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Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. 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Azanza, A. del Moral and R. N. 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Saddow and Francesco La Via",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4721.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"127139",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Saddow",slug:"stephen-saddow",fullName:"Stephen Saddow"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80071",title:"Renal Elastography for the Assessment of Chronic Kidney Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102076",slug:"renal-elastography-for-the-assessment-of-chronic-kidney-disease",body:'Chronic kidney disease (CKD), a progressive disease, with high morbidity and mortality, therefore associated with increased health costs, is becoming a public health problem because of the increasing incidence and prevalence. For the diagnosis of CKD, biochemical markers are used—glomerular filtration rate, estimated from the level of serum creatinine and urinary albumin/creatinine ratio. For the assessment of the progression of CKD histology can often be helpful, and different new biomarkers are emerging as important tools as well [1].
The use of imagistic methods in the early diagnosis, or to assess the progression of CKD is very limited. Conventional ultrasound is helpful in diagnosing cystic kidney diseases, which represent a small proportion of the causes of CKD. Regarding the most frequent etiologies of CKD (diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, glomerular diseases, or chronic tubulointerstitial diseases) information provided by ultrasound is of limited help. Using conventional ultrasound we can quantify the renal size and parenchymal thickness, both decreasing in advanced stages of CKD, when due to the progression of fibrosis, the echogenicity of the renal cortex is increasing [2].
The increased echogenicity, observed by the investigator is however not quantifiable using conventional ultrasound, being therefore subjective. An ultrasound-based method that has proven its utility in the assessment of fibrosis in different other organs (liver in both, diffuse [3, 4] or focal lesions [5], spleen [6, 7], thyroid [8, 9] or prostate [10]), by measuring the stiffness of the tissue is elastography.
Elastography is a method used to quantify the elasticity of tissues. Elasticity is an intrinsic property of tissue, that permits after initial stress, the deformation with a subsequent return to the normal shape [11].
Different methods, corresponding to different technologies can be used to measure tissue elasticity:
Strain elastography (SE) is a qualitative method, the strain images being obtained from the tissue displacement, due to pressure applied by the transducer. SE is mentioned in experimental studies performed in renal transplant recipients when the assessed kidney is superficial [12].
Shear wave elastography
This is a quantitative method, that in contrast to SE does not use the transducer pressure, but high-intensity pulses that generate shear waves in the different tissues. The tissue shear wave speed (SWS) is expressed in m/s and is correlating with tissue stiffness expressed by Young’s modulus (kPa). Performing this method in a stiffer tissue leads to a higher SWS.
Transient elastography (TE) or Fibroscan is known from liver stiffness assessment. Shear waves in TE are generated by controlled external vibration, however, the fact that the obtained image is not superimposed on an ultrasound image, makes it difficult to use in renal assessment. The conclusions of the few published studies using TE in kidneys, underline the fact that the results can be affected by the heterogeneous kidney morphology [13, 14, 15].
Acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI), in contrast to TE, uses the same transducer to generate shear waves and to image their propagation. The system is integrated into an ultrasound machine, and the ultrasound image is used to guide the site of elastography measurements. As a principle, in ARFI, shear waves are generated inside the organ due to focused acoustic radiation force pushing pulses. After generation the shear waves propagate through the soft tissue, their speed represents the SWS and are progressively attenuated due to their absorption in the soft tissue [16]. There are two different types of ARFI, corresponding to the different methods of obtaining and reporting information:
Point shear wave elastography (pSWE): The result is an average value inside a region of interest (ROI) and the systems/machines that use pSWE are: Virtual touch quantification (VTQ) (Siemens S2000, S3000) (Figure 1), elastography point quantification (ElastPQ) (Phillips Affiniti) (Figure 2).
Shear wave speed imaging (2D-SWE). Instead of an average value, the ROI appears as a color-coded map mosaic inside which the measurement is performed. The systems that use this method are: 2D SWE.SSI technique (Aixplorer) (Figure 3) and 2D SWE.GE (General Electric) (Figure 4).
Kidney SWS (expressed in m/s) measured with a pSWE method: Virtual TouchTM tissue quantification (VTQ), software version 2.0, on a Siemens Acuson S2000TM ultrasound system (Siemens AG, Erlangen, Germany) with a 4CI transducer.
Kidney SWS (expressed in m/s) measured with a pSWE method: Elatography point quantification system (ElastPQ) on a Phillips Affiniti ultrasound system with a 4CI transducer.
Kidney stiffness (expressed in kPa) measured with a 2D-SWE method: 2D-SWE.SSI technique on a SuperSonic imagine Aixplorer® ShearWave™ Elastography machine with a SuperCurved™ SC6-1 transducer.
Kidney SWS measured with a 2D SWE.GE technique using a Logiq E9- General Electric ultrasound system.
Only the two ARFI-based shear wave elastography methods (pSWE and 2D-SWE) seem to be suitable for the assessment of renal diseases.
Both mentioned renal elastography methods (pSWE and 2D-SWE) are ultrasound-based. The image obtained is a normal ultrasound image, and superimposed on it there is the region of interest (ROI), inside which the kidney shear wave speed is measured (Figures 1–4). The result is displayed on the screen and is expressed either in m/s or in kPa.
The preparation of the patient should be the one used for a conventional ultrasound examination, but because the results obtained with elastography are quantifiable, the position of the examined subject should be standardized. Renal elastography should be thus performed with the patient in lateral decubitus, asked to stop breathing for a moment, to minimize breathing motion (Figure 5). Because the elastography method is ultrasound-based, the obtained B-mode US image should have a good quality, to obtain a reliable elastography measurement. Thus, before starting elastography acquisition, the correct scan of the kidneys should be obtained, using the best acoustic window.
For elastography, the patient should be examined in lateral decubitus, to obtain the best acoustic window.
The need for a good standardization of this method comes from the complex architecture of the kidney, which is composed of cortex, medulla, central fat, vasculature, collecting system, and a capsule [17]. This complex structure leads to a high degree of anisotropy, especially at the level of the medulla, composed of tubules that are aligned perpendicular to the renal capsule [17]. Anisotropy is present at the level of the renal cortex as well and is due to the spherical glomeruli and proximal and distal tubules which have a convoluted shape [18].
The consequence of anisotropy of the renal structure is represented by the influence on the kidney stiffness measured using elastography [19]. The results are influenced by the relationship between the direction of the ultrasound main axis and the renal pyramid axis. Thus, if the ROI is put in the mid-portion of the renal parenchyma the two axes are parallel, while if the ROI is at the level of the renal poles the two axes are perpendicular and the obtained SWS is different [20]. To have a standardized approach and because the placement of the ROI in the poles is sometimes difficult, the most common way to place the ROI is in the mid-portion of the renal parenchyma.
Anisotropy of the renal tissue can however be beneficial and used as a diagnostic tool. Standardizing the variation of SWS in the kidney can be used to obtain an anisotropic ratio, that could represent a diagnostic and monitoring marker in CKD [21].
When performing renal elastography, another important issue is the one regarding the positioning of the ROI, because theoretically the measurements should be performed in the renal cortex. It is known that the stiffness of the cortex is higher compared to the stiffness of the medulla [22]. In practice, however, because of the fixed dimension of the ROI, of 1 cm, it is difficult to differentiate between cortex and medulla, and therefore, the measurements will be performed in the renal parenchyma, which contains both cortex and medulla. This difficulty resulting from the dimension of the ROI is further increased in patients with advanced CKD, that have thin parenchyma (sometimes below 1 cm), and elastography results could be biased.
The limited size of the renal parenchyma (compared to the size of the ROI), even in normal kidneys, leads to the necessity of positioning the ROI just beneath the renal capsule. The vicinity of the renal capsule can lead to the appearance of some common ultrasound artifacts that occurs when a sound pulse reverberates back and forth between two strong parallel reflectors, and that leads to increased measured values. These reverberation artifacts are the reason for the recommendation in liver elastography, for example, to put the ROI 1.5–2 cm beneath the capsule to avoid these artifacts, a recommendation that is impossible to use in renal elastography [23].
Despite the above-mentioned difficulties in performing renal elastography, if the approach of the kidneys is standardized, it has been proven that the method has good inter-observer reproducibility, and thus has the potential to be used in clinical practice [24, 25].
In practice and considering the results of the majority of published studies the kidney shear wave speed value should be reported as the median value of five valid measurements, although it has been proven that even three valid measurements are enough [26].
It is difficult to establish the normal values of kidney shear wave speed because even if the measurement is performed at the same cortical level, the reported results are different depending on the different elastography systems used. For pSWE, the normal values range between 2.15 and 2.54 m/s (for the VTQ system) and between 1.23 and 1.54 m/s (for the ElastPQ system) [27]. For 2DSWE-GE, normal values range between 1.71 and 1.79 m/s [28].
An important limitation of elastography is the fact that the different methods that are available, and that have been mentioned previously, are coming from different providers and no correlation tables are available to compare results obtained with different transducers from different manufacturers.
Kidney shear wave speed seems to be influenced by age, with a decrease of renal stiffness in older subjects, and also by gender, with men showing lower values compared to women [29, 30].
The results obtained when performing renal elastography are influenced also by the depth of the kidneys. Kidney shear wave speed is decreasing with increasing organ depth [29, 31, 32]. The assessment becomes difficult in very deep kidneys because the maximum depth of the ROI is 8 cm.
But very superficial kidneys can be difficult to assess as well, because the results are potentially biased due to the different compression of the transducer, being thus operator dependent. It has been proven in a study published by Correas et al., that cortex stiffness is increasing with the increased transducer compression [22]. This problem could influence especially measurements performed in superficial kidneys when the different non-quantifiable transducer force applied, could intervene, leading to different SWSs.
The most promising use of elastography in the hands of a nephrologist should be for the assessment of CKD, to diagnose and quantify the progression, as it has been mentioned in the introduction of this chapter.
There are several studies that are showing that kidney SWS values are significantly increased in patients with CKD compared to normal controls, pointing out that kidneys are stiffer because of chronic disease [33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. These observations are, however, not confirmed in every published study. Other authors have shown that renal stiffness is significantly lower in patients with CKD [24, 38, 39]. A statistically significant relationship between kidney shear wave speed values and renal function, expressed by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), has been shown as well, with lower kidney SWS associated with lower eGFR [40, 41, 42].
Despite the decrease of kidney SWS with the decrease of eGFR, mentioned in some studies, it was not possible to use elastography to differentiate between the different stages of CKD, because no significant differences could be found between the SWS levels in the different CKD stages [28, 43].
In a meta-analysis comprising seven studies including 639 patients with CKD and 640 normal controls, it has been shown that kidney SWS is decreased in patients with CKD, and there is a decrease of kidney SWS with the progression of CKD (decrease of eGFR). However, the included studies showed an increased heterogeneity [44].
To implement the use of renal elastography in the current practice, for the diagnosis of CKD for example, the finding of cut-off values would be important. However, the attempts published so far are presenting cut-off values for the diagnosis of more advanced stages of CKD, and not for incipient CKD.
Thus, diabetic kidney disease with an eGFR of below 60 ml/min could be predicted using the VTQ system (pSWE) with a sensitivity of 67.4% and a specificity of 67.8%, if kidney SWS was less than 2.32 m/s [45]. Better sensitivity (89.2%) and specificity (76.9%) have been obtained with 2D SWE GE, which predicted CKD if SWS was 1.47 m/s or below [28].
When combining elastography with clinical parameters, such as albuminuria or diabetes duration, and using a logistic regression model, the accuracy of diagnosing even early stages of diabetic kidney disease could be significantly improved, in contrast to the independent use of the different methods [36].
From the studies using liver elastography, we know that fibrosis, which occurs due to the progression of liver disease, leads to an increase in liver stiffness. Because the histological background of chronic kidney disease is renal fibrosis, and especially tubulointerstitial fibrosis, it can be hypothesized that similar changes occur in the kidneys, and therefore, the progression of kidney disease should lead to an increase of SWS. However, as mentioned in the previous chapter, the studies published so far, that compare elastography performed in patients with CKD and normal controls, have shown that not always CKD is associated with an increase in renal stiffness.
Therefore, it would be useful to take a look at those studies that compare histological changes with results obtained using elastography, and to see if there is a relationship between fibrosis and kidney SWS, and to find an explanation to the observation mentioned in some studies that kidney SWS is decreasing in advanced stages of CKD.
The first studies that compare elastography with histological parameters have been performed in renal transplant recipients. Those studies using transient elastography (TE) show a positive correlation between renal stiffness and fibrosis [13, 14, 15, 47], but as already mentioned the use of Fibroscan in the assessment of the kidneys is especially biased by the renal structure. In the studies using pSWE or 2D SWE in transplanted patients, there was a lack of correlation between fibrosis and renal stiffness [48, 49, 50, 51].
In native kidneys, there are studies using different elastography systems (VTQ, ElastPQ) that show, as expected, that severe histological changes, both glomerular and tubulointerstitial, are associated with a statistically significant increase in kidney SWS [33, 52]. Moreover, in a study performed using the 2D-SWE – SSI elastography method, it has been shown that the degree of glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis is associated with higher levels of kidney stiffness and that patients with lower kidney SWS showed a better response to corticotherapy [53]. This observation could be explained by the fact that corticotherapy is not effective on fibrosis, but on active glomerular lesions, which probably do not influence renal stiffness.
However not all published studies sustain the mentioned conclusions regarding the relationship between kidney elastography and histological changes, and thus in some studies, no correlations at all have been found between histology and elastography. This is the case of a small study performed in 45 patients with CKD in which no statistically significant correlation of kidney SWS with the studied histological parameters (glomerulosclerosis index, tubular atrophy, interstitial fibrosis) has been found [54]. In another study that has been performed in kidneys used for transplant from living donors, elastography and renal biopsies have been performed before nephrectomy. Although the kidneys with more pronounced interstitial fibrosis had a lower SWS, none of the correlations between histology and elastography was statistically significant [31].
Even more surprising are those studies that show an association of a decreased renal stiffness with fibrosis, for example, that severe histological impairment in CKD is associated with significantly reduced kidney SWS [41], or even that the presence of tubulointerstitial fibrosis or arteriolar hyalinosis leads to significantly decreased values of SWS [55].
Combining elastography with conventional ultrasound features (renal length, parenchymal thickness, resistance index) can improve the predictive value and offer better diagnostic performance in the evaluation of pathological changes in CKD., as it has been shown in a study performed in patients with IgA nephropathy, that had a significantly lower kidney SWS in more severe diseases [56].
One explanation for the different pattern of results and the different relationship between renal stiffness and elastography provided by the different studies could be the fact that histological changes in renal diseases are heterogenous, showing a non-uniform involvement of the compartments of the renal tissue (glomerular, vascular, or tubulointerstitial). However, another explanation could be the fact, that maybe other factors, besides histological changes (renal fibrosis) are involved in influencing renal stiffness.
Besides fibrosis, the stiffness of the renal tissue could be theoretically influenced by urinary pressure, which could be increased in case of urinary obstruction, but again the results of the published studies that are addressing this topic are not consistent. As expected, kidney SWS was increased in children with different degrees of hydronephrosis compared to normal controls, as it has been shown in a study performed on 51 children [57]. But, however, in another study performed on 88 children with vesicoureteric reflux, SWS decreased with the increasing grades of the reflux [58], while a third smaller study (37 children) was not able to discriminate between obstructive and unobstructive hydronephrosis using shear wave elastography [59].
Another factor, besides the structure of the renal tissue and urinary obstruction, that could influence renal tissue stiffness could be renal blood flow. The background for this hypothesis is represented by the fact that the vascularization of the kidney is increased, with 20% of the cardiac outflow running into the kidneys [60, 61].
The relationship between renal blood flow and elastography has been hinted at by experimental data using an
A similar situation to the latter one mentioned above has been reported in a patient with renal vein thrombosis, which led to an increased value of kidney shear wave speed compared to the contralateral kidney [65].
There are also clinical studies that are sustaining the renal blood flow hypothesis. Asano et al. show in a study performed in over 300 CKD patients that increased arterial stiffness, measured through pulse wave velocity (PWV), is associated with a low kidney SWS [60]. These results have been confirmed in another study performed in patients with diabetic kidney disease, that showed a negative, statistically significant correlation of kidney SWS not only with PWV but with the aortic augmentation index as well [66]. This means that in patients in whom there is a progression of arteriosclerosis in the large vessels (high PWV and aortic augmentation index), which leads to a decreased renal blood flow, the kidney SWS is subsequently low.
There are also indirect proofs of the validity of the hypothesis of an existing relationship between renal blood flow and renal stiffness. In patients with gestational hypertension, characterized by renal hypoperfusion, it has been shown that high blood pressure was associated with a low renal elasticity [67].
A study performed in renal transplant recipients showed that interstitial fibrosis/tubular atrophy has no influence on kidney SWS, but adaptive glomerular hyperfiltration leads to an increase in kidney SWS. This observation is in favor of the hypothesis that renal hemodynamics influences renal stiffness [50].
Considering the supposed relationship between renal blood flow and elastography findings, it has been proposed to use pre-procedural elastography to predict the risk of bleeding after renal biopsy, but the results show a low sensitivity, with high specificity for the method [68].
A new experimental elastography-based method that could explain the described results and relationships is two-dimensional time-harmonic ultrasound elastography. When using this method, the patient is placed on a vibration bed that produces continuous vibrations and thus the 2D-SWE elastography covers the entire kidney and is not limited to a superficial ROI [69]. Performing this enhanced elastography Grossman et al. showed that renal SWS decreased significantly in CKD stage 1 (patients with glomerulonephritis) compared to normal controls. Moreover, there was a statistically significant negative correlation with the resistive index, the fact that could underline that renal blood flow is influencing renal stiffness [70].
The decrease of renal blood flow could have a higher influence on renal stiffness, compared to fibrosis, leading to the decrease of kidney SWS. The progression of renal fibrosis, which should increase renal stiffness, is on the other hand associated with a decrease in intrarenal blood flow, leading to opposite effects on renal SWS. This could explain why renal fibrosis is not associated with an increase in renal stiffness in some of the cited studies (Table 1) [41, 55, 56].
Study | Elastography method | Patient population (number, type of subjects) | Histology | SWS in CKD* | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Arndt et al. [13] | TE | 57 transplant patients (20 with renal biopsy) | yes | increase |
2 | Syversveen et al. [48] | VTQ | 30 transplant patients | yes | no relationship |
3 | Stock et al. [51] | VTQ | 18 transplant patients | yes | moderate positive |
4 | Grenier et al. [49] | SSI | 43 transplant patients | yes | no relationship |
5 | Sommerer et al. [14] | TE | 164 transplant patients | yes | increase |
6 | Guo et al. [30] | VTQ | 64 CKD patients/327 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
7 | Lukenda et al. [15] | TE | 52 (23 with renal biopsy) | yes | increase |
8 | Hu et al. [41] | VTQ | 163 CKD patients/32 healthy subjects | yes | decrease |
9 | Yu et al. [34] | VTQ | 120 diabetic patients/30 healthy subjects | no | increase |
10 | Asano et al. [60] | VTQ | 309 CKD patients/14 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
11 | Wang et al. [54] | VTQ | 45 CKD patients | yes | no relationship |
12 | Cui et al. [33] | VTQ | 76 CKD patients | yes | increase |
13 | Nakao et al. [47] | TE | 35 transplant patients (27 with renal biopsy) | yes | increase |
14 | Lee et al. [50] | VTQ | 73 transplant patients | yes | no correlation |
15 | Bob et al. [42] | VTQ | 46 CKD patients/58 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
16 | Samir et al. [36] | 2D SWE-SSI | 25 CKD patients/20 healthy subjects | no | increase |
17 | Alan et al. [40] | VTQ | 76 coronary artery disease patients/79 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
18 | Bob et al. [45] | VTQ | 80 diabetic kidney disease patients/84 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
19 | Bilgici et al. [38] | VTQ | 30 CKD patients/38 healthy subjects - pediatric patients | no | decrease |
20 | Bob et al. [55] | VTQ | 20 CKD patients | yes | moderate decrease |
21 | Sasaki et al. [43] | VTQ | 187 CKD patients | no | no relationship |
22 | Yang et al. [35] | VTQ | 90 idiopatic nephrotic syndrome CKD patients/30 healthy subjects | no | increase |
23 | Grosu et al. [39] | Elast PQ | 102 CKD patients/22 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
24 | Liu et al. [46] | Elast PQ | 69 diabetic kidney disease patients/40 diabetic controls | no | increase |
25 | Hu et al. [56] | VTQ | 146 IgA nephropathy patients/39 healthy volunteers | yes | decrease |
26 | Grosu et al. [28] | 2D SWE- GE | 42 CKD patients/50 healthy subjects | no | decrease |
27 | Sumbul et al. [37] | Elast PQ | 125 diabetic, prediabetic patients and controls | no | increase |
28 | Yang et al. [53] | 2D-SWE- SSI | 120 idiopathic nephrotic syndrome - CKD patients | yes | increase |
29 | Lee et al. [31] | VTQ | 73 (biopsies of kidney donors before transplant) | yes | no (tendency of SWS to |
30 | Leong et al. [52] | ElastPQ | 75 CKD patients | yes | increase |
Main published studies on renal elastography.
The terms “increase” or “decrease” are representing a statistically significant change of SWV in CKD compared to healthy subjects, or in more severe CKD compared to less advanced stages.
Shear wave elastography could be an ideal imaging modality to assess CKD because it combines all the well-known advantages of ultrasound examination, which is noninvasive, performed in real time, and does not imply high costs with the possibility to deliver quantifiable results. However, because of the complexity of the kidney architecture and its tissue properties, it seems that the results obtained using renal SWE are affected by numerous confounding elements, a fact that affects the reliability of the method and limits its application to clinical trials [71]. Therefore, it is very important to try to find those methods that could improve the use of SWE (Figure 6).
Factors that influence kidney shear wave speed (SWS).
It has already been shown that combining SWE with other US methods (B-mode ultrasound and color Doppler) increases the prognostic value. The combination of the different ultrasound-based methods could be a step toward the use of multiparametric ultrasound imaging in the assessment of the kidney.
Another step forward could be the use of artificial intelligence. In a study performed in 208 CKD patients machine learning techniques have been used to combine multiple ultrasound characteristics of SWE, B-mode, and color Doppler flow imaging to assess the prognostic value of SWE for kidney tubulointerstitial fibrosis grades among the studied CKD patients. SWE ultrasound fitting machine learning improved the diagnostic performances and also explained the lack of a linear correlation between kidney stiffness and CKD stages [72].
An improvement of the use of renal elastography could emerge from the analysis of raw data of the different systems used. Such an analysis has recently been published by Richard Barr using raw data of different three machines (Siemens, Phillips, and Aixplorer), and the conclusion was that an improvement of processing algorithms could lead to more accurate renal stiffness data from an elastographic system [73]. It is possible that assessing raw data with a new algorithm can overcome the existing limitations of the method, and make kidney elastography a feasible method [17].
Considering all the presented aspects, at the moment, no evidence-based recommendations can be offered for the use of SWE in the assessment of the kidneys [27]. Therefore, more extensive studies are needed to find the place and indication of renal elastography in clinical practice.
The personal research cited and the elastography images inserted in this chapter have been performed with the support of the Center of Elastography of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babes” Timisoara, Romania.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
2D SWE | shear wave speed imaging |
CKD | chronic kidney disease |
eGFR | estimated glomerular filtration rate |
ElastPQ | elastography point quantification |
pSWE | point shear wave elastography |
PWV | pulse wave velocity |
ROI | region of interest |
SWE | shear wave elastography |
SWS | shear wave speed |
VTQ | virtual touch quantification |
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Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"489",title:"Bioinorganic Chemistry",slug:"bioinorganic-chemistry",parent:{id:"83",title:"Inorganic Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-inorganic-chemistry"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:104,numberOfWosCitations:91,numberOfCrossrefCitations:74,numberOfDimensionsCitations:161,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"489",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9206",title:"Importance of Selenium in the Environment and Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e21bd2a386a2d078fe53a4d1658e44bf",slug:"importance-of-selenium-in-the-environment-and-human-health",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohamed Asiri, Anish Khan and Inamuddin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9206.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6690",title:"Arsenic",subtitle:"Analytical and Toxicological Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d829bc54fef4d7062ab1d4c403a0895",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Roumen Zlatev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6690.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170080",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6255",title:"Ozone in Nature and Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b160c6c458f2da2a2780bb1974faf64",slug:"ozone-in-nature-and-practice",bookSignature:"Ján Derco and Marian 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These metallic biomaterials have been declared as clinical success as their mechanical properties that satisfy the prerequisite of the human bone. Nevertheless, critical issues of the materials when they are utilised as implants; including the releasing toxic and harmful metal ions through wear and corrosion processes after longer implantation. Besides that, the bonding strength between bone and implants itself is considered weak due to the different components of human bone and metal implants. Hence, developing hydroxyapatite (HAp) coating on metallic biomaterials is expected to overcome the problems faced by biocompatible metallic biomaterials. As far as this, various commercial techniques have been introduced to develop the HAp coating on metallic biomaterials. The techniques are including plasma-spraying method, sol-gel dip-coating, electrochemical deposition and high-velocity suspension plasma-spraying. The formation of HAp coating on metallic biomaterials improved the corrosion resistance together promoting its load-bearing ability and enhanced substrate-coating adhesion.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun, Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri, Abu Bakar Sulong,\nSaiful Anwar Che Ghani and Zakri Ghazalli",authors:[{id:"209398",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wan Sharuzi",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Harun",slug:"wan-sharuzi-wan-harun",fullName:"Wan Sharuzi Wan Harun"},{id:"209805",title:"Ms.",name:"Rahil Izzati",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Asri",slug:"rahil-izzati-mohd-asri",fullName:"Rahil Izzati Mohd Asri"},{id:"209806",title:"Dr.",name:"Saiful Anwar",middleName:null,surname:"Che Ghani",slug:"saiful-anwar-che-ghani",fullName:"Saiful Anwar Che Ghani"},{id:"209807",title:"Dr.",name:"Zakri",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazalli",slug:"zakri-ghazalli",fullName:"Zakri Ghazalli"},{id:"209808",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Sulong",slug:"abu-bakar-sulong",fullName:"Abu Bakar Sulong"}]},{id:"54610",doi:"10.5772/67835",title:"Metal Oxide Polymer Nanocomposites in Water Treatments",slug:"metal-oxide-polymer-nanocomposites-in-water-treatments",totalDownloads:2132,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Recently, several pollutants such as dyes, pharmaceuticals and phenolic compounds, which can cause toxic effects to human health, have identified in water resources. Water pollution has extensively studied and several conventional techniques, such as chemical treatment, adsorption, biological treatment, and membrane-based separation, have adopted for pollutants removal from wastewater/ water resources. However, these techniques had led to the production of soluble refractory organic compounds and health-threatening bacteria that are hard to be removed. Recently, photocatalysis has considered as one of the most viable technology for water treatment using sunlight to eliminate harmful bacteria and pollutants owing to its cost-effectiveness and high efficiency. Metal oxide and polymers have become promising materials for water treatment owing to their properties, such as surface mobility, large surface area and superb magnetic and optical properties. This book chapter discusses recent design and synthesis of visible light response polymer/metal oxide nanocomposite through several synthetic strategies for water treatment. The results show that the polymer-metal oxide nanocomposite possesses a superior photodegradation activity toward pollutants under simulated visible light. Major challenges in polymer-metal oxide nanocomposite synthesis and future research perspectives for developing alternate synthesis methodologies are also discussed.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Francis Opoku, Ephraim M. Kiarii, Penny P. Govender and Messai\nAdenew Mamo",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"},{id:"205367",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Opoku",slug:"francis-opoku",fullName:"Francis Opoku"},{id:"205368",title:"Mr.",name:"Ephraim",middleName:null,surname:"Kiarii",slug:"ephraim-kiarii",fullName:"Ephraim Kiarii"}]},{id:"57556",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71604",title:"Hydroxyapatite-Based Materials for Potential Use in Bone Tissue Infections",slug:"hydroxyapatite-based-materials-for-potential-use-in-bone-tissue-infections",totalDownloads:1672,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Hydroxyapatite materials, due to their high biocompatibility, play a crucial role in orthopaedics and bone surgery as alternatives to autologous bone grafts. It was also found that coatings of metallic implants with hydroxyapatite layer improve significantly their osseointegration. Due to its bioactivity, osteoconductivity and non-toxicity, hydroxyapatite is also widely used as a component of hybrid biomaterials. The implantation of “foreign” materials brings one major concern that is the risk of potential bone tissue infections or chronic osteomyelitis. In turn, the main problem concerning bacterial infection treatment is to obtain an adequate, bactericidal drug concentration maintained for a sufficient period of time in the bone tissue. Therefore, recent developments of materials engineering are focused on delivery antibiotics directly into the affected bone. To achieve this goal, hydroxyapatite-based materials are frequently studied as carriers for antibacterial drugs. For effective support of antibiotic therapy, the antibacterial activity of certain ions (including silver, zinc or copper) may be applied. In our work, we present recent developments on ceramic materials for bacterial bone infections: hydroxyapatite-based carriers for antibiotics and modifications of hydroxyapatite with antibacterial ions. In this review, state-of-the-art and current applications of such materials are presented and discussed. We want to also present our recent results.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Katarzyna Szurkowska, Aleksandra Laskus and Joanna Kolmas",authors:[{id:"210646",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Kolmas",slug:"joanna-kolmas",fullName:"Joanna Kolmas"},{id:"210895",title:"Ms.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Szurkowska",slug:"katarzyna-szurkowska",fullName:"Katarzyna Szurkowska"},{id:"210956",title:"MSc.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Laskus",slug:"aleksandra-laskus",fullName:"Aleksandra Laskus"}]},{id:"57211",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71062",title:"Gene Delivery by Hydroxyapatite and Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles: A Review of Novel and Recent Applications",slug:"gene-delivery-by-hydroxyapatite-and-calcium-phosphate-nanoparticles-a-review-of-novel-and-recent-app",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Gene therapy is a targeted therapy which can be used in the treatment of various acquired and inherited diseases. Inhabitation of a gene function, restoring or improving a gene, or gaining a new function can be achieved by gene therapy strategies. The most crucial step in this therapy is delivering the therapeutic material to the target. Nanosized calcium phosphates (CaPs) have been considered as promising carriers due to their excellent biocompatibility. In this chapter, the delivery of DNA, siRNA, and miRNA by using CaP nanocarriers were compiled in detail and the main parameters which can affect the carrier properties and thus the gene transfer efficiency were also discussed.",book:{id:"6242",slug:"hydroxyapatite-advances-in-composite-nanomaterials-biomedical-applications-and-its-technological-facets",title:"Hydroxyapatite",fullTitle:"Hydroxyapatite - Advances in Composite Nanomaterials, Biomedical Applications and Its Technological Facets"},signatures:"Feray Bakan",authors:[{id:"210002",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feray",middleName:null,surname:"Bakan",slug:"feray-bakan",fullName:"Feray Bakan"}]},{id:"60425",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74758",title:"Mechanisms of Arsenic-Induced Toxicity with Special Emphasis on Arsenic-Binding Proteins",slug:"mechanisms-of-arsenic-induced-toxicity-with-special-emphasis-on-arsenic-binding-proteins",totalDownloads:1585,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The importance of different arsenic forms in public health is well recognized owing to its distinct physical characteristics and toxicity. Chronic arsenic exposure has left a trail of disastrous health consequences around the world. However, the mechanisms behind the toxicity and the consequential diseases occurring after acute or chronic exposure to arsenic are not well understood. The toxicity of trivalent arsenic primarily occurs due to its interaction with cysteine residues in proteins. Arsenic binding to protein may alter its conformation and interaction with other functional proteins leading to tissue damage. Therefore, there has been much emphasis on studies of arsenic-bound proteins, for the purpose of understanding the origins of toxicity and to explore therapeutics. This book chapter illustrates the molecular mechanisms of arsenic toxicity with a special emphasis on arsenic binding to proteins and its consequences in alteration of tissue homeostasis.",book:{id:"6690",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",title:"Arsenic",fullTitle:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies"},signatures:"Afaq Hussain, Vineeth Andisseryparambil Raveendran, Soumya\nKundu, Tapendu Samanta, Raja Shunmugam, Debnath Pal and\nJayasri Das Sarma",authors:[{id:"56752",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayasri",middleName:null,surname:"Das Sarma",slug:"jayasri-das-sarma",fullName:"Jayasri Das Sarma"},{id:"237283",title:"Mr.",name:"Afaq",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"afaq-hussain",fullName:"Afaq Hussain"},{id:"242002",title:"Mr.",name:"Vineeth",middleName:null,surname:"A R",slug:"vineeth-a-r",fullName:"Vineeth A R"},{id:"242003",title:"MSc.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Kundu",slug:"soumya-kundu",fullName:"Soumya Kundu"},{id:"242004",title:"MSc.",name:"Tapendu",middleName:null,surname:"Samanta",slug:"tapendu-samanta",fullName:"Tapendu Samanta"},{id:"242005",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Shunmugam",slug:"raja-shunmugam",fullName:"Raja Shunmugam"},{id:"242006",title:"Prof.",name:"Debnath",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"debnath-pal",fullName:"Debnath Pal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"61143",title:"Arsenic in Water: Determination and Removal",slug:"arsenic-in-water-determination-and-removal",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Depending on the physical, chemical and biogeochemical processes and condition of the environment, various arsenic species can be present in water. Water soluble arsenic species existing in natural water are inorganic arsenic (iAs) and organic arsenic (oAs) species. All acidic species, according to the chemical equilibrium, have well-recognized molecular and ionic forms in water. The distribution of iAs and oAs species is a function of pH value of water traces of arsenic that are found in groundwater, lakes, rivers and ocean. The WHO provisional guideline value for arsenic in drinking water is 10 μg L−1. The most selective and sensitive methods for determination of total arsenic and its species in water are coupled techniques including chromatography, optical methods and mass spectrometry. Determination of arsenic species is of crucial importance for selection of arsenic removal technology. Best available technologies are based on absorption, precipitation, membrane and hybrid membrane processes. Adsorption is considered to be relatively simple, efficient and low-cost removal technique, especially convenient for application in rural areas. Sorbents for arsenic removal are biological materials, mineral oxides, activated carbons and polymer resins.",book:{id:"6690",slug:"arsenic-analytical-and-toxicological-studies",title:"Arsenic",fullTitle:"Arsenic - Analytical and Toxicological Studies"},signatures:"Ljubinka Rajakovic and Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",authors:[{id:"141214",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladana",middleName:null,surname:"Rajakovic-Ognjanovic",slug:"vladana-rajakovic-ognjanovic",fullName:"Vladana Rajakovic-Ognjanovic"},{id:"235766",title:"Prof.",name:"Ljubinka",middleName:null,surname:"Rajakovic",slug:"ljubinka-rajakovic",fullName:"Ljubinka Rajakovic"}]},{id:"61286",title:"Ozone Dosage is the Key Factor of Its Effect in Biological Systems",slug:"ozone-dosage-is-the-key-factor-of-its-effect-in-biological-systems",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The applications of ozone are not only restricted to environmental remediation or industrial areas. This gas has been applied in medicine to treat several diseases, where positive effects have been confirmed by many clinical studies. According to the European Medical Society of Ozone and the National Center of Scientific Investigation in Cuba, it has not been possible to validate ozone’s effectiveness by traditional analytical methods. Thus, this investigation proposed evaluating the effect that ozone has on biological substrates (murine models with induced carcinogenic tumors, inflammation, and wounds), studying the variations that ozone (dissolved in physiological solution or ozonated vegetable oils) provokes over the total unsaturation of lipids (TUL), and by using the so-called method double bond index (DB-index), make a correlation with the dynamic reactions obtained by several analytical methods according to each experimental stage considered in this study.",book:{id:"6255",slug:"ozone-in-nature-and-practice",title:"Ozone in Nature and Practice",fullTitle:"Ozone in Nature and Practice"},signatures:"Tatyana Poznyak, Pamela Guerra Blanco, Arizbeth Pérez Martínez,\nIsaac Chairez Oria and Clara-L. 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It is widely distributed in nature with an average concentration of 10.5 ppm Th in the upper earth’s crust. In general, thorium occurs in relatively small number in Th-enriched minerals: thorite, thorianite, monazite, bastnaesite, and thorogummite. However, the main world resources of thorium are coupled with monazite and bastnaesite. Monazite-enriched placer deposits occurring mainly in India, Brazil, Australia, and the USA form the recently available resources of thorium. Other commercially interested concentrations of thorium are coupled with bastnaesite mined from carbonatite deposits, especially from Bayan Obo deposit in China. Currently, the worldwide thorium resources by major deposit types are estimated to total about 6.2 million tons of Th. Issues associated with thorium’s natural radioactivity are a significant deterrent to its commercial use. The monazite concentrates are recently produced only in India, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam, with a total amount of about 7000 tons. Consequently, experimental nuclear reactors based on thorium fuel cycle are operated recently only in India. In the long term, consumption of thorium could increase substantially if its use as a nuclear fuel becomes commercialized.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Miloš René",authors:[{id:"142108",title:"Dr.",name:"Miloš",middleName:null,surname:"René",slug:"milos-rene",fullName:"Miloš René"}]},{id:"57176",title:"Hydroxyapatite-Based Coating on Biomedical Implant",slug:"hydroxyapatite-based-coating-on-biomedical-implant",totalDownloads:1965,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The use of metallic biomaterials for replacement of biomedical implants has been traced back from the nineteenth century. These metallic biomaterials have been declared as clinical success as their mechanical properties that satisfy the prerequisite of the human bone. Nevertheless, critical issues of the materials when they are utilised as implants; including the releasing toxic and harmful metal ions through wear and corrosion processes after longer implantation. Besides that, the bonding strength between bone and implants itself is considered weak due to the different components of human bone and metal implants. Hence, developing hydroxyapatite (HAp) coating on metallic biomaterials is expected to overcome the problems faced by biocompatible metallic biomaterials. As far as this, various commercial techniques have been introduced to develop the HAp coating on metallic biomaterials. The techniques are including plasma-spraying method, sol-gel dip-coating, electrochemical deposition and high-velocity suspension plasma-spraying. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. 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He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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