global rejection of surface treatment unity [(2a) CE, (2b) pH, (2c) DCO, (2d) OD, and (2e) MES].
*PH: It is an important physiological parameter which influences the development of numerous microorganisms [21] as well as speciation and the solubility of heavy metals. During followed laborers, the pH value of this discharge (Figure 2b) fluctuate generally between 5 and 7, it is the optimal pH for the treatment by the raw chitin [22], except some exceptional cases such the case samples of days 22, 26, 29, 30. This is due to oil changes that have occurred in these samples (Table 1). Minimum values are recorded in these samples.
Daily evolution of the heavy metals concentration in the discharge.
Sampling | Drain |
---|---|
22-9-08 | Bath drain depassivation sulfuric |
26-9-08 | Bath chemical degreasing |
29-9-08 | Baths depassivation hydrochloric |
30-9-08 | Bath depassivation sulfuric Bath depassivation hydrochloric Bath anodic degreasing |
3-10-08 | Bath Accident at work, breaking of a pickling bath in full swing |
Dates and the bath affected by drain.
*CE: The electrical conductivity varies generally between 3 and 4 for all samples except that of the 3-10-98, which is very important. This value is effectively due to break of baths cleaning. The important values are recorded in the sampling days 22, 26 and 30. This drain of the baths shows that the degreasing depassivation waters of the baths are enormously salted. This salinity is essentially due to the high chloride concentration and to high acidity. The average value is of the order of 3.96 ms/cm.
*MES: The MES content confirms the statements made above. Levies where are oil changes occurring are charged by the MES. Indeed, the MES concentration is very high up to a maximum of 4.59 g/l and so exceed those generally encountered in domestic wastewater [23]. This result can be explained by the release of metallic waste and the solid deposits which accumulate at the bottom of a bath.
DCO: It present contents in variable organic matters from 96 to 3240 mg/l, but in general the value is situated near 200 mg/l, they are lower in standards dictated by the limits values of the indirect discharge [24].
OD: Figure 2d of OD brings to light an almost permanent state of anaerobiosis. The invalid contents of the oxygen in this discharge are due to the biological activity and to the absence of contributions in oxygen. A deficiency of this element in such effluent can have serious implications for their treatment, fermentation, release of smell, etc. This characterization shows that the wastewater of the unit can be considered relatively stable if we eliminate the variations dictated by the draining. In other words the effluent can be easily handled if we avoid the draining or we get back them in the other pipe to treat them to part and thus insure a continuous treatment of the global discharge of the unit (Table 1).
The global discharge contains numerous metals that cannot be separated. We focused our study on three metals Cu, Cr and Ni. The results of the analysis of heavy metals in the effluent are illustrated by the Figure 2.
Cu: The levels of Cu2+ vary from 5.12 mg/l to 97.76 mg/l (Figure 2), the temporary fluctuations in this element are much more pronounced. The registered minimal value exceeds 5 times the PVL (1 mg /l). The contents of Cu2 + achieve in average 22.21 mg/l. This is due to currents after plating rinses.
Cr: The concentrations of chromium fluctuate between a minimal value of 0.11 mg/l and a maximal value of 63.86 mg/l (Figure 2). The most values exceed the PVL of Cr (2 mg/l).
Ni: as far as the nickel is concerned, the registered concentrations are enormously important and far from being in compliance with national standards. The maximal content is registered the takings of 28-9-08.
From these results, we can identify the following points:
Among the three metals Cu, Ni and Cr no one presents normal means in comparison with the project national standards (PVL) and the international standards (FAO, EQO, etc.) This is due to the fact that, in general, the step of dead rinsing is often exceeded.
The average grade is the highest registered in the case of Ni (Figure 2). This is due on the one hand to the fact that the nicklage is in the most part of chains and on the other hand to the fact that the standards of the bath Ni (300 mg/l) are the most raised with regard to the other one baths of plating.
The temporary fluctuations in heavy metal contents are essentially explained by the following client commands. The bath can work hundreds of parts by hours, consequently current rinsing will strongly by loaded. The minimal values are recorded in the case of Cr.
It appears from these results that the effluent of this unit presents a big risk on the receiving environment; this is by accumulation along the food chain of the enormous quantities of rejected heavy metals [19]. During the study of the impact of the metallic pollution on the Casablanca coast, it showed that the dosage of metallic elements in the biological compartment crab Eriphia spinifrons of Fe, Cr, Pb, and Cd in bivalves Mytilus sp. Mactra and Corallina are rather high, which indicates a possible threat of the health because of the consumption of these mollusks (Table 2).
Ccre | Ccra | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test 1 Co = 0.78 mg/l | Test 2 Co = 1.31 mg/l | Test 1 Co = 0.78 mg/l | Test 2 Co = 1.31 mg/l | ||||
Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) | Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) | Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) | Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) |
30 | 0.45 | 30 | 1.05 | 50 | 0.17 | 50 | 0.57 |
60 | 0.32 | 60 | 1.00 | 100 | 0.16 | 100 | 0.42 |
90 | 0.30 | 90 | 0.82 | 150 | 0.13 | 150 | 0.89 |
120 | 0.28 | 120 | 0.76 | 200 | 0.12 | 200 | 0.27 |
150 | 0.25 | 150 | 0.67 | 250 | 0.07 | 250 | 0.19 |
180 | 0.15 | 180 | 0.57 | 300 | 0.05 |
Evolution of the equilibrium concentration according to the dose of the material to remove.
The results for the Cu2+ are summarized in Table 2.
Figure 3 indicates the changes of removal rates of heavy metals with the change of added quantity of raw chitin. For every mass, the raw chitin reduces the residual amount of Cu2+ in all treated samples even if the used quantity is weak, quoting the example of 250 mg.
(a) Variation of the Cu concentration as a function of added mass of Ccre. (b) Variation of the Cu concentration as a function of added mass of Ccra.
By calculating the average percentage removal of Cu for both materials (Table 3), we noticed that the highest percentages of elimination are marked for water treated by the Ccra. Whereas the percentages relative to Ccre are weaker than what is in agreement with [16].
Ccre | Ccra | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Test 1 | Test 2 | Test 1 | Test 2 | |
Co mg/l | 0.78 | 1.31 | 1.01 | 12.22 |
Ceq mg/l | 0.25 | 0.67 | 0.13 | 0.39 |
% | 67.95 | 48.85 | 87.13 | 96.80 |
Average removal percentages evolution of Cu for both materials.
For a given sample, when the mass of material increases, the percentage of reduction increases slightly. The variation of the percentage change can be considered constant from 250 mg (Table 3).
Ni: To estimate the efficiency of the material for the treatment this wastewater, we followed the evolution of the residual concentration of the Ni according to the various injected doses. The optimal dose of the material is chosen according to the quality wished by the water treaty. It is generally obtained when the ratio of M2+ equilibrium/M2+ original becomes little bit constant.
Figure 4 shows that the residual amount of Ni after adsorption on the Ccre decreases gradually by increasing the dose of the material. For the Ccra the concentration in the equilibrium after treatment by 50 mg does not differ any more from that stayed after treatment by 150 or 200 mg. This results shows that the Ni shows an affinity important for Ccra. This is at the middle in evidence by the efficiencies on elimination which are maximums for Ccra.
Changes in removal efficiencies of Ni as a function of dose % of the material removal.
Evolution of the physicochemical parameters pH, EC, MES, COD, DO according to the type of current rinsing [RC(Ni), RC (Zn), RC(Cu) and RC(Cr)].
Cr: The results of the dosage of the chromium before and after adsorption are included in Table 4 below.
Ccra | Ccre | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test 1 Co = 3.204 mg/l | Test 1 Co = 0.41 mg/l | Test 2 Co = 0.56 mg/l | |||
Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) | Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) | Weights (mg) | Ceq (mg/l) |
0.036 | 30 | 0.096 | 30 | 0.051 | |
100 | 0.044 | 60 | 0.024 | 60 | 0.100 |
150 | 0.016 | 90 | 0.002 | 90 | 0.060 |
200 | 0.011 | 120 | 0.018 | 120 | 0.087 |
250 | 0.053 | 150 | 0.014 | 150 | 0.056 |
300 | 0.020 | 180 | 0.019 | 180 | 0.033 |
Evolution of the concentration of the Cr6+ according to the dose of the material.
From this table, the removal efficiency increases as the Ccre metal concentration decreases. This agrees well with the isothermal studies [16], even if the physico-chemical quality of the water differs. We should note also that all the initial concentrations exceed the PVL fixed to 0.2 mg/l (Table 5). After treatment by the Ccra and by Ccre, the concentrations become lower than the standards. The hexavalent chromium is weakly eliminated by Ccre and by Ccra [14, 16], yet in this discharge, the elimination of chromium is very important by both sources of the chitin.
Ccre | Ccre | Ccra | |
---|---|---|---|
Co (mg/l) | 0,411 | 0,564 | 3,204 |
Ceq (mg/l) | 0,024 | 0,100 | 0,044 |
PVL (mg/l) | 0,2 | 0,2 | 0,2 |
Evolution of the concentration equilibrium Ceq according to the initial concentration C0 for a dose of 0.6 mg/l.
We have studied the characterization and the treatment of the rejects of the metallization baths of metals Cu, Zn, Cr and Ni. The physico-chemical rinses aware of four baths metallization (Cu, Zn, Cr and Ni) has been grouped by the following table:
pH: Because of degreasing, etching and galvanic deposition, we worked with solutions of different types of reactions. We have to avoid absolutely the training of the slightest traces of a solution in what is next. In addition, we must ensure that no residual solution in the emptiness or back of the room, because this residue would affect extremely, adversely the adhesion of a plating. According all to the possibilities the rinsing must be done in that is rinses current water which is characterized by a neutral pH, from Table 6, the recorded pH is more neutral. The pH of the rinsing current Cr is acidic. All rinses Cr acquire the characteristics of a flushing death. The same for the flushing power of Cu, since it works with an alkaline bath, the pH of the rinse is relatively high; it reached a maximum 8.33 for the collection of 11-9-08. In the case of current rinsing bath of Zn is acid so the pH values below 7. They reach 6.6 by the same observation was recorded in the case of power flushing Ni. Note that for the same type of rinsing, the pH does not change significantly from one chain to another.
Day/month | Chain | pH | CE (mS/cm) | MES (mg/l) | DCO (mg/l) | OD (mg/l) | SO42− (mg/l) | Cl- (mg/l) | Ca2+ (mg/l) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
11/9 | II | 6.96 | 3.93 | 190 | 380 | 14.6 | 212 | — | — | |
Ni2+ | 15/9 | II | 6.81 | 3.66 | 162 | — | 16.6 | 348 | 537 | — |
23/9 | II | 6.56 | 3.73 | 134 | 300 | 12 | 200 | 521 | — | |
3/10 | II | 6.72 | 4.00 | — | 340 | 10.0 | 64.8 | 507 | 736.2 | |
11/9 | I | 6.04 | 49.50 | 525 | 2960 | 4.9 | 631 | — | 688 | |
Zn2+ | 15/9 | I | 6.07 | 43.75 | 500 | 3920 | 6.41 | 556 | — | — |
23/9 | I | 6.04 | 63.79 | 740 | 2800 | 5 | 500 | — | 785.8 | |
3/10 | I | 6.08 | 58.0 | 715 | 3760 | 6.6 | 424.8 | 724 | 883.4 | |
11/9 | II | 3.02 | 3.93 | 492 | 258 | 10.2 | — | — | ||
Cr6+ | 15/9 | IV | 3.21 | 8.16 | 234 | 315 | 9.2 | 202 | — | — |
29/9 | II | 4.12 | 3.05 | 138 | 418 | 5 | 353 | — | — | |
3/10 | IV | 2.5 | 17. 5 | 74 | 269 | 121.4 | 50.4 | — | 272 | |
11/9 | II | 8.33 | 3.04 | 88 | 480 | 8.5 | — | 597 | 112.1 | |
Cu2+ | 23/9 | IV | 7.51 | 2.13 | 138 | 40 | 17.8 | 37.9 | 239 | 192.1 |
3/10 | I | 8.19 | 2.24 | 628 | 400 | 12.01 | 13.9 | 269 | 160.0 | |
3/10 | I | 7.97 | 3.74 | 190 | 240 | 14.7 | — | 726 | 288.1 |
Quality physical-chemical of rinses for the treatment.
CE: Electrical conductivity is the lowest recorded in the case of the Cu current rinsing, while the highest values are recorded for the zinc rinses (Table 6).
MES: rinses have higher levels of MES ranging from 162 to 740 mg/l respectively for Ni and Zn. MES in the rinses is much smaller than the global rejection [14]. The rinses of zinc are the most loaded (Figures 5 and 6).
Average levels of metal ions in the rinse currents.
DCO: Highest values of DCO are recorded in the case of rinsing the zinc in the chain II, while for the rinsing of Ni, Cu and Cr, they do not exceed by 400 mg/l, that value is less the limit values (PVL).
OD: it is large fluctuations, water bodies are generally well oxygenated (Table 6). Maximum values up to 17.8 mg/l are noted in the current Cu rinses. This contribution is due to the complete absence of a biological pollution in the rinse tanks. Besides all the settings in this collection are low, the DCO does not exceed 40 mg/l. For comparison the variation of average concentrations of these parameters depending on the type of metal rinsing are shown in Figure 5 below.
In order to assess metal pollution, we tried to assay the ion currents located in the rinsing after plating by Cu, Zn, Cr and Ni (Figure 6).
In the studied unit, the static rinse is used primarily to recover and recycle metal in the plating baths, but on the other hand, the current simple rinsing aims to clean the pieces. The determination of heavy metals in these rinses (Table 7) shows that the levels of metal ions are very high. They are generally higher than those found in the global rejection. Example, the levels of Cu2+ reach an average 22.21 mg/l [14].
Nickel | Copper | Chrome | Zinc | |
---|---|---|---|---|
11/9 | 34.21(II) | 296.5(IV) | 211.7(II) | 201.1(I) |
15/9 | 29.31 (II) | — | 20.13(IV) | 32.4(I) |
23/9 | 19.02(II) | 20.70 (I) | — | 41.6(I) |
29/9 | — | — | 0.96(II) | — |
3/10 | 15.05(II) | 256.6(IV) | — | 670.1(I) |
3/10 | — | 68.3(I) | 188.6(IV) | — |
Evolution of metal ion concentrations (mg/l) according to the type of rinsing in different chains.
In fact, some bath rinses as Ni and Cr are highly concentrated in the rinse tanks, there are many colored water after rinsing the metal: green for Ni, Cu and blue to yellow for Cr. These waters differ slightly from the dead rinses. These huge losses of metal ions are due to inadequate drainage time pieces and often exceeded the stage of rinsing death. For the case of Cu the maximum values are found in the flushing of the IV chain, while the levels of the chain I are relatively low, this is due to the number of work pieces and the capacity of each channel.
For the case of Ni the values fluctuate between 15 and 34 mg/l with an average of 24.51 mg/l. In the case of Zn, the maximum values are recorded in samples of 11-9 and 3-10.
It should be noted also that in the current flush of a metal there are traces of other metals, rinsing the Ni the chain of 3-10 II also contains Cu and Zn, Cu rinsing contains Cr, Cr rinse contains Ni and Cu (Table 8).
Ni | Cr | Zn | Cu | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Current rinse of Ni | 15.05 | 0.59 | 1.93 | 0 |
Current rinse of Cr | 3.87 | 188.6 | 0 | 12.42 |
Current rinse of Cu | 0 | 1.17 | 0 | 68.3 |
Current rinse of Zn | 0 | 0 | 670.11 | 4.73 |
Concentration of metal ions in the rinse of metal in mg/l of sample 3/10.
Weights of adsorbant (mg/l) | 50 | 100 | 150 | 200 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | C (mg/l) | 1.99 | 2.69 | 3.99 | 0.43 | |
% of adsorption | 92.23 | 89.49 | 84.45 | 90.17 | ||
Cu | 2 | C (mg/l) | 0.59 | 0.54 | 0.31 | 0.12 |
% of adsorption | 71.64 | 74.06 | 84.98 | 94.39 | ||
1 | C (mg/l) | 165.7 | 155.9 | 141.1 | 149.6 | |
% of adsorption | 12.14 | 17.34 | 25.18 | 20.68 | ||
Cr | 2 | C (mg/l) | 15.39 | 15.43 | 16.15 | 15.10 |
% of adsorption | 27.3 | 27.11 | 23.71 | 28.67 | ||
1 | C (mg/l) | 63.66 | — | 16.52 | 6.54 | |
% of adsorption | 4.99 | — | 16.83 | 90.23 | ||
Zn | 2 | C (mg/l) | 0.290 | 0.051 | 0.039 | 0.033 |
% of adsorption | — | — | — | — | ||
Ni | 1 | C (mg/l) | 1.2 | — | — | — |
% of adsorption | 66.27 | — | — | — |
Changes in percentage of the adsorption of metal ions of the current rinses depending on the dose of added material.
The current water rinses are treated the same way that releases overall. We studied the case of Cu, Ni, Cr and Zn. For each metal we have tried to work on two different samples. The results of this study are summarized in the Table 9 below.
The expression of the calculation of the % of adsorption is 100 * C0-Ceq/C0.
Cu: The table shows that the removal efficiency increases as the mass of material increases especially for the rejection diluted. In general, treatment of rinse water is more effective than the treatment of Cu in the global rejection [6, 7, 8]. Indeed, the removal percentages do not exceed more than 63% in the global rejection while for flushing streams they reach 98.08%.
Ni: In the case of Ni, we see that the residual concentration decreased from 1.5 to 1.2 mg/l with a percentage reduction is very small compared to the percentage reductions in the case of total rejection [6], we can say that the presence of other metals does nothing, but increasing the removal of the Ni.
Cr: the removal yields is relatively low compared to those found in the overall rejection, it does not exceed 28% for the diluted rinsing and 25% for the concentrated rinsing.
Zn: to achieve a removal efficiency of 90.23%, it is necessary to introduce a mass of 200 mg, Similar to Cu, the effect of the dose of the material added to the percentage reduction of micro metal is very pronounced for high concentrations of metals. This result confirms the results found by Boukhlifi et al. [17, 30, 31]. By comparing the removal efficiency of the four metals, it appears that the strongest removal is marked for the case of Cu [16].
A chain consists of a set of tanks whose general functions are: surface preparation, processing and finishing of the piece part in question. Each tank is defined by three characteristics:
The mode of treatment (pretreatment, metal deposition, stripping …)
The type of chosen treatment (e.g. a metal deposit: silver, chrome plating, copper plating, zinc plating, etc.)
The operating conditions (for example, a zinc plating: alkaline non-cyanide, acid fluroborate not …) including different chemicals concentrations, fluid flow, the rate of production, etc.
The unit of surface treatment under study is composed of five chains. Each channel is determined by the succession of tanks. The average capacity of baths varies between 950 l and 1710 l, but most of the bath has a volume of 1440 l, the majority of the baths is powered water wells except metal plating baths and degreasing baths, which are filled with drinking water, bathing water that is recycled in metal plating baths of rinses dead. Water supply wells are often for an hour a day, while drinking water is draining after a bath. Discharges baths is collected through pipes that lead to the aerated sewage. All discharges are evacuated in the rough, but the rejection of the flushing stream which is recycled zinc. We were interested in flushing power of Ni and Cr; we followed up daily flow rates of 7/9 to 3/10 in Figures 7 and 8.
Monitoring rinsing flow flows as a function of time.
Average flow rates of rinses for different metals.
We found that the high flow rates were recorded for Cr and Ni, the rate of flushing power of Cr can be up to 600 l/h and the neither flushing current reached a maximum of 841 l/h.
The flow rates of Ni in the chain will fluctuate between 260 and 390 l/h, they will reach 389.21 l/h, a value which represents the 1/3 of the bath of treatment, that is to say that every day, the third of the rinsing bath is changed with a capacity of 1440 l. This during the fifth of the rinsing bath of Cr is changed. These waters are evacuated; this appears from the color of releases. Rejection of Cr is yellow while the rejection of Ni is green.
The Ni current rinsing flow varies from one channel to another varies from the average flow 389 l/h for channel II 738.8 l/h for the string I.
The temporal variation of the flow does not follow a given order; it varies from day to day depending on water supplies that are directly related to the availability of water in the well. - We tried to compare these rates with those of other baths as bath chemical degreasing and pickling bath. The flow of degreasing bath is lower and messy, while the stripping is relatively constant and is around 400 l/h.
From this study, it follows that the rates baths variation is random. This makes the adaptation of a method for processing or recycling of waste water very difficult. In conclusion, we must control the flow based on the minimum and maximum values recorded by installing a storage buffer.
Handling treatment facilities are numerous, these some examples of treatment courses of this type of release:
Physical–chemical treatment is to continuously purify the various effluents as when they are produced to reject them in permanent rates.
The process is a combination of the following basic treatments:
manure storage
basic treatment
additional treatment
Final Control
Physical–chemical batch which is to purify the effluent by tarpaulin, it is to say by successive and constant volume in the same reactor of suitable sequences [16].
In general the combination of elementary processing is defined by the nature of the effluent to be treated. According to preliminary studies we conducted, only the rinse water can be recycled after treatment with raw chitin in particular rinses common metallization baths [25, 26, 27, 28]. We therefore propose a processing rinses followed by a comprehensive treatment of rejection. The design of items of treatment plant is highly dependent on flow rates of each rinse that helps to estimate the reaction time stays easily adaptable.
Reactors as a column filled with the material well-conditioned. Water to be treated flows from the bottom up by the effect of differences in level and then flows into the rinsing baths continuous overflow. Thus the heavy metal content in the total discharge will be reduced.
For the global rejection we prefer a continuous physical–chemical treatment. This principle (continuous) is used in preference to batch treatment by tarpaulin, where daily volumes in excess treat tens of m3 even if the discontinuity of the process provides some security and facilitates the monitoring and treatment by visual inspection of each analytical or steps prior to discharge. It allows, if necessary, replacement of the entire process or just step failed. This treatment considered contains the following five basic treatments [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]:
1. Effluent Storage: The storage provides the interface between production facilities and the treatment plant so it performs the following functions:
A buffer role with regard to changes in volume and mass charges from workshops, and a reserve sufficient to accommodate the effluent during the treatment.
A perfect separation between the different components of the effluent.
A minimum hydraulic capacity, allowing the complete filling of the reactor treatment at the launch of the operation with the more regular flow of possible mergers with minimal variations.
The storage to consider is divided into three types of storage:
Storage backup’s role is to provide storage during an accident or during an overload of other storage.
Storage diluted normally receives all current daily rinsing of all pre-treatments and treatments.
Storage is focused especially on the garbage baths surface preparation or special cases.
The storage times are equipped with means for adjustment and control of flow injection in the treatment reactors.
2. liquid–solid separation step that gets rid of the effluent MES and some insoluble elements [31]; it is installed mainly concentrated after storage. The liquid–solid separation of sludge is achieved by settling, both phases are separately drained.
3. Neutralization, this phase is on the middle that is, the characterization studies have shown that most of the pH is close to 5.99 with an average 6.01 except a few exceptional cases. From then this step will be in most of the day exceeded even in the case of the neutralization of dilute effluents at the exit of treatment, discharge will be clarified concentrated alkaline after treatment and then joined the others in terms of diluted effluent neutralization.
4. Specific Treatment: The treatment methods are defined in terms of chemical elements in the flue. In most cases, the courses include.
One or more stages of detoxification.
A phase in dissolution-precipitation.
A flocculation phase alternating.
But all these steps, we offer the reactors filled with raw chitin from shrimp processing is done in series with at least two reactors. Power through the discharge is from the bottom up to ensure the best conditions of contact. Similarly we must always place two reactors relief and it is also a book containing alternating chain also at least two presidents to keep the operation continues.
5-Treatment of sludge generated once the carrier material is saturated, the sludge is then pumped out regardless of the waters. This sludge can be regenerated by an acid or recycled in building materials [32], such transactions may take place after dehydration on a filter press which the design is based on the mass flows of raw material and insolubilized in the reactor.
In conclusion, and since the coast of Casablanca city is subjected to numerous anthropologic attacks, In front of such a situation, it is indispensable that every industrial unity must be equipped with a wastewater system treatment, to protect the environment and its resources. The treatment of the global discharge shows that there is competitive adsorption between metals. The nickel has more affinity toward crab raw chitin. The waste water treatment by raw chitin from shrimp entrains a decrease of heavy metals contents in the global rejection. The efficiencies on elimination are important and excess 99% for some metals. The use of the raw chitin shows itself of big potential for the treatment of the liquid discharges of the studied unity MAFER. It showed itself capable of treating heavy metals loads superior to 200 mg/l by presenting percentage removal between 90% and 97%, as in the case of Cu2+.
The physic-chemical characterization shows that the currents rinses are greatly loaded with heavy metals far exceed the proposed limit values Morocco PVL. The adsorption test of heavy metals on raw chitin showed interesting results for the current rinses. Besides the rejection colored before adsorption (case of Ni, Cu, and Cr) becomes colorless after treatment with raw chitin. The study of the rinses currents treatment by raw chitin, we allowed the description of a treatment facility based on chitin. Consequently the adsorbing support raw chitin must be added in the treatment stations of the effluent of the units of surface treatment to eliminate the metallic pollution.
In the pig, just as in other mammalian species, the process of parturition includes three phase: opening of the cervix (I), expulsion of the fetuses (II) and expulsion of the placentae (III). In the 1990’s, the average duration of farrowing was 1.5.-2 hours [1]. Since 1990, there has been a linear increase in both 1) litter size from about 10 piglets in 1990 to close to 20 piglets in 2019 and 2) duration of farrowing from 1.5–2 hours to 7–8 hours (a conclusion based on 20 studies on duration of farrowing, Figure 1, [2]). While the described tendency is subject to differences between breeds and management (i.e. farrowing crate vs. free farrowing), the overall tendency is rather convincing. The extended duration of farrowing appears an outcome of intensive breeding for prolificacy in the pig [2].
\nRelationship between litter size and the duration of farrowing in 20 studies from 1992 to 2018 (adapted from Oliviero et al. 2019, reproduction in domestic animals, Wiley-Blackwell).
The increasing litter size presents with an immunological challenge for the sow and especially the piglets [2, 3]. The last 20–30% of the fetuses to be born likely miss out on access to good quality colostrum that declines by 50% already by the 6th hour after the birth of the first piglet [4]. On the other hand, they also have less time to suckle colostrum due to decreased window of opportunity for colostrum intake, increased competition for teats and reduced birth weight. This all may show up later in emergence of diseases in the growing phase of piglets/fattening pigs.
\nThe metabolic challenge related to hyper-prolific sow production model begins in the growing phase of gilts and goes beyond farrowing and lactation. The sow is supposed to eat enough to meet the requirement of growing litters prior to farrowing, which may cause some of the problems seen at around farrowing [5, 6]. In the early part of lactation, sows with large litters loose more energy while producing milk than what they can consume in their feed, ending up in a negative energy balance (NEB) [7, 8].
\nThe growing litter size and intensity of production as such appear as items for welfare concern for the public. This seems to happen regardless of whether those concerns would be warranted or not. However, this review will tackle those items relating to welfare of the hyper-prolific sow model that we know, based on scientific literature, as having reasons to be addressed.
\nNest building and the phases of farrowing are orchestrated by responding changes in reproductive hormones. It is well established that decline in progesterone and peak in prostaglandin F2alpha triggers nest building behavior while oxytocin rise at the beginning of expulsion phase marks the session of nest building [9]. Prostaglandin F2alpha peak also induces CL regression with a concomitant decline in progesterone, making uterine contractions and parturition possible. Oxytocin is mainly in charge of uterine contractions during the expulsion phase of parturition and letdown of colostrum and milk, while prolactin will promote mammary gland development to the extent that initiation of milk production after parturition will become possible [10, 11, 12].
\nIt has also been described in the literature and also shown by our group that allowing the sow to build up a nest prior to farrowing will increase oxytocin release and shorten the duration of farrowing [5, 13]. Other ways of shortening the duration of farrowing include increasing fiber in the feedstuff and encouraging water intake [5, 14]. However, even applying most good management interventions prior to farrowing, duration of farrowing of modern hyperprolific sows is extended four – to five hold as described [2, 15, 16]. Prolonged duration of farrowing will mean reduced quality and quantity of colostrum intake by piglets, increased degree of intrapartum hypoxia of fetuses [17], increased rate of retained placentae [18], increased rate of uterine inflammation and post partum dysglactia (PDS) [19] and likely, reduced development of next generation of follicles fertility [3, 17].
\nMoreover, during the periparturient period, biological mechanisms coordinate the mobilization of body reserves in order to support fetal growth and milk production; insulin concentrations are reduced and the response of hormone-sensitive lipase in adipose tissue (e.g., low insulin, high growth hormone and catecholamines, or high glucocorticoid concentrations) is greater to facilitate lipid mobilization. This periparturient period is also characterized by a low state of inflammation encompassing an increase in hepatic production of positive acute-phase proteins (APP), and a decrease in the production of negative APP [15, 20]. It has been rather well described in the literature that these responses are mediated by the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [15]. Additionally, evidence in the dairy cow indicates that oxidative stress also occurs during this period and is driven by the imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen metabolites (ROM), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and the neutralizing capacity of antioxidant mechanisms in tissues and blood [21]. The extent and duration of the inflammatory process will determine whether or not the condition is ending up as a clinical disease. However, it is noteworthy, that in the hyper prolific sows lines as those typical of Denmark and Belgium, the incidence of sows contracting a systemic disease postpartum is as high as >30% [15, 22, 23]. Moreover, it is obvious that even in those sows staying healthy as far as clinical symptoms, the inflammatory process is heavily present as indicated by means of those markers described above [15].
\nTypically, within two to three days post partum, the process of inflammation may develop into endotoxemia, which involves the release of the inflammation markers described. Endotoxemia is associated with clinical symptoms indicating a systemic response to infectious agents such as coliform bacteria – and PDS [24, 25, 26]. The condition comes with acute general symptoms such as inappetite, lethargy and fever [25], followed by local symptoms that usually affect either the uterus [19] or the udder [27] or both of them.
\nAfter parturition, concomitant with the process of inflammation, the sow undergoes metabolic stress due to loss of body reserves in favor of milk produced for large litters. This change rate is highest during the first 10 days of lactation. One of major mediators of metabolic stress is IGF-1, which is also seen as an indicator for fertility. Low IGF-1 levels indicate inflammation, metabolic stress present and fertility. IGF-1 is also regarded as one of the most important factors driving follicle development [28, 29, 30]. The role of extracellular vesicles, although proposed as being key players in follicle development and the cross talk between the mother and the embryo, in this inflammatory process and its effect on follicle development, however, remains less explored [31].
\nIn conclusion, in hyperprolific sows, the physiological process of farrowing is prolonged, making the system vulnerable in terms of increased rate of inflammation and emerging infectious uterine and mammary disease. In fact, recent evidence now shows that even in sows staying without symptoms, there seems to be considerable degree of “silent inflammation” in the body. In an increased proportion of sows, however, post partum disease PDS is detected and hopefully treated. The consequences of inflammation, regardless of clinical symptoms, include reduced quantity and quality of piglet colostrum intake and milk intake during early lactation.
\nThe neonate piglets are born without the protection of immunoglobulins because of the epitheliochorial nature of the porcine placenta, which does not allow transfer of large molecules during the maternal-fetal interface. Neonate piglets must acquire maternal immunoglobulins from ingested colostrum for passive immune protection, before they will adequately produce own immunoglobulins at 3–4 weeks of age [32].
\nIn Europe in the last 30 years there has been a constant increase in number of piglets born, with litter size averagely increasing from 11 to 14 piglets, with some countries reaching an average of 16 piglets [33, 34]. Nowadays, having litters up to 18–20 piglets it is not uncommon when raising hyper-prolific sow lines [18, 34, 35]. Because sows can have averagely an udder with 14–16 teats [36], large litters are challenging to manage during lactation. According to Andersen et al. [37], without balancing of litter size after birth and without any direct help to sow and piglets, a sow is able to wean successfully no more than 10 to 11 piglets. Large litters can also directly affect piglets at birth. The larger is the number of piglets born in a litter, the lower is their average birthweight and the higher is their weight variation within the litter [38, 39, 40, 41]. A greater number of piglets born than the available teats at the sow’s udder, a lower birthweight and a greater birthweight variation, all increase the piglets’ competition for colostrum intake [42]. Similarly, lower birthweight and long farrowing duration are associated with lower piglet vitality at birth, which can delay the access to the udder [43, 44].
\nThe constant presence of maternally secretory IgA (sIgA) in milk guarantees the protection of the intestinal mucosa of piglets. As long as piglets are able to intake sufficient amounts of milk, the sIgA give a localized protection to their intestine, allowing them to develop gradually their own immune response mechanisms [45]. Other immunoglobulins, like IgG are more concentrated into colostrum, with most of colostrum produced before farrowing and right after farrowing [46]. Porcine colostrum contains very high levels of IgG (30-70 g/l) and a mixture of bioactive molecules like growth factors and enzymes. In colostrum, the level of IgG may be four times higher than the level of IgA and IgG in the serum of the sow [2]. Closure of the gut junctions in piglets occurs 24–36 h after their birth, making the absorption of immunoglobulins impossible [32]. Impossibility for piglets to obtain timely a sufficient intake of colostrum is considered the main cause of piglet deaths occurring within the first days after birth [47]. The recommended amount of colostrum needed per piglet is at least 200 g to minimize the mortality and 250 g for good body weight gain [47]. Since the amount of colostrum offered is timely limited by the sow own production, there is a possibility that in large litters some of the piglets may suffer lack of colostrum. Lessard et al. [48] suggested that the genes’ expression of immunity and oxidative stress in piglets’ intestinal tissue can be affected by birth weight and colostrum intake, with direct effects on the leukocyte populations responsible of innate and cell-mediated immunity of nursing piglets. Piglets born with low weight had a lower amount of intestinal antigen presenting cells and an impaired increase of B cells, when compared to high birth weight piglets [48].
\nSocial stress conditions like competition for colostrum and milk intake, crowding, and regrouping are more common in large litters. These conditions may induce short- and long-term effects in pigs, on their immunity. Psychosocial stress may alterate changes in the reactions of both the innate and adaptive immunity, such as leukocyte distribution, cytokine secretion, lymphocyte proliferation, antibody production and immune responses to viral infection or vaccination [49]. In addition, social stress may induce or promote gastrointestinal (GI) diseases through dysregulation of inflammatory processes and glucocorticoid resistance of lymphocytes [49], cortisol being the main stress-induced glucocorticoid in pigs.
\nSome studies found an increased association between high pre-weaning mortality and large litters [50, 51], one example is given in Figure 2 for the Netherlands. An explanation to this correlation can be found in prolonged farrowing duration and lower birth weight commonly seen in large litter size [2].
\nIncreased mortality with increased litter size in the Netherlands (adapted from: AgroVision B.V. the Netherlands, 2017).
In a recent study performed in Norway they found that, on the first day of life, the level of piglet plasma IgG, was affected negatively by a linear decrease of 0.4 g/L for each piglet born, indicating how prolonged parturition in large litters can impair the uptake of passive immunity of neonate piglets [52]. Several studies report a negative correlation between litter size and piglet birth weight [38, 39, 40, 53]. When looking to piglets’ individual growth, three different studies consistently found a decline in litter average birth weight, ranging from 35 to 43 g for each additional pig born across three different populations of litters recorded [39, 40, 54]. A lower birth weight can affect negatively colostrum intake, increasing the risk of mortality [55, 56, 57]. Piglets serum IgG concentrations increased with increased piglet weight, while piglets from larger litters had lower serum IgG [58]. Similarly, greater amount of colostrum ingested at birth increased the IgG content in serum of piglets at 24 h after birth [59]. Another study found that piglet serum IgG concentration at 24 h, 10 and 20 days of age was positively correlated with colostrum intake and with the serum IgG concentration of the mother, but was not correlated with birth weight [56]. Increased duration of farrowing in combination with larger competition in the litter, can reduce not only the possibility to intake adequate amount of colostrum, but also retard the time of access to the udder. This is an unfavorable condition considering that colostrum level of immunoglobulins declines fast after the start of parturition [57]. Studies report that a delayed intake, after the birth, of a standard colostrum ration affected negatively the piglets’ immunoglobulin absorption and the maturation of their intestinal villi, having possibly long-term harm on their digestion process [60]. A retarded detection of IgG in piglets’ serum was reported when the standardized colostrum portion was given only after 12 h from their birth, than in piglets getting it immediately after the birth. The latter piglets had 4.4% more plasma IgG (21.5 vs. 17.1%), probably because of their greater development of intestinal villi [60]. Klobasa et al. [61] found that birth order had an influence on the amount of immunoglobulin absorbed in a population of 600 piglets. The latest piglets born in the litters had the lower IgG level in their plasma, due to the fast decline in colostrum immunoglobulins level from the start of parturition. Correspondingly, another study reported a 4% decrease of plasma IgG concentration in piglets of smaller birth weight, when compared to their bigger siblings [62]. Manjarin et al. [63] indicated the farrowing-to-suckling interval to be fundamental in the acquisition of adequate IgG by piglets. A 4 h delayed intake of colostrum, after the start of parturition, significantly reduced the amount of piglets’ plasma proteins 24 hours up to 12 days. It is therefore extremely important to consider also the time of birth of piglets in relation to the start of farrowing, when planning successful strategies to boost colostrum intake in large litters, like for instance split suckling [2].
\nThe composition of gut microbiota constantly shifts over time and it is not constant. In sows, both diversity and abundance of certain microbial population increase with progression of the pregnancy until weaning [64]. Diversified gut microbiota can provide different metabolic capacities and functionality in sows, ensuring the sufficient supply of nutrients for fetal growth and development [64]. In a recent study carried out by Hasan et al. [65], at farrowing, from a phyla level perspective, most gut bacteria were classified in Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Candidatus. The Firmicutes represent the most abundant proportion of the total population, followed by Bacteroides. These two phyla accounted for approximately 98% of all bacteria present. These results are in line with the one published by Kim et al. [66], reporting Firmicutes and Bacteroides being 90% of total bacteria present in late pregnancy in the sow gut. However, the findings of the study by Ji et al. [64], reported that Bacteroides increased linearly with the progression of the pregnancy and represented the most dominant (45%) in late pregnancy. Jost et al. [67] reported that Firmicutes exhibited no detectable changes over perinatal period. There are some evidences that gestational body weight gain or increase in the back-fat thickness in the sows, may be associated with an increase in the abundance of Firmicutes or an increase in the Firmicutes to Bacteroides ratio [64, 68]. In terms of phyla, the abundance of Tenericutes, Fibrobacteres, and Cyanobacteria have been shown to increase with the progression of the pregnancy [64]. These phyla have some beneficial effects, for example, Tenericutes increase intestinal cells’ integrity and Fibrobacteres are characterized by having the potential to metabolize non-soluble polysaccharides, such as cellulose, hemicellulose or pectin [64]. During late gestation Romboutsia was the dominant genus in sows which is from the phylum Firmicutes, followed by Clostridium sensu stricto, Lactobacillus, Oscillibacter, Intestinimonas, Sporobacter, Christensenella, Barnesiella, Flavonifractor, Terrisporobacter, Acidaminobacter, Lachnospiracea incertae sedis, and Turicibacter, other genera being much less 1% [65].
\nThe changes in the diet can differentiate the composition of the microbiome, and in its potential functionality. Recent studies demonstrate the importance of dietary microbial modulation. Dietary supplementation of hydrolysed yeast [65], resin acid enriched composition [69], probiotics [70] and prebiotics [71, 72] in sow’s late gestation diet, significantly changes microbial populations. Different levels and types of protein and fiber in the diet are also modulating the gut microbial population both in gestating sows and in weaning piglets. Fiber has various physicochemical properties, and its supplementation during pregnancy effectively enhances the stability of the gut microbiota population in sow [71, 72]. The most important changes in the gut microbiota composition include a reduction in Proteobacteria and an increase in Ruminococcaceae, Oscillospira, and Eubacterium. Additionally, the genus Eubacterium increases, after dietary soluble fiber supplementation during pregnancy, promoting propionate release, being one of the possible reasons by which dietary fiber increases insulin sensitivity and decrease the general inflammation in sows around farrowing [73]. Those microbiota capable to ferment indigestible carbohydrates, produce short chain fatty acids (SCFA) that can be an important energy source for the sow. Butyrate, in particular, is a gut health-promoting compound that acts as the main energy source for colonocytes and exerts anti-inflammatory properties [74]. The increased production of SCFAs promotes intestinal energy availability, which may contribute to the high energetic demands of hyper-prolific sows for the longer duration of farrowing process; therefore promoting the presence of fiber degrading gut microbiota seems to be favorable for gestating sows. The reduction of pathogenic bacteria in response to dietary supplementation is associated with an increase of beneficial microbiota, which in turn may modify the substrate availability and the physiological conditions of the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. fermentation products, luminal pH and bile acid concentration) [75]. Dietary supplementation of yeast hydrolysate in the pregnancy influenced beneficial and fermentative bacteria (Roseburia, Paraprevotella, Eubacterium), while, some opportunistic pathogens like Desulfovibrio, Escherichia/Shigella and Helicobacter, of the phylum Proteobacteria, were suppressed [65].
\nProteobacteria are usually a minority presence within a normal gut microbial community [76]. However, a dysbiotic expansion of facultative anaerobic Proteobacteria are connected with gut inflammation, including irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease in humans [77], and with increased inflammatory responses of women in late pregnancy [78]. Recent studies have proposed that an expansion of Proteobacteria in the gut microbiota community is a potential diagnostic criterion for dysbiosis in gut microbiota and epithelial dysfunction [79, 80]. For instance, Hasan et al. [65] found that some positive sow’s productive and physiological performances (high colostrum yield, high colostrum proteins content, high colostrum IgG content, normal blood progesterone level and normal farrowing duration) were positively correlated to the gut bacterial families Lactobacillaceae, Ruminococcaceae and Prevotellaceae, the last two being bacteria able to utilize different plant cell wall polysaccharides. On the contrary, unfavorable productive and physiological performances of the sow (low colostrum yield, low colostrum proteins content, low colostrum IgG content, high level of blood progesterone and long farrowing duration) clustered and were positively correlated with the gut bacterial families Erysipelotrichaceae, Clostridiaceae, Streptococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Desulfovibrionaceae and Bacteroidaceae, many of these being known pig pathogens bacteria or part of the dysbiotic phylum Proteobacteria.\n
\nThe climate change requires a brave vision regarding breeding goals in the pig in the future. Buildings housing pigs will need to be energy saving and reducing CO2 emissions in the future. On the other hand, hotter climate will need pigs to be robust and more resilient under heat with less susceptible to becoming stressed under those conditions. Hyper-prolific sows, however, may actually be quite sensitive to heat in comparison to less productive breeds [81].
\nConsumers appear to asking for improved welfare such as provided by free farrowing /free lactation discussed earlier [34]. Therefore, there appears to be growing demand for cross breeding/genes for these characteristics and traits. Recent developments in reproductive technology may provide tools for international trade of germ cells and embryos in the near future.
\nThe process of parturition is long and complicated in the hyperprolific sow. It brings about increased risk of uterine contamination, mammary gland inflammation and retained placenta, therefore increasing post partum inflammation leading up to post partum dysgalactia PDS. From the fetal/neonatal point of view, hypoxia may develop due to the extended expulsion phase of parturition. Moreover, the quality and quantity of colostrum intake goes down when the decreasing window for suckling. In the early lactation, metabolic stress in profound due to the increased demand for energy and nutrients, which worsens the negative energy balance and may affect development of next generation follicle development and thereby future generations of piglets. Environmental and dietary effects on the gut microbiota of sows and piglets have an impact during gestation, farrowing and lactation, possibly improving performances of hyperprolific sows and of piglets in large litters.
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