Bulk chemical composition and loss on ignition of CFAs worldwide.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6150",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Flight Physics - Models, Techniques and Technologies",title:"Flight Physics",subtitle:"Models, Techniques and Technologies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book focuses on the synthesis of the fundamental disciplines and practical applications involved in the investigation, description, and analysis of aircraft flight including applied aerodynamics, aircraft propulsion, flight performance, stability, and control. The book covers the aerodynamic models that describe the forces and moments on maneuvering aircraft and provides an overview of the concepts and methods used in flight dynamics. Computational methods are widely used by the practicing aerodynamicist, and the book covers computational fluid dynamics techniques used to improve understanding of the physical models that underlie computational methods.",isbn:"978-953-51-3808-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3807-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4047-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68297",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"flight-physics-models-techniques-and-technologies",numberOfPages:240,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fa5828a4ee518adf719c68c1e533f3b7",bookSignature:"Konstantin Volkov",publishedDate:"February 14th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6150.jpg",numberOfDownloads:25976,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:61,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 14th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 4th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"118184",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volkov",slug:"konstantin-volkov",fullName:"Konstantin Volkov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/118184/images/system/118184.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Volkov is a senior lecturer in Thermofluids at Kingston University (London, UK). He holds a Ph.D. in fluid mechanics. After completing his Ph.D., Dr. Volkov worked at the Baltic State Technical University (Russia), University of Central Lancashire (UK), University of Surrey (UK). His areas of expertise cover multidisciplinary areas: from design and optimization of energy systems to fundamental problems focused on modeling and simulation of turbulent multiphase flows. He is a Chartered Engineer and member of the Institute of Physics, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and Combustion Institute in the UK. He is the author of more than 120 scientific papers and a member of the editorial board and the scientific committee of a number of journals and conferences.",institutionString:"Kingston University London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Kingston University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"683",title:"Aeronautics",slug:"aeronautics"}],chapters:[{id:"58784",title:"Learning from Nature: Unsteady Flow Physics in Bioinspired Flapping Flight",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73091",slug:"learning-from-nature-unsteady-flow-physics-in-bioinspired-flapping-flight",totalDownloads:1986,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are few studies on wing flexibility and the associated aerodynamic performance of insect wings during free flight, which are potential candidates for developing bioinspired microaerial vehicles (MAVs). To this end, this chapter aims at understanding wing deformation and motions of insects through a combined experimental and computational approach. Two sets of techniques are currently being developed to make this integration possible: first, data acquisition through the use of high-speed photogrammetry and accurate data reconstruction to quantify the wing and body motions in free flight with great detail and second, direct numerical simulation (DNS) for force measurements and visualization of vortex structures. Unlike most previous studies that focus on the near-field vortex formation mechanisms of a single rigid flapping wing, this chapter presents freely flying insects with full-field vortex structures and associated unsteady aerodynamics at low Reynolds numbers. Our chapter is expected to lead to valuable insights into the underlying physics about flow mechanisms of low Reynolds number flight in nature, which will have great significance to flapping-wing MAV design and optimization research in the future.",signatures:"Haibo Dong, Ayodeji T. Bode-Oke and Chengyu Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58784",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58784",authors:[{id:"208608",title:"Dr.",name:"Haibo",surname:"Dong",slug:"haibo-dong",fullName:"Haibo Dong"},{id:"222158",title:"MSc.",name:"Ayodeji",surname:"Bode-Oke",slug:"ayodeji-bode-oke",fullName:"Ayodeji Bode-Oke"},{id:"222159",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengyu",surname:"Li",slug:"chengyu-li",fullName:"Chengyu Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"57483",title:"Helicopter Flight Physics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71516",slug:"helicopter-flight-physics",totalDownloads:8169,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter is dedicated to present the principles that constitute the fundamentals of helicopter flight physics, starting from the basics of the main rotor aerodynamics and of the component parts related to flight control. The chapter opens with a short history of helicopter development, taking the date of 13th November 1907 for a reference point; this is the date when the first helicopter flight occurred, having the French man, Paul Cornu, for a pilot. The main constructive solutions for helicopters are presented and the basic equations of fluid mechanics are applied on a helicopter model with one main rotor and tail rotor. Helicopter hovering, vertical flight, and forward flight are approached, too, one by one. Furthermore, the ground effect, autorotation, stability, and helicopter control are focused on. At the end of the chapter, the main factors that determine the helicopter performances are mentioned.",signatures:"Constantin Rotaru and Michael Todorov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57483",authors:[{id:"206857",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Rotaru",slug:"constantin-rotaru",fullName:"Constantin Rotaru"},{id:"209010",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Todorov",slug:"michael-todorov",fullName:"Michael Todorov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57517",title:"Flight Dynamic Modelling and Simulation of Large Flexible Aircraft",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71050",slug:"flight-dynamic-modelling-and-simulation-of-large-flexible-aircraft",totalDownloads:2707,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The drive for aircraft efficiency and minimum environmental impact is requiring the aerospace industry to generate technologically innovative and highly integrated aircraft concepts. This has changed the approach towards conceptual design and highlighted the need for modular low fidelity aircraft simulation models that not only capture conventional flight dynamics but also provide insight into aeroservoelasticity and flight loads. The key aspects that drive the need for modularity are discussed alongside integration aspects related to coupling aerodynamic models, flight dynamic equations of motion and structural dynamic models. The details of developing such a simulation framework are presented and the utility of such a tool is illustrated through two test cases. The first case focuses on aircraft response to a gust that has a spanwise varying profile. The second investigates aircraft dynamics during control surface failure scenarios. The Cranfield Accelerated Aeroplane Loads Model (CA2LM) forms the basis of the presented discussion.",signatures:"Gaétan Dussart, Vilius Portapas, Alessandro Pontillo and Mudassir\nLone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57517",authors:[{id:"206753",title:"Dr.",name:"Mudassir",surname:"Lone",slug:"mudassir-lone",fullName:"Mudassir Lone"},{id:"206955",title:"Mr.",name:"Vilius",surname:"Portapas",slug:"vilius-portapas",fullName:"Vilius Portapas"},{id:"220349",title:"Mr.",name:"Gaetan",surname:"Dussart",slug:"gaetan-dussart",fullName:"Gaetan Dussart"},{id:"220350",title:"Mr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Pontillo",slug:"alessandro-pontillo",fullName:"Alessandro Pontillo"}],corrections:null},{id:"56528",title:"Aerodynamic Characteristics and Longitudinal Stability of Tube Launched Tandem-Scheme UAV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70228",slug:"aerodynamic-characteristics-and-longitudinal-stability-of-tube-launched-tandem-scheme-uav",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tube launched unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are often implemented with aerodynamic scheme with forward and rear wings (so-called tandem-scheme). Specificity of such UAV is that immediately after launch, they have a flight path in which wings are turned from position along the fuselage to flight position in which sweep angles are about zero. UAV aerodynamic characteristics for different wing rotation angles were researched by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods (Ansys 16 software). Quantitative results prove that UAV is unstable with wings rotation angles up to 60° because rear wings produce lift ahead of center of gravity. Therefore, low time of wings unfolding is required. For high angles of wings rotation (low sweep angles), UAV model is stable in a wide range of angles of attack. Local aerodynamic defects were found in the area of the rotation units of both wings. Longitudinal vortex along the left side of fuselage was observed, but it does not result in significant roll moment. Further research might include UAV dynamics modelling based on calculated aerodynamics characteristics or flight tests.",signatures:"Illia S. Kryvokhatko and Oleksandr M. Masko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56528",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56528",authors:[{id:"207157",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Illia",surname:"Kryvokhatko",slug:"illia-kryvokhatko",fullName:"Illia Kryvokhatko"},{id:"208137",title:"Mr.",name:"Oleksandr",surname:"Masko",slug:"oleksandr-masko",fullName:"Oleksandr Masko"}],corrections:null},{id:"57229",title:"Airfoil Boundary Layer Optimization Toward Aerodynamic Efficiency of Wind Turbines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70895",slug:"airfoil-boundary-layer-optimization-toward-aerodynamic-efficiency-of-wind-turbines",totalDownloads:1473,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the method of airfoil optimization considering boundary layer for aerodynamic efficiency increment. The advantages of laminar boundary layer expansion in airfoil of horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) blades are presented as well. The genetic algorithm (GA) optimization interfaced with the flow solver XFOIL was used with multi-objective function. The power performance of turbine with optimized airfoil was calculated by using blade element method (BEM) in software QBlade. The CFD simulation from OpenFOAM® with Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model showed the visualized airflow. The optimized airfoil shows enlarged laminar boundary layer region in all flow regime with a higher aerodynamic efficiency and the increased gliding ratio (GR). The power velocity and annual energy production (AEP) curves show the performance improvement of wind turbine with the optimized airfoil. The boundary layer thickness and skin-friction coefficient values support the decreased drag of the optimized airfoil. The smaller laminar separation bubbles and reduced stall regime of CFD simulations illustrate the desirable aerodynamics of the resulted airfoil.",signatures:"Youjin Kim, Ali Al-Abadi and Antonio Delgado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57229",authors:[{id:"208318",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Youjin",surname:"Kim",slug:"youjin-kim",fullName:"Youjin Kim"},{id:"208320",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Abadi",slug:"ali-al-abadi",fullName:"Ali Al-Abadi"},{id:"208321",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Delgado",slug:"antonio-delgado",fullName:"Antonio Delgado"}],corrections:null},{id:"57091",title:"LES of Unsteady Aerodynamic Forces on a Long-Span Curved Roof",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70880",slug:"les-of-unsteady-aerodynamic-forces-on-a-long-span-curved-roof",totalDownloads:1474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present paper discusses the unsteady aerodynamic forces on long-span curved roofs by using large eddy simulation (LES). The forced vibration test in a turbulent boundary layer is simulated. The models are force vibrated in the first anti-symmetric mode to investigate the influences of a roof’s vibration on the wind pressure and flow field around a vibrating roof. The characteristics of unsteady aerodynamic forces in a wider range of reduced frequency of vibration are also investigated. A comparison between the wind tunnel experiment and the LES indicates that the LES can be used effectively to evaluate the unsteady aerodynamic force.",signatures:"Wei Ding",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57091",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57091",authors:[{id:"214111",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Ding",slug:"wei-ding",fullName:"Wei Ding"}],corrections:null},{id:"57441",title:"Wake Topology and Aerodynamic Performance of Heaving Wings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71517",slug:"wake-topology-and-aerodynamic-performance-of-heaving-wings",totalDownloads:1371,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Simulating the three-dimensional flow features generated by heaving wings constitutes a great challenge due to the computational effort required to compute the complex three-dimensional flow produced as a function of the kinematics parameters, wing geometry, and Reynolds number. Hereafter, we study the wake topology generated by oscillating rigid wings and the validity of the Strouhal number as the fundamental parameters used to assess the aerodynamic performance of heaving wings. The unsteady laminar incompressible Navier-Stokes equations are solved on moving overlapping structured grids using a second-order accurate in space and time finite-difference numerical method. The numerical simulations are performed at a Reynolds number of Re = 250 and at different values of Strouhal number and heaving frequency.",signatures:"Joel E. Guerrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57441",authors:[{id:"61098",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel",surname:"Guerrero",slug:"joel-guerrero",fullName:"Joel Guerrero"}],corrections:null},{id:"56629",title:"Aeroelastic Stability of Turboprop Aircraft: Whirl Flutter",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70171",slug:"aeroelastic-stability-of-turboprop-aircraft-whirl-flutter",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is focused on a specific type of dynamic aeroelastic stability phenomenon—whirl flutter. Whirl flutter is caused by the effect of rotating parts of a turboprop power plant (propeller and, gas turbine engine rotor). The chapter presents fundamental facts regarding the whirl flutter phenomenon, including a historical overview and information regarding the occurrence of whirl flutter in aerospace practice. After that, the physical principles of whirl flutter are explained using a simple mechanical system with two degrees of freedom. Next, an analytical solution to determine the aerodynamic forces caused by the gyroscopic motion on each of the propeller blades is provided and the influences of the main structural parameters on the whirl flutter stability are discussed. The second, practical part is focused on the experimental research of the whirl flutter phenomenon and on the certification-related issues. The methodology of certification according to the FAR/CS 23 regulation standard is demonstrated on the example of a twin wing mounted tractor engine commuter aircraft.",signatures:"Jiří Čečrdle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56629",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56629",authors:[{id:"207285",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",surname:"Cecrdle",slug:"jiri-cecrdle",fullName:"Jiri Cecrdle"}],corrections:null},{id:"58577",title:"Goal- and Object-Oriented Models of the Aerodynamic Coefficients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71419",slug:"goal-and-object-oriented-models-of-the-aerodynamic-coefficients",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, aeronautics discovers new ways of flights near the critical regimes, unconventional aircraft forms, utilizing the micro–electro-mechanical technologies in flow and aircraft control, adaptive and morphing structures, using the structures and controls based on the biological principles, developing highly flexible structures, etc. Before deployment, these new technologies and solutions must be evaluated, tested in wide aerodynamic, flight dynamic simulations that require improved and new type of aerodynamic coefficient models. The chapter overviews the applicable models of the aerodynamic coefficients, introduces some new models and demonstrates how the different models can be applied in different goal- and object-oriented solutions. The following will be shortly explained: (i) how the aerodynamic forces and moments are generating, (ii) how the linear, nonlinear, steady, and nonsteady aerodynamic coefficient structures and forms might be modeled, and (iii) how to harmonize the model with the goal and object of investigations.",signatures:"Jozsef Rohacs",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58577",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58577",authors:[{id:"208115",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozsef",surname:"Rohacs",slug:"jozsef-rohacs",fullName:"Jozsef Rohacs"}],corrections:null},{id:"56231",title:"The Effects of Storage on Turbine Engine Fuels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69897",slug:"the-effects-of-storage-on-turbine-engine-fuels",totalDownloads:1653,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern aviation requires reliable and safe sources of fuel which means fuel is frequently stored for extended periods. In addition, as fuel is used, new fuel is added which is not always compatible with the fuel in the tank. The incompatibility and long-term storage leads to a number of problems that will be addressed in this chapter. Some of the possible changes over time include formation of biofilms, deposit formation, water incorporation and additive depletion. The chemistry and biochemistry of each of these areas will be discussed along with how they might be prevented. New areas of research on low temperature oxidation of trace fuel components and the prevention of bacterial growth will be presented. Other problems are related to the reaction of trace components in the fuel which can lead to oxidation and deposit formation. Trace components also vary based on fuel source and lead to problems in compatibility of different fuels. In addition some of the reactions of fuel additives will be discussed.",signatures:"David W. Johnson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56231",authors:[{id:"178441",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"}],corrections:null},{id:"57125",title:"12-Pulse Active Rectifier for More Electric Aircraft Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70882",slug:"12-pulse-active-rectifier-for-more-electric-aircraft-applications",totalDownloads:1643,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Aircraft industry is moving very quickly towards what it known as More Electric Aircraft (MEA). In a modern aircraft power technology system instead of using a fixed 400 Hz supply, a variable frequency supply (360 to 800 Hz) is used, which is dependent on the aircraft speed. In MEA electrical energy feeds the aircraft subsystems such as the flight control actuation, environmental control system, and utility function instead of mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic energy. Although the new technology of MEA goes towards variable frequency supply, one of the essential parts of the power distribution systems require DC power sources to feed different DC loads, and a portion of load may require a fixed 400 Hz supply. 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In recent decades, we have witnessed more and more stories about energy, energy efficiency, fossil fuels reserves, and alternative energy sources. The dependence of the world on the fossil fuels is a topic of discussion by many scientists, researchers, and environmental activists worldwide. Biodiesel, as a biofuel, with numerous advantages (biodegradability, lower content of CO2, SO2, and hydrocarbons during combustion, high flash point, high lubricant properties, and high octane number) is a serious competitor to fossil diesel [1, 2]. Also, very important is the fact that biodiesel obtained in accordance to standard does not require modification of existing diesel engine [3]. Modern science and chemical technology know the following concepts of biodiesel production: base-catalyzed transesterification (homogeneous or heterogeneous), acid-catalyzed esterification and transesterification [4, 5, 6, 7], biodiesel synthesis catalyzed by bifunctional heterogeneous solid catalysts [8, 9, 10], enzyme-catalyzed transesterification [11, 12, 13], deoxygenation [14, 15], and supercritical methanolysis [16, 17]. In order to intensify biodiesel production, existing processes are modified in terms of treatment of reaction mixture by ultrasound [18, 19, 20] and microwave [21, 22, 23]. However, the modern concept of biodiesel production is focused on synthesis of the new catalytic systems, use of different triacylglycerol (TAG) feedstock, and improved batch and continuous reactor systems. Also, it is very important that nowadays investigations are based on the concept of low-cost production, i.e. that waste materials from various production processes are basis for catalysts, and waste feedstock as the main source of TAG.
The numerous disadvantages of homogenous base and acid catalysts, such as soap formation, catalyst recovery, high corrosion, and inhibition by water [1, 24] can be replaced using heterogeneous catalysts such as alkaline [25] and alkaline earth metal oxides [2, 26, 27], mixed oxides [28, 29, 30], modified layered double hydroxides [31, 32, 33, 34], zeolites [35, 36, 37], sulfonated solids [38], ion exchange resins [39, 40, 41], supported heteropolyacids [42, 43], etc. In order to design new catalysts based on the modern concept of environmental protection, greatest attention of many scientists is directed at investigation of different waste materials (fly ash from coal-fired power stations (CFPSs), biomass fly ash, agricultural and animal waste, industrial waste reach in calcium such as mud and slug, and natural sources) for potential catalyst synthesis, which can often be very dangerous and leave a lasting impact on the environment. Using such materials has double benefit. The environmental and financial problems of disposal of hazardous materials can be solved, while such material can be used as a catalyst for biofuel production.
A particular challenge in the production of biofuels, primarily biodiesel, is the adaptation of the aforementioned catalytic systems in biodiesel production from waste TAG feedstock (non-edible oil, waste frying oil, and oil with high free fatty acid content), and also from TAG from sources (microalgae) related with the modern generation of biodiesel.
This review will be focused on the valorization of coal fly ash as a waste material in order to synthesize catalyst support or catalyst for biodiesel production using various modification techniques such as alkali activation, hydrothermal and thermal treatment, impregnation, and ion exchange.
Coal is a solid fossil fuel derived from fossilized plant matter by the process of coalification. As a geological process, over millions of years under suitable conditions (high pressure and temperature), coalification starts with dead plant matter firstly decaying into peat, and then converted into lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, and finally anthracite coals.
The classification into four main ranks, or types, namely lignite (lowest rank of coal), sub-bituminous, bituminous, and anthracite (highest rank of coal), is based on the content of carbon as primary coal constituent. Coal is a complex organic–inorganic system composed of mostly organic matter (non-crystalline carbon compounds) associated with petrographic maceral components, and, to a lesser extent, of inorganic matter. The inorganic constituents in coal include mineral (crystalline) matter, glassy (amorphous) matter and gas–liquid inclusions (fluid) matter [44]. The elements present in the coal are classified into three groups depending on their concentration: (1) major elements (>0.1%): C, H, O, N, S; (2) minor elements (0.01-0.1%): Si, Al, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn, Ti (ash-forming elements), and occasionally Ba, Sr, P, and halogens (F, Cl, Br, I); (3) trace elements (<0.01%): As, B, Cd, Hg, Mo, Pb, which are considered hazardous pollutants [45].
Coal is the second most important fossil fuel resource for energy production, covering around 30% of global primary energy consumption [46]. The world currently consumes over 7.7 billion tons of coal which are used primarily in coal combustion processes for power generation. Bituminous, sub-bituminous and lignite are the principal energy resources in power generation with 40% of globally generated power [47]. It is reported [48] that total proved reserves at the end of 2018 were 1.055 trillion tons, enough to last about 137 years at the current rates of consumption. Nowadays, coal is simultaneously the fossil fuel with the highest carbon content (anthracite: 90–95% C, bituminous: 76–90% C, sub-bituminous: 72–76% C, lignite: 65–72% C) per unit of energy and the fossil fuel with the most abundant resources in the world.
As the most abundant low-cost energy resource, coal has various applications in many commercial processes, including power generation, iron and steel production, cement manufacturing, and production of liquid fuels. The most common and important use of coal is thermal (steam) coal utilization by pulverized coal combustion for the production of electricity and heat in CFPSs. However, coal utilization technologies generate considerable amounts of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) due to the higher carbon content of coal, pollutants (NOx, SOx), and solid particulates [49]. Therefore, the utilization of thermal coal without or with reduced CO2 emissions is a major technological challenge [50]. Accordingly, to obtain future benefits from enormous low-cost coal reserves, various efforts are necessary in order to avoid environmental risks. The promising technological solutions are clean coal technologies: cleaner and more efficient technologies for coal combustion, including supercritical coal plants, more efficient industrial boilers, fluidized bed combustion, as well as coal gasification, and various “end-of-pipe” pollution abatement technologies for CO2 capture and storage [51].
Coal ash, an industrial solid waste, is generated from pulverized coal combustion during electricity production in CFPSs. Over 70% of coal combustion residues (fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slug, and solid flue-gas desulfurization residues) contain CFA, captured by electrostatic precipitators (particulate collection equipment of flue emissions) [52], and bottom ash from the hoppers under the economizers and air preheaters of large pulverized coal boilers [53]. CFA is the most massive lightweight ash particulates, ranging from 0.5 to 300 μm dominantly spherical in shape-solid or hollow (cenospheres) [54, 55]. The major parameters affecting the characteristics of CFAs are phase-mineral and chemical composition of parent coal and coal combustion conditions in pulverized CFPSs (boiler temperature and its configuration, particulate control equipment, and size of feed coal) [56]. CFAs are a complex inorganic–organic mixture (316 individual minerals and 188 mineral groups are found in coals and CFAs) and as such complicated for identification and characterization of their constituents [57]. CFAs are a complex system with the unique, multicomponent, heterogeneous and variable composition of their inorganic, organic, and fluid constituents.
The principal CFAs inorganic components (90–99%) are silicon dioxide (SiO2) both amorphous and crystalline, aluminum oxide (Al2O3), ferric oxide (Fe2O3), and calcium oxide (CaO), the main mineral constituents of coal-bearing rock strata (coal seams) [58]. CFAs are also composed of variable amounts of some rare earth elements (Ce, Gd, La, Nd, and Sm) [59], and trace elements (e.g. As, Se, Cd, and Cr) originating from a parent coal that make it potentially toxic [60] (Section 2.1). The bulk chemical composition and loss on ignition of CFAs (expressed as oxides) collected from various countries is shown in Table 1.
Chemical composition and loss on ignition (%) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiO2 | Al2O3 | CaO | Fe2O3 | K2O | MgO | TiO2 | Na2O | LOI | Ref. | |
Australia | 31.1–68.6 | 17–33 | 0.1–5.3 | 1–27.1 | 0.1–2.9 | 0–2 | 1.2–3.7 | 1.2–3.7 | na | [56] |
Bulgaria | 30.1–57.4 | 12.5–25.4 | 1.5–28.9 | 5.1–21.2 | 0.8–2.8 | 1.1–2.9 | 0.6–1 | 0.4–1.9 | 0.8–32.8 | [61] |
Canada | 35.5–62.1 | 12.5–23.2 | 1.2–13.3 | 3–44.7 | 0.5–3.2 | 0.4–3.1 | 0.4–1 | 0.1–7.3 | 0.3–9.7 | [62] |
China | 35.6–57.2 | 18.8–55 | 1.1–7 | 2.3–19.3 | 0.8–0.9 | 0.7–4.8 | 0.2–0.7 | 0.6–1.3 | na | [56] |
Europe | 28.5–59.7 | 12.5–35.6 | 0.5–28.9 | 2.6–21.2 | 0.4–4 | 0.6–3.8 | 0.5–2.6 | 0.1–1.9 | 0.8–32.8 | [56] |
France | 47–51 | 26–34 | 2.3–3.3 | 6.9–9.8 | na | 1.5–2.2 | na | 2.3–6.4 | 0.5–4.5 | [63] |
Germany | 20–80 | 1–19 | 2–52 | 1–22 | 0–2 | 0.5–11 | 0.1–1 | 0–2 | 0–5 | [64] |
India | 50.2–59.7 | 14–32.4 | 0.6–9 | 2.7–16.6 | 0.2–4.7 | 0.1–2.3 | 0.3–2.7 | 0.2–1.2 | 0.5–7.2 | [56] |
Italy | 41.7–54 | 25.9–33.4 | 2–10 | 3–8.8 | 0–2.6 | 0–2.4 | 1–2.6 | 0–1 | 1.9–9 | [61] |
Japan | 53.9–63 | 18.2–26.4 | 2–8.1 | 4.2–5.7 | 0.6–2.7 | 0.9–2.4 | 0.8–1.2 | 1.1–2.1 | 0.5–2.1 | [65] |
Korea | 50–55.7 | 24.7–28.7 | 2.6–6.2 | 3.7–7.7 | 1.1 | 0.7–1.1 | na | na | 4.3–4.7 | [66] |
Poland | 32.2–53.3 | 4–32.2 | 1.2–29.9 | 4.5–8.9 | 0.2–3.3 | 1.2–5.9 | 0.6–2.2 | 0.2–1.5 | 0.5–28 | [67] |
Russia | 40.5–48.6 | 23.2–25.9 | 6.9–13.2 | na | 1.9–2.6 | 2.6–4 | 0.5–0.6 | 1.2–1.5 | na | [68] |
Serbia | 53.5–59.7 | 17.4–21 | 5.8–8.7 | 6–10.5 | 0.6–1.2 | 2–2.7 | 0.5–0.6 | 0.4–0.5 | 1.8–4.9 | [69] |
S. Africa | 46.3–67 | 21.3–27 | 6.4–9.8 | 2.4–4.7 | 0.5–1 | 1.9–2.7 | 1.2–1.6 | 0–1.3 | na | [70] |
Spain | 41.5–58.6 | 17.6–45.4 | 0.3–11.8 | 2.6–16.2 | 0.2–4 | 0.3–3.2 | 0.5–1.8 | 0–1.1 | 1.1–9.7 | [71] |
Turkey | 37.9–57 | 20.5–24.3 | 0.2–27.9 | 4.1–10.6 | 0.4–3.5 | 1–3.2 | 0.6–1.5 | 0.1–0.6 | 0.4–2.7 | [72] |
USA | 34.9–58.5 | 19.1–28.6 | 0.7–22.4 | 3.2–25.5 | 0.9–2.9 | 0.5–4.8 | 1–1.6 | 0.2–1.8 | 0.2–20.5 | [56] |
Min | 20.0 | 1.0 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0 | |
Max | 80.0 | 55.0 | 52.0 | 44.7 | 4.7 | 11.0 | 3.7 | 7.3 | 32.8 |
Bulk chemical composition and loss on ignition of CFAs worldwide.
na = not available, LOI = loss on ignition—measure for unburned carbon.
CFAs have a bulk chemical composition containing various metal oxides in the order: SiO2 > Al2O3 > CaO > Fe2O3 > MgO > Na2O > K2O > TiO2 (Table 1). The bulk chemical composition suggests that the CFAs are aluminosilicate with higher concentration of calcium oxide than ferric oxide.
Table 2 shows the content of rare earth elements (REEs) in different countries. It is noticeable that content of some elements varies from region to region. The most abundant REEs are cerium, lanthanum, and yttrium. REEs play an important role in many areas from household products to materials used in high technologies due to their adequate properties (luminescent and magnetic). The major industries that use REEs are catalysis, metallurgy, ceramics and polishing industry. On the other hand, the wide application is focused on catalysts, high technology products, health care devices, and rechargeable batteries [55].
Rare earth elements content (ppm) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
La | Ce | Sm | Eu | Dy | Ho | Er | Y | Pr | Ref. | |
Austria | 31.0 | 78.0 | 13.0 | 3.1 | 15.0 | 2.9 | 8.3 | — | 10.0 | [73] |
Bulgaria | 37.7–40.2 | 82.4–87.6 | 7.0–7.6 | 1.6–1.8 | 5.4–5.8 | 1.1–1.2 | 2.9–3.3 | 30.7–35.1 | 9.3–9.8 | [74] |
Canada | 25.0–95.0 | 43.2–173.0 | 4.4–14.2 | 1.1–4.2 | 3.7–19.5 | 1.0–2.7 | 2.0–7.0 | — | 5.1–18.1 | [75] |
China | 79.6–81.5 | 191.3–195.1 | 17.0–17.7 | 3.2–3.4 | 13.2–13.9 | 2.5–2.6 | 7.0–7.4 | 64.5–66.0 | 21.9–23.4 | [76] |
Croatia | 13.0 | 27.9 | 2.3 | 0.43 | 2.2 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 13.3 | 3.3 | [77] |
Greece | 22.1 | 55.9 | 6.9 | 1.6 | 6.3 | 1.11 | 3.3 | 33.2 | 11.9 | [78] |
India | 50–88.7 | 100–200 | 3.5–9.8 | 1.8–3.5 | 5.3–7.3 | 2.1–2.3 | 4.0–4.6 | 30–40 | 14.3–48 | [59] |
Japan | 148 | 310 | 17.4 | 5.1 | — | — | — | — | — | [79] |
Korea | 9.6–86.5 | 16.1–115 | 1.6–12.6 | 0.5–2.5 | 1.5–10.6 | 0.3–2.2 | 0.9–6.2 | 9.2–60.5 | 2.3–18.9 | [80] |
Poland | 15.5–81.7 | 30.7–172.5 | 2.8–17.0 | 0.6–3.8 | 2.6–12.2 | 0.6–2.6 | 1.8–5.0 | 17.9–73.8 | 3.3–14.7 | [65] |
Russia | 33.6–114.3 | 71.0–203.8 | 11.7–45.3 | 2.7–9.3 | — | — | — | 70.0–330.0 | — | [81] |
S. Africa | 85.4 | 141.0 | 10.6 | 1.8 | 8.6 | 1.7 | 4.9 | 42.1 | 17.3 | [82] |
Spain | 21.0–42.0 | 64.7–113 | 19.9–22.9 | 4.9–6.3 | 16.4–25.1 | 2.8–4.5 | 7.6–11.4 | 95.0–126.0 | 9.9–15.3 | [83] |
Turkey | 36.0–41.0 | 72.0–85.0 | 6.1–7.2 | 1.6–1.8 | 5.4–5.8 | 1.1–1.2 | 2.9–3.3 | 30.7–35.1 | 9.3–9.8 | [74] |
USA | 64.6–86.9 | 137–190 | 15.0–19.0 | 3.3–4.2 | 14.3–18.3 | 2.7–3.3 | 8.1–9.9 | 72.5–85.7 | 16.9–22.3 | [84] |
Min | 9.6 | 16.1 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 9.2 | 2.3 | |
Max | 148.0 | 310.0 | 45.3 | 6.3 | 18.3 | 4.5 | 9.9 | 330.0 | 48.0 |
Rare earth elements content of CFAs in different countries.
The content of toxic elements in CFAs is shown in Table 3. These elements present serious problem, causing air, soil and water pollution. From the data presented, it can be seen that in some ashes (Table 3) the content of some toxic element is very high. For example, the content of the arsenic in some ashes is even 0.2%. That is the exact reason such material should be utilized in order to avoid negative impact on environment and human health.
Toxic elements content (ppm) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Mn | Ni | Pb | V | Zn | Ref. | |
Brazil | 127–1915 | 11–33 | — | 74–181 | 31–88 | 219–714 | 48–95 | 66–627 | 207–293 | 434–2453 | [85] |
Bulgaria | 1–76 | 0–1 | 16–43 | 71–93 | 74–207 | 174–821 | 40–73 | 25–60 | 119–262 | 87–174 | [86] |
Canada | 17.5–52.0 | 0.5–1.9 | — | 31–101 | — | — | 30–41 | 32–84 | — | — | [87] |
China | — | 0–2.3 | — | 0–78 | 4–60 | 13–772 | 4–41 | 3–40 | 2.2–81.1 | 2.4–76.7 | [88] |
Croatia | — | 0.1–0.9 | — | 14–38 | 28–120 | — | — | 2–144 | 11.2–624 | 5.73–229 | [89] |
EU | 69 | — | 41 | 153 | 101 | — | 123 | 88 | 255 | 161 | [90] |
Greece | — | 0.2–0.9 | 10–60 | 127–1502 | 19–227 | 400–1700 | 85–1075 | 4–79 | 49–121 | 12.4–35.9 | [91] |
India | — | — | 9–18 | 54–103 | 40–83 | 47–182 | 26–63 | 10–56 | — | 29–124 | [92] |
Korea | 0.6–25.3 | 0–0.4 | 5–19 | 31–119 | 22–73 | — | 16–49 | 12–51 | — | 14.4–95.0 | [93] |
Poland | 10.2–50 | 0.1–2.7 | — | — | 13–73 | — | 20–72 | 3–101 | — | 11–210 | [65] |
Serbia | — | 0–1.1 | 6–26 | 12–63 | 10–29 | 200–1270 | 22–1148 | 7–70 | 30–123 | 25–208 | [94] |
Slovakia | — | 0.1–2.6 | — | 9.4–32 | 10–81 | — | 10–32 | 14–142 | — | 35–375 | [95] |
S. Africa | 16.6 | 0.16 | 5.45 | 73.0 | 18.8 | 148.10 | 14 | 24 | 104 | 20.03 | [96] |
Spain | 57–726 | <0.5 | 22–60 | 167–279 | 72–103 | 225–315 | 89–141 | 54–115 | 225–352 | 53–189 | [97] |
Turkey | — | <5 | 5–13 | 22–252 | 18–141 | — | 30–326 | 2–82 | — | 22–270 | [98] |
USA | — | — | — | 14–61 | 30–290 | — | 9–23 | 6–1600 | — | 163–1512 | [99] |
Min | 0.6 | 0 | 5.0 | 0.25 | 3.9 | 12.8 | 9.0 | 2.0 | 2 | 2.4 | |
Max | 1915 | 33 | 60.0 | 1501.8 | 290.0 | 1700.0 | 1075 | 627 | 624 | 375.0 |
Toxic elements content of CFAs in different countries.
CFAs are commonly categorized into two chemical types for their industrial applications, by name Class C and Class F. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTMs) classified CFAs as Class C and Class F on the basis of chemical composition and coal origination. According to the ASTM standard C618, Class F CFA has a combined SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 content of greater than 70% compared to greater than 50% for Class C CFA. Fly ash of Class F is regarded as a true pozzolanic material exhibiting cementitious properties [100]. Class C CFAs derived from lignite and sub-bituminous coals with a high CaO content of above 20% possesses self-cementitious properties. The pozzolanic (Class F CFA) and cementitious (Class C CFA) properties of CFAs may allow their use as a binding agent or as raw material to produce clinker, replacing cement in concrete manufacturing. Apart from ASTMs, the European body has devised standard EN 450-1 defining CFA as a fine powder containing mostly spherical, glassy particulates derived from burned pulverized coal, with or without co-combustion material, which has pozzolanic properties and consists essentially of SiO2 and Al2O3 [56]. Vassilev and Vassileva [101] have devised a new chemical classification system in accordance to the contents of ash-forming elements in CFAs using three composition-based criteria: (1) sum of Si, Al, K, and Ti oxides; (2) sum of Ca, Mg, S, and Na oxides; (3) ferric oxide [101]. This approach resulted in four chemical CFAs types, namely sialic, calsialic, ferrisialic, and ferricalsialic. Classifying CFAs in this way should simplify the choice of utilization for each unique CFAs composition.
The abundant availability and low price of coal, rising global energy demand, and the unsteadiness of alternative energy resources launched a growth in coal-based energy use, generating large amounts of CFAs. Increase in coal production to meet the growing demand for energy has resulted in an exponential increase in the generation of CFAs from 500 in 2005 to about 750 million tons in 2015 [54, 102]. Contrarily, global use of CFA for various applications is only lower part (about 25%) of the total production while the larger part (about 75%) is disposed or stored in different ways (landfills or lagoons) depending on the processes at CFPSs, and regulations the CFPSs have to follow. CFAs are harmful if released into the environment due to the presence of metal(loid)s, toxic substances and organic pollutants [103]. The presence of toxic waste contaminants in the ash requires it to be stored appropriately. It is known that otherwise landfills can decay, causing many environmental concerns and serious troubles to local communities [104]. In the view of the imminent strict disposal restriction, the disappearing availability of landfill space and the increasing cost of disposal, demands the need for economical and green CFAs utilization technologies. Therefore, maximizing the valorization of CFA into valuable products, rather than of its storage and disposal, is the optimal solution to preserve the environment and open new economic opportunities [105]. The utilization of CFA as an industrial waste residue or by-product has received a great deal of attention over the past two decades, as more sustainable solutions to waste problems have been searched for. However, it must be emphasized that extending the CFAs utilization to various valuable products in the future, imposes the necessity of detoxifying CFA and converting extracted toxins into valuable materials to create conditions for safe conversion into new products. Contrarily, the direct utilization of CFAs leads to hazardous effects on the environment. CFAs as a pozzolanic material has been prevalently employed in manufacturing cement either as a raw material or as a supplement to save its consumption [106]. CFA has been used in different geotechnical applications such as grouting, asphalt filler, sub-grade stabilization, pavement base course, general engineering fill, structural fill, soil amendment, and infill [52]. Extensive research has been carried out for use of fly ash-based adsorbents in both gaseous and aqueous applications. CFA has been found to be effective for removing different metal ions [107, 108] and aqueous pollutants or gaseous pollutants [58] from wastewaters. Currently, application of CFAs in wastewаter treatment (WWT) is brоad but still inаdеquate. CFAs have tremendous potential for WWT. The utilization of CFAs in water treatment in the near future is quitе prоmising [109]. In the last few years, CFA usage as a cheap source of aluminosilicate has attracted scientists who have shown the successful transformation of this waste material into zeolites [110]. These synthetic fly ash-based zeolites are synthesized by various chemical processes (hydrothermal, alkaline fusion-assisted hydrothermal process, multi-step treatment method, microwave irradiation and sonication approach) resulting in a more uniform and cleaner state than natural types in terms of their lattice structures, pore size, and cages in their aluminosilicate frameworks [111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116].
The type of zeolites formed is a function of several reaction parameters such as temperature, pressure, the concentration of the reagent solutions, pH, process of activation and aging period, SiO2 and Al2O3 contents of the CFAs. Zeolite of type A, X, Y, P, and Na-P1 are well known synthetic zeolites synthesized from CFA which have a wider range of industrial applications than their natural counterparts. The utilization of fly ash-based zeolites not only brings more revenue for CFPSs but also reduces the costs associated with the disposal of coal ashes.
The use of CFA in catalytic applications was examined for its potential to reduce the consumption of materials that have limited reserves or are expensive to produce. The application of CFA as a material to be used in heterogeneous catalysis has attracted much attention. Heterogeneous catalysis is attractive because it is often easier to recover catalysts upon completion of the reaction as compared to homogeneous catalysts. For heterogeneous catalysis, catаlytic materials cаn be supportеd on other materials; their activity depends on both the active component and its interaction with the support. Typically, catalyst supports include various metal oxides such as SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, and TiO2. Since the CFA consists primarily of SiO2 and Al2O3, CFAs offer desirable properties such as thermal stability for use as a support. Also, CFAs are often used as the catalytically active component.
In order to obtain a suitable form of CFA, it can be modified by various techniques using different synthesis conditions presented in Table 4.
Catalyst type | Catalyst synthesis | CFA and catalyst characteristics | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
(A-CFA or B/CFA) | Method(s) | Conditions | Catalyst efficiency | |
CFA-derived sodalite zeolite | Hydrothermal | Activators: (a) NaOH (b) NaAlO2; Aging time (AT): 6 days; Temperature (T): 100°C; Time (t): 24 h | • Diffraction peaks: quartz (SiO2), mullite (3Al2O3·2SiO2), small amounts muscovite and sodalite (Na8Al6Si6O24Cl2) (XRD); rounded particles of sodalite agglomerates (SEM); mesoporous sodalite: N2 ads/des type IV isotherm; SBET: 9.7 m2/g | [117] |
High potential of zeolite sodalite as a low-price product to be used as a catalyst for biodiesel production on an industrial scale. | Soybean oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 4 wt%/95.5 wt% FAME | |||
CaO/CFA catalyst Impregnated CFA-based catalyst | Drying starting material | (a) Eggshell T: 105°C; t: 24 h (b) Fly ash T: 100 ± 5°C; t: 24 h | • Crystalline: α-quartz, hematite, mullite, calcium oxide (CaO), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4) (XRD); agglomerated structures of calcined metal oxides (SEM); mesoporous solid: N2 ads/des type III isotherm; SBET: 0.7 m2/g | [118] |
Impregnation (wet) | T: 70°C; t: 4 h; pH: 12.10; AT: 24 h | |||
Calcination | T: 1000°C; t: 2 h | |||
Effective waste valorization is procreated through the preparation of a novel low-cost catalyst for synthesis of fuel-grade biodiesel. | Soybean oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 1.0 wt%/96.97 wt% FAME | |||
MW modified | Alkali fusion | CFA:NaOH = 1:1.5; T: 600°C; t: 1.5 h; | • Amorphous glassy phase (untreated CFA), SiO2 and mullite (calcined CFA), new crystal phases NaAlO2, Na2SiO3 upon MW (XRD); OH- and SO42− supported on CFA upon MW (FTIR) | [23] |
Hydrothermal | 30 wt% Na2SO4; T: 60°C; t: 10 h | |||
Microwave (MW) | ||||
Calcination | T: 600°C; t: 1.5 h | |||
Modified coal fly ash catalyst improved biodiesel yields under the microwave irradiation system. | Waste cooking oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME 3.99 wt%/94.91 wt% FAME | |||
US modified | Alkali fusion | CFA:KOH = 1:1; T: 550°C; t: 2 h; | • Amorphous glassy phase (untreated CFA), SiO2 and Al6Si2O13 (calcined CFA), new crystal phases KAlO2, K2SiO3 upon US (XRD); OH- and NO3− supported on CFA upon ultrasound-assisted (FTIR) | [119] |
Hydrothermal | 30 wt% KNO3; T: 100°C; t: 6 h | |||
Ultrasound (US) | ||||
Calcination | T: 550°C; t: 2 h | |||
Experimental results showed that the modified coal fly ash catalyst could improve biodiesel yields under ultrasound assisting system. | Waste cooking oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 4.97 wt%/95.57 wt% FAME | |||
CFA-derived zeolite KX | CFA calcination | T: 850°C; t: 2 h | • Diffraction peaks: crystalline quartz and mullite (XRD); spherical CFA particles, CFA, octahedral crystals ion exchanged zeolite KX (FESEM); mesoporous zeolitic material: N2 ads/des type II isotherm; SBET: 735.8 m2/g | [120] |
CFA acidification | HCl; T: 80°C; t: 1.5 h; | |||
Alkali fusion | NaOH:CFA = 1:1–1:2; T: 400–600°C; t: 1 h; | |||
Hydrothermal | T: 90–120°C; t: 4–24 h | |||
Ion exchange | 1.0 M CH3COOK | |||
Calcination | T: 500 °C; t: 2 h | |||
The effective utilization of fly ash for zeolite KX synthesis and its use as a catalyst for transesterification would improve ecological balance and helps in value addition. | Soybean oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 3.0 wt%/81.2 wt% FAME | |||
Impregnated CFA-based catalyst | CFA drying Animal bones calcination | T: 105°C; t: overnight; T: 900°C; t: 2 h; | • CFA chemical composition (wt%): 56.6 SiO2, 23.2 Al2O3, 5.8 Fe2O3, and 7.9 CaO (AAS); overall crystalline phases: quartz, mullite (CFA), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4), hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH), β-tricalcium phosphate, and CaO (XRD); surface morphology: cenospheres (CFA), rod like crystalline particles (impregnated fly ash catalysts C10, C20, and C30) (SEM); basicity: 5.1–17.4 mmoles HCl/g; mesoporous solids: N2 ads/des type III isotherm; SBET (m2/g): 1.7 CFA, 100 CABP, 11.3 C10, 7.1 C20, 4.2 C30 | [121] |
Impregnation (wet) | T: 70°C; t: 4 h; L:S = 10: 1; pH:12.1; AT: 24 h | |||
Calcination | T: 900°C; t: 2 h | |||
Animal bones (calcium enriched waste materials) impregnated in fly ash might be a potential source of catalyst in biodiesel production. | Mustard oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 10 wt%/90.4 wt% FAME | |||
CFA-derived kaliophilite catalyst | Geopolymer synthesis | Alkali activator (KOH in potassium water glass); T: 80°C; t: 24 h | • Amorphous aluminosilicate, quartz and mullite crystals (CFBFA), amorphous geopolymer, and KAlSiO4 (as-synthesized kaliophilite catalyst) (XRD); irregular CFBFA particles (30 μm), dense structure (geopolymer), prismatic crystals (∼1 μm) (kaliophilite) (SEM); medium-strength basic sites (K-O ion pairs) and high strength basic sites (surface O2− ion) (TPD-CO2); mesoporous catalyst: N2 ads/des type IV isotherm; SBET: 3.49 (m2/g) | [122] |
Hydrothermal | Geopolymer monolith:50 ml KOH; T: 180°C; t: 24 h | |||
Drying kaliophilite | T: 105°C; t: 12 h | |||
Circulating fluidized bed fly ash (CFBFA) was used to synthesize kaliophilite catalyst via a facile and low-energy two-step process: fabrication of amorphous CFBFA geopolymer and hydrothermal transformation of CFBFA based geopolymer into kaliophilite. This catalyst affords three benefits: high value-added reutilization of CFBFA industrial by-products, low-energy synthesis of kaliophilite, and low-cost production of biodiesel. | Canola oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 5.0 wt%/99.2 wt% FAME | |||
FA-derived zeolite Na-X | Hydrothermal | — | • Low Si/Al ratio preferentially result in zeolite FA/Na-X (XRD); faujasite phase irregular crystals (unique morphology) (SEM); SBET (m2/g): 320 (FA/Na-X), 257 (FA/Na-X) | [116] |
Ion exchange | L:S = 10:1; 1.0 M CH3COOK; T: 60–70°C; t: 24 h | |||
Calcination | T: 500 °C; t: 2 h | |||
Fly ash transformed into a zeolite Na-X phase and exchanged with K proved to be suitable for use as a catalyst in biodiesel synthesis under less rigorous conditions. | Sunflower oil transesterification: Catalyst loading (FA/K-X)/FAME • 3 wt%/85.5 wt% FAME | |||
Impregnated CFA-based catalyst | Impregnation (wet) | KNO3 aq. stock; solution; L:S = 1:1; KNO3:FA = 1:1 | • Crystalline phases: α-quartz, hematite, mullite (CFA), KNO3 (KNO3/CFA catalyst) surface morphology: cenospheres (CFA), potassium impregnated fly ash spherical particles aggregates (>10 μm) (SEM); N2 ads/des type III isotherm; SBET: 0.55 (m2/g) | [123, 124] |
Calcination | T: 500–700°C; t: 5 h | |||
Fly ash loaded with KNO3 was used as a solid base catalyst in the transesterification of sunflower oil to methyl esters to make a meaningful utilization of fly ash. | Sunflower oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 5 wt%/87.5 wt% FAME | |||
CFA-derived K-Zeolite | CFA drying CFA calcination | T: 80°C; t: overnight; T: 900°C; t: 3 h; | • Main crystalline phases: hexagonal quartz (SiO2), orthorhombic mullite crystalline phase (3Al2O3·2SiO2) (CFA), K-Zeolite ≡ K-CHA zeolite (potassium type zeolite) (hydrothermally activated XRD pattern); prism-like crystals zeolite crystals (SEM micrographs); mesoporous solids: N2 ads/des type IV isotherm; SBET (m2/g): 2.1 coal fly ash, 24.7 K-Zeolite | [125] |
Hydrothermal | 5 M KOH (aq. stock solution); CFA:KOH = 1:4; T: 160°C; t: 8 h | |||
Drying product | T: 80°C; t: overnight | |||
Calcination | T: 450°C; t: 4 h | |||
The obtained K-Zeolite can be used in biodiesel industry. Utilization of biodiesel by-product glycerol is of great importance for sustainability of biodiesel industry. Conversion of glycerol to value-added chemicals increases the profitability of biodiesel production. | Glycerol transesterification: Catalyst loading/Glycerol carbonate • 4 wt%/96.0 wt% Glycerol carbonate | |||
CaO/Fly ash catalyst Impregnated Fly ash-based catalyst | Starting material | (a) 50 wt% Fly ash (b) 50 wt% Ca(NO)3· 4H2O Ca(NO)3·4H2O = CaOp | • Crystalline phases: quartz (SiO2), calcium oxide (CaO), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4), and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (XRD); basicity: H_ < 8.2 (FA), H_ > 9.3 (C1, C2 and C3); SBET (m2/g): 24.3 C2 (800°C), 909.8 C2 (850°C) | [126] |
Impregnation (wet) | — | |||
Calcination | T: 800, 850 and 900°C | |||
CaO/FA catalyst | CaOp:FA = 70:30 (C1); | |||
CaOp:FA = 80:20 (C2); | ||||
CaOp:FA = 90:10 (C3) | ||||
Palm fly ash supported calcium oxide (CaO) catalyst was prepared through impregnation method and used in transesterification from off-grade palm oil for biodiesel manufacturing. The efficiency of CaO/Fly ash is affected by its basic strength. | Palm oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 6 wt%/71.77 wt% FAME | |||
FA-hydrotalcite catalyst | Alkali fusion | FZ | • XRD patterns consistent with hydrotalcite materials; basicity (mmoles HCl/g): 36.6 FZ-HT, 28.8 C-HT and 12.4 F-HT; surface morphology: cenospheres (Fly ash), octahedral crystals (FZ), platelet-like morphology (C-HT), platelet-like structures of HT (F-HR and FZ-HT); mesoporous solids: N2 ads/des type III isotherm (Fly ash), type II isotherm (FZ), type IV isotherm (F-HT), type IV isotherm (FZ-HT); SBET (m2/g): 1.7 Fly ash, 323.2 FZ, 32.9 C-HT, 39.6 F-HT, and 476.6 FZ-HT | [127] |
Hydrothermal | ||||
Coprecipitation | C-HT | |||
F-HT | ||||
FZ-HT | ||||
Calcination | T: 500 °C; t: 6 h | |||
Mg-Al hydrotalcite-like catalysts were prepared from fly ash and fly ash-based zeolite by copreciritation method. The activity of prepared catalyst was estimated in mustard oil transesterification. The FAME yield tends to increase with increasing BET surface area. | Mustard oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 7 wt%/93.4 wt% FAME | |||
CaO/CFA catalyst Impregnated CFA-based catalyst | Drying starting material | (a) Shells T: 110°C; t: 6 h (b) Fly ash T: 105°C; t: 10 h | • Identified phases: SiO2 (crystalline phase), Al2O3 amorphous phase (Fly ash), Ca2SiO4 dicalcium silicate (calcined impregnated catalyst) (XRD); smaller morphology size of particles: 75 μm, | [128] |
Impregnation (wet) | — | |||
Calcination | T: 800°C; t: 3 h | |||
Fly ash supported CaO catalyst derived from waste mollusk shell of | Palm oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 6 wt%/94.0 wt% FAME | |||
SFA-sulfated fly ash catalyst | Sulfonation | — | • Crystalline phases: quartz, mullite, hematite, lime; thermally stable up to 550°C; acid sites: 0.401 mmol/g (NH3-TPD), basic sites: 0.197 mmol/g (CO2-TPD); SO42− groups is confirmed by FTIR analysis; surface morphology: homogeneous distribution of small spherical pores on FA surface, large connected spherical pores on SFA catalyst surface; SFA crystallite size: 16.8 nm; SBET (m2/g): 38.3 | [129] |
The goal is on the fly ash utilization for the development of sulfated fly ash (SFA) catalyst synthesis under solvent-free conditions. The use of SFA catalyst has been found to be advantageous in biodiesel synthesis from feedstock with high free fatty acids content. | Maize acid oil esterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 5 wt%/98.3 wt% FAME | |||
CFA-derived Zeolite X | Alkali fusion | T: 450–600°C; t: 1–2 h; CFA:NaON = 1:1–1:2.5 | • Identified crystalline phases: Pure single-phase zeolites X and A under following conditions: FA:NaOH = 1:1.2, crystallization time 1 h (Zeolite X), 12 h (Zeolite A), fusion temperature 550°C, crystallization temperature 110°C, and calcination temperature 800°C; cations exchange Zeolite A (highest value); SBET (m2/g): 167.4 (Zeolite X), 24.1 (Zeolite A) | [130] |
Hydrothermal | 10–30 wt% NaAlO2; L:S = 10:1; T: 90–120°C; t: 24 h; AT = 12–16 h | |||
Ion exchange | 1 M CH3COOK; L:S = 10:1; T: 60°C; t: 24 h | |||
Calcination | T: 500 °C; t: 2 h | |||
Different types of single-phase zeolites (Zeolite X and Zeolite A) with high cations exchange capacity were synthesized from alkali fusion followed by hydrothermal treatment of coal fly ash as source material. Coal fly ash was used successfully for production of biodiesel in mustard oil transesterification with suitable calorific value (37.5 MJ/kg). | Mustard oil transesterification: Catalyst loading/FAME • 5 wt%/84.6 wt% FAME |
Synthesis of CFA based heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production.
It can be seen from the results that the main techniques, which can be used for CFA modification are alkali activation, hydrothermal and thermal treatment, wet impregnation, and ion exchange. The influence of various parameters, such as temperature, the concentration of alkali agent, the synergism of alkali agents, reaction time, aging period are crucial for obtaining the material with a suitable structure. Babajide et al. [116] studied the synthesis of Na-X zeolite from CFA, which was used as a catalyst for biodiesel production in the K-ion exchanged form. Such synthesized material exhibits higher activity than non-ion exchanged. It can be noted, that the main goal of CFA modification is the total or partial destruction of CFA crystalline cenosphere structure, with very low specific surface area and inaccessible pore system. Depending on CFA alkali activation and hydrothermal conditions (temperature, sodium-aluminate addition, and time), zeolite materials of different compositions and characteristics can be obtained. Bhandari et al. [120] optimized CFA alkali fusion process in order to obtain high crystalline zeolite and reported that zeolite with suitable structural, morphological, and textural properties can be obtained at alkali activation and hydrothermal temperature 550 °C and 90 °C, respectively and NaOH/CFA ratio of 1.5. By adding sodium aluminate in the range 10–20%, zeolite X was obtained, whereas further adding leads to the formation of zeolite A. In this study, the K-exchanged form of zeolite X exhibits suitable catalytic properties during the production of biodiesel from soybean oil. From previous and similar investigations, it is obvious, that the activity of the zeolite-based catalyst can be improved by impregnation of mainly alkaline metals, such as potassium. The content of some alkali metals (Na and K) in biodiesel fuel is regulated by EN 14214, (max. concentration 5 ppm). Due to high leaching affinity, such catalysts are unsuitable. In order to obtain an active and stable catalytic form, previously treated CFA can be modified with different CaO-based active catalytic components. Volli et al. [121] investigated the utilization of CFA by impregnation of calcium from animal bones in order to synthesize catalysts for biodiesel production from mustard oil. The highest catalytic activity (TAG conversion of 90.4%) is achieved by catalyst with 10 wt% loaded animals bones powder on CFA. However, further increasing of animal bone powder loading on CFA leads to decreasing of catalytic activity. Waste materials such as eggshells are efficient as a high calcium source, which can be used as biodiesel catalysts. Carbonate eggshell form can be converted into active oxide form using simple synthesis methods (thermal activation and modification techniques).
In recent years, most studies have shown that CFA can successfully catalyze transesterification of various oily feedstock in order to produce biodiesel. Pure CFA is practically inactive, but in the modified form it could exhibit high catalytic activity. In Table 5 are shown different catalysts and their catalytic performance for biodiesel production from various feedstock. Xiang et al. [122] investigated alkali activated CFA modified by sodium sulfate under hydrothermal conditions, whereby transesterification reaction was carried out under microwave [23] and ultrasound [122] conditions. The high catalytic activity was achieved for short reaction time and it was shown that catalyst could be used even eight times without any loss of catalytic activity. Other modification methods are based on CFA conversion into zeolite or hydrotalcite, impregnation of alkali or alkali earth metals or ion exchange of previously mentioned zeolites.
Catalyst | Feedstock | Reaction condition | C or Y | RC | Refs. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | MOR | CC | t | |||||
ModifiedMW CFA | WCO | 66.2 | 9.67 | 3.99 | 0.1 | 94.9 (C) | 8 | [23] |
ModifiedUS CFA | WCO | — | 10.71 | 4.97 | 0.03 | 95.6 (C) | 8 | [119] |
KX-CFA | Soybean oil | 65 | 6 | 3 | 8 | 81.2 (C) | — | [120] |
Eggshell/CFA | Soybean oil | 70 | 6.9 | 1 | 5 | 97.0 (C) | 16 | [118] |
Animal bone/CFA | Mustard oil | 65 | 5.5 | 10 | 6 | 90.4 (C) | 5 | [121] |
Sodalite | Soybean oil | 65 | 12 | 4 | 2 | 95.5 (C) | — | [117] |
Kaliophilite | Canola oil | 85 | 15 | 5 | 6 | 99.2 (C) | 4 | [122] |
FA/Na-X | Sunflower oil | 65 | 6 | 3 | 8 | 83.5 (Y) | 3 | [116] |
KNO3/CFA | Sunflower oil | 160 | 15 | 15 | 5 | 86.1 (C) | — | [123] |
KNO3/CFA | Sunflower oil | 120 | 15 | 5 | 8 | 81.5 (C) | 1 | [124] |
K-Zeolite | Glycerol | 75 | 3 | 4 | 1.5 | 90.2 (C) | 5 | [125] |
CaO/Fly ash | Palm oil | 70 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 71.7 (C) | — | [126] |
CFA-HT | Mustard oil | 65 | 12 | 7 | 6 | 93.4 (Y) | — | [127] |
Palm oil | 92.0 (Y) | 3 | [128] | |||||
Palm oil | 94.0 (Y) | [128] | ||||||
Sulfated fly ash (SFA) | Maize acid oil | 125 | 15 | 5 | 3 | 98.3 (C) | 3 | [129] |
CFA-Zeolite X | Mustard oil | 65 | 12 | 5 | 7 | 84.6 (C) | 3 | [130] |
Biodiesel synthesis over CFA based catalysts.
T = reaction temperature (°C), MOR = methanol/oil molar ratio, CC = catalyst concentration (wt%), t = reaction time (h), C or Y = conversion or yield (%), RC = reaction cycle, WCO = waste cooking oil.
CaO from chicken eggshell supported on CFA exhibits the highest catalytic activity (97.0%) and stability (16 reaction cycles) in the transesterification reaction. Volli et al. [124] prepared CaO from animal bones supported on fly ash and tested in biodiesel production. The satisfactory conversion (90.4%) was achieved after 6 h, whereas the catalyst suffered negligible loss of activity when tested for 5 cycles of reuse. On the other hand, Bhandari et al. [120] and Volli and Purkait [130] used potassium ion exchanged fly ash zeolite for biodiesel production, where the prepared catalyst gave yield of 81.2% and conversion of 84.6% for 8 and 7 h, respectively. Except for zeolites, active catalytic form or adequate catalytic support can be achieved by conversion of CFA into layered double hydroxides known as hydrotalcites [127]. High biodiesel yield can be obtained by using such materials under mild conditions. Lathiya et al. [129] synthesized a sulfated fly ash catalyst, which exhibits high catalytic activity, but in comparison with other presented catalytic systems, such activity can be achieved under more rigorous conditions, which is a feature of acid heterogeneously catalyzed biodiesel production.
This review rеports a brief ovеrview of the devеlopments of various hetеrogeneous catalysts dеrived from industrial and biolоgical waste materials as an еfficient solid base catаlyst for biоdiesel productiоn. As one of the few rеnewable energy fuel cоst-effective оptions that can be rеcycled, low-cоst biodiesel generation brings with it ecоnomic as well as social and environmental benefits. The fundаmentals of methаnolysis, the rоle of various prоcess parametеrs and factors affеcting biodiesel production from differеnt feedstock are highlighted to guidе future resеarch and devеlopment on this tоpic. The development of heterogeneous fly ash-based catalysts suppоrted with alkaline and alkаline earth metal (oxides, hydroxides, salts) gаined a great awareness due to the wide avаilability of alkаline/alkaline earth mеtal-rich waste mаterials and thеir corrеsponding high catаlytic activity in the methanolysis of triаcylglycerol oils.
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia within the framework of the project III 45001.
Haemostasis is a protective process that regulates and maintains stable physiology in the system. The physiology of haemostasis is extremely complex and reflects a delicate balance between the constant blood flow and immediate localised response to vascular injury. The process of haemostasis is traditionally divided into a cellular phase (involving platelets), known as the primary haemostatic phase and a fluid phase (involving plasma proteins), also called the secondary haemostatic phase [1]. It associates with other body defence mechanisms, including the immune system and the inflammatory responses [2]. During vascular injury, the increased blood pressure exerted in the blood circulation requires powerful and regulated localised pro-coagulant responses to minimise blood loss without compromising blood flow. Systemic anticoagulant and fibrinolytic components in other ways are also developed to inhibit the extension of the pro-coagulant responses to escalate beyond the vascular endothelial control, which may result in thrombotic formation. Thus, the haemostatic system is defined as a complex, highly regulated and integrated process, comprising both activators and inhibitory pathways, including blood vessels, platelets activities, coagulation and fibrinolytic system together [3]. While the coagulation cascade is aimed at fibrin formation through the production of thrombin, which is converted to fibrinogen (FN) and subsequently to fibrin, in the fibrinolytic system, plasmin is the main enzyme that plays a key role in dissolving the already formed clots by degrading fibrin. Physiological anticoagulation mechanisms function to suppress thrombin generation or inhibit its effects. Alterations to these mechanisms could lead to hypercoagulable states. This chapter will focus on the mechanisms associated with anticoagulation and defects of the anticoagulation mechanisms, leading to hypercoagulable states. The review also gave a concise description of the clinical approaches and traditional intervention to minimise the effects of hypercoagulability, which may progress to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs).
Knowledge of the universal sequence of events in haemostasis can give vital information to the progress and development of thrombosis [4]. Within the blood coagulation cascade, the extrinsic pathway is mostly activated by vascular endothelial injury. In contrast, the intrinsic pathway is triggered solely through Factor XII (FXII) exposure on the thrombogenic surface. Even though separated, these pathways are interconnected at several points [4]. Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways are linked to initiating the common pathway, which terminates at the formation of fibrin clots that are subsequently degraded by plasmin during fibrinolysis (Figure 1) [5]. Within the damaged endothelium, platelet adhesion and activation are promoted by the extremely exposed thrombogenic subendothelial extracellular matrix (ECM). Through its interactions with proconvertin (FVII), tissue factor (TF) initiates the coagulation cascade by converting prothrombin to thrombin. During secondary haemostasis, the thrombin generated triggers FN generation, which is converted to an insoluble fibrin plug that formed a fibrin mesh network together with aggregated platelets [4]. These assist to stop the blood flow, thus ensuring “haemostasis” and the final step of the coagulation cascade [6]. At the “thrombus”, the circulating blood cells become trapped into the fibrin structure, and fibrin cross-linked is accomplished by Factor XIII activator (FXIIIa), which is promoted by the thrombin, leading to solid structural stability and the initial step of the fibrinolytic system [7].
Coagulation cascade and its interrelationship with the fibrinolytic system. Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of the coagulation cascade join to initiate the activation of FX of the common pathway. These unite to a fibrin clot, which is eventually degraded by plasmin in the fibrinolytic system.
During the repair process, the generated thrombus is destroyed by plasmin activities, produced by its zymogen plasminogen, tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) or uPA on the fibrin clot [8]. Proteolysis of fibrin generates soluble fibrin degradation products (FDPs). The fibrinolytic system is extremely controlled by a protease enzyme inhibitor known as plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), synthesised by endothelium, adipose tissue and the liver. The PAI-1 serves as a potent irreversible inhibitor of plasminogen activators, including t-PA and uPA, which convert plasminogen to plasmin, to promote fibrinolysis. The major plasminogen activator is t-PA, which has a high affinity to fibrin. The t-PA is secreted by endothelial cells or synthesised locally following the activation of endothelium by histamine, adrenalin, thrombin, FXa and hypoxia [9]. The u-PA is another plasminogen activator secreted by several cells, such as fibroblasts, epithelial cells and the placenta. The indigenous form of uPA is transformed into a two-chain protein by plasmin or following stimulation by the contact factors, such as FXII, prekallikrein and high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) (Figure 1) [10]. The uPA and t-PA convert plasminogen into plasmin through urokinase plasminogen activator-receptor (uPA-R) and LDL-receptor related protein-1 (LRP-1) respectively [11].
Generally, anticoagulants exert their effects at different points of the coagulation cascade. Certain anticoagulants function directly as enzyme inhibitors, while some act indirectly by binding to antithrombin (AT) or inhibiting their production in the liver, such as vitamin K-dependent factors (Figure 2) [12].
Mechanisms of Anticoagulation. The anticoagulation system inhibits coagulation through a delicate balance between the activators and inhibitors of the coagulation cascade. At the fibrinolytic system, the balance between the activators of the fibrinolysis, including t-PA and u-PA and inhibitors, such as PAI-1 and α2-AP ensures the inhibition of fibrin formation or immediate dissolution of fibrin when it is formed. TF; tissue factor, TFPI; tissue factor pathway inhibitor, TAFI; thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, EPCR; endothelial protein C receptor, ZPI; protein Z-dependent protease inhibitor, PZ; protein Z, TM; thrombomodulin, PC; protein C, APC; activated protein C, PS; protein S, HCII; heparin cofactor II, TM; thrombomodulin, t-PA; tissue-type plasminogen, u-PA; urokinase-type plasminogen activator, PAI-1; plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, α2-AP; α2-antiplasmin, FDP; fibrin degradation products. The dashed arrows indicate inhibition while thick arrow lines indicate activation.
Vitamin K dependent anticoagulant
Coumarin and its derivatives are a class of vitamin K–dependent anticoagulants (VKAs). Warfarin is the most common anticoagulant agent currently in use. It functions to inhibit vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR), which is necessarily required for the gamma-carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent factor, including factors II, VII, IX, X and protein C and S. Inhibition of vitamin K carboxylation triggers the decreased hepatic synthesis activity of clotting factors, leading to an anticoagulated state. Bleeding is the most common complication associated with warfarin therapy and is related to exponentially higher international normalised ratio (INR) values. The goal of the management is to reduce the INR back to a therapeutic safe level and hence are monitored by the value of the INR [13]. The dose-effect is narrow, and its actions are altered intensely by some factors, such as vegetables, greenleaf, some certain fruits, some drugs while inherited mutations in the VKOR complex may lead to resistance [12].
Unfractionated heparin (UFH)
Heparin forms a complex with antithrombin III (ATIII) and inactivates several coagulation factors, including FVII. It has a rapid onset of action and a short half-life. Heparin is monitored by activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and anti-Factor Xa activity. The ratio of 1.5–2.2 times is the recommended target for aPTT [12].
Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH)
Nadroparin, enoxaparin, and tinzaparin have a shorter half-life compared to UFH. However, LMWH is not necessarily monitored unless in some conditions, such as pregnancy and renal failure [12].
Fondaparinux sodium
Fondaparinux sodium also called “Arixtra”, is a new class of synthetic pentasaccharide anticoagulants that bind to ATIII and indirectly inhibit the action of factor Xa. It has a similar mode of action to LMWH but has a longer half-life (17–21 h) than heparin. It does not prevent thrombin generation or interact with platelets but could be an essential and effective alternative to LMWH for the treatment of VTE following an orthopaedic surgical procedure. Fondaparinux is administered subcutaneously and excreted by unsaturated renal filtration [1].
Idrabiotaparinux sodium
Idrabiotaparinux sodium is another related family also injected subcutaneously once a week. It has a similar chemical structure and mode of action as fondaparinux but with a half-life of about 5–6 times longer than fondaparinux (fondaparinux’s 17 hours to about 80 hours), indicating that the drug needs to be administered only once a week. The biotin attached to its structure allows its neutralisation with avidin, an egg-derived protein with low antigenicity [2].
Inhibitors of FXa
Rivaroxaban, apixaban, edoxaban, betrixaban, apixaban and edoxaban are the common types of FXa inhibitors. They act by inhibiting the cleavage of prothrombin to thrombin through binding to FXa. They do not usually require constant monitoring [14].
Inhibitors of thrombin
Bivalirudin and dabigatran are common examples of thrombin inhibitors. They act by inhibiting the cleavage of FN to fibrin and are metabolised in the kidney [12].
In 1845, the German physician, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, and biologist, Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow hypothesised that three factors are important to the development of thrombosis; vascular endothelial injury, haemodynamic alterations and hypercoagulability, which interact with each other (Figure 3) [17]. The vascular endothelial injury was identified first as the main initiator of arterial thrombosis alongside traumatic or endocardial damaged. Moreover, the dysfunctional endothelial cells can secrete a significant concentration of procoagulant agents, including platelet adhesion molecules, TF, and PAI-1 while generating little anticoagulant effectors, such as TM and PCL [18]. The haemodynamic changes may promote procoagulant activities and leucocytic adhesions by modifying the gene expression of the endothelial cells. Although blood stasis is the main trigger for venous thrombosis, turbulent blood flow could also facilitate cardiac and arterial thrombosis. In hypercoagulability, blood clotting factors themselves facilitate thrombogenesis through heritable hypercoagulable states, such as mutations in Factor V Leiden (FVL) and prothrombin. Additionally, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC), heparin-mediated thrombocytopenia, and Trousseau’s syndrome have been linked with hypercoagulability [18].
Mechanisms of Virchow Triad in the Pathophysiology of Thrombus Formation: Rudolf Virchow proposed a triad of conditions that predisposes to thrombotic formation. They include abnormalities in the blood vessel wall, blood stasis and hypercoagulability. Inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and atherosclerosis constituted abnormalities in the blood vessel wall. Abnormal blood flow arises from haemorheology and turbulence at bifurcations and stenotic sites. The hypercoagulability encompasses the abnormal blood constituents, including dysfunctional platelet, coagulation and endogenous fibrinolytic abnormalities, and metabolic factors.
Hypercoagulability or thrombophilia defines a pathologic condition of exaggerated coagulation or coagulation without bleeding episode. It represents the increased risk for thrombose [19]. Hypercoagulability states are either acquired or inherited but real thrombosis originates as a result of interactions of both genetic and environmental agents. It encompasses a wide range of coagulation abnormalities characterised by a thrombotic event, such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE). Congenital hypercoagulability included prothrombin G20210A gene mutation, deficiencies in protein C and protein S, AT deficiency and a single-point mutation on the FVL. Acquired conditions usually result from trauma or surgery, certain medications while the APS has been identified as the most common acquired thrombophilia in the general population [20]. The genetic abnormalities of the fibrinolytic system are not common, however, the acquired hyperfibrinolysis has been identified as the major cause of severe haemorrhage [15].
Certain medications, such as those prescribed to treat certain cancers, including thalidomide, tamoxifen, bevacizumab, and lenalidomide
Central venous catheter placement, hyperlipidaemia, obesity
Prolonged immobility, inactivity or bed rest
Heart attacks, including cardiac heart failure, stroke pelvic artery diseases, etc.
Long-distance aeroplane travel, known as “economy class syndrome”
Previous history of DVT or PE
Myeloproliferative, including polycythaemia vera or essential thrombocytosis
Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria
Inflammatory bowel syndrome
HIV/AIDS
Nephrotic syndrome (too much protein in the urine).
Hypercoagulability has been recognised as an abnormal complex condition of the haemostasis and as such, the diagnosis of hypercoagulability syndromes involves a combination of associated risk factors, screening tests and confirmation tests [21]. Assessment guidelines vary between medical associations. Some associations suggested that young patients with unprovoked or recurrent VTE, patients with a strong family history of abnormal blood clotting, patients with a recurrent blood clot, women with a history of recurrent miscarriage, stroke at a young age, thromboses in unusual sites, such as hepatic, renal, cerebral, mesenteric, neonatal purpura fulminans, warfarin-induced skin necrosis, and foetal loss should be screened for haemophilia. Also, patients with a history of suspected APS, unexplained prothrombin time (PT), thrombin time (TT), may require APS investigation, screening for APLAs and the diluted Russell venom viper test (dRVVT) [21].
The baseline investigations for hypercoagulability states, including routine coagulation studies, such as aPPT, which measures the blood clot time, usually to monitor heparin treatment, prothrombin time (PT) test is used to calculate INR, to monitor warfarin (Coumadin) treatment, FN levels, d-dimer and complete blood counts (CBC) should be carried out. The most advanced and essential screenings for thrombophilia include functional assays for ATIII, protein C and S deficiencies, PCR for prothrombin G2021A mutation and FVL mutation, testing for APLAs and homocysteine levels [19].
Screening for undetected cancer and unexplained VTE in older patients, including patients history and physical examination, ESR, hepatic and renal function tests, urinalysis, and chest X-ray (XR), tumour markers, CT of the chest, abdomen and pelvis mammography in women above 40 years [20], prostate ultrasound in men of more than 50 years, lower endoscopy, Papanicolaou smear and faecal occult blood test are recommended. In patients with hypercoagulability syndromes, there is an increased risk of venous thrombosis than ischemic stroke. Existing evidence has indicated that venous thrombosis could progress to arterial strokes by paradoxical embolism, therefore young adults with stroke should be screened for venous thrombosis, as the incidence of stroke is gradually increasing in young adults. The report has indicated an association between the homocystinuria and APLA syndrome with arterial strokes, and stroke has been investigated as the common arterial condition progressing to APLA syndrome. Hence, screening for APLA syndrome should be performed on stroke patients younger than 45 years [19].
Anticardiolipin antibodies (ACA) or beta-2 glycoproteins, LA, which are part of the APLA syndrome, to evaluate patients with recurrent miscarriage and venous or arterial thrombosis. Heparin antibodies (in patients who have decreased platelet counts after exposure to heparin) [19].
The ATIII can be substituted for inherited or acquired defects, such as enhanced consumption in DIC and sepsis. Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) for the maintenance of natural balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant factors [30]. Also, various types of anticoagulants and antiplatelets are established to treat recurrent VTE [31], such as vitamin K antagonist (VKA), aspirin (as evaluated in the WARFASA and ASPIRE trials), rivaroxaban (EINSTEIN trial), dabigatran (RE-MEDY and RE-SONATE trials), and apixaban (AMPLIFY trial. The CLOT trial also evaluated LMWH against warfarin in cancer patients and was approved by food and drugs administration [32], rosuvastatin was approved for the prevention of occurrence of VTE [19].
Although the present anticoagulant drugs available are safe and effective, the morbidity and mortality caused by atherothrombosis are still unacceptably high [33]. Many of these drugs are mostly associated with several side effects [34]. Statin, such as simvastatin, a lipid-lowering agent, known as 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, is associated with several side effects, including fever, headache, gastric irritation, myositis, hyperuricaemia, rhabdomyolysis, myalgia, renal and hepatic dysfunctions [35]. Acetylsalicylic acid, including aspirin, are antiplatelet synthetic drugs widely prescribed to treat inflammation, headache, fever and thrombosis [36]. Aspirin, in particular, has been reported to inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX), a potent enzyme that catalyses prostaglandin formation by blocking the synthesis of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), an essential mediator of blood clotting [37]. However, aspirin and other related antiplatelet drugs were reported to give recurrent thromboembolic vascular events (aspirin intolerance), including dizziness, nausea, abdominal pain or patients may suffer from increased risk of bleeding [37]. Bleeding is the most common complication associated with warfarin therapy and is related to exponentially higher INR values. The goal of the management is to reduce the INR back to a therapeutic safe level [13]. Existing reports have shown that plant extracts have analgesic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulative, antiplatelet, anti-atherosclerotic, antithrombosis antiproliferative, and cardioprotective, properties [38, 39]. In this regard, the development of natural-based products to augment conventional synthetic drugs is essential. They are more effective with minimal or without side effects [40]. Some natural-based products commonly used in traditional medicines include:
Existing reports demonstrate that honey inhibited the coagulation proteins of the three coagulation pathways: intrinsic, extrinsic, and final common pathway. The main reason for the anticoagulant properties of nature might be attributed to the variety of flavonoids contained in honey that may affect the activity of coagulation factors like FN and factor VII. Additionally, honey contains maltose that has been reported to interfere with blood coagulation. The therapeutic potentials of honey comprise various mechanisms that might play a significant role in the prevention of atherosclerotic CVDs. Honey has been reported to inhibit thrombin (main enzyme of blood coagulation) and induce the formation of reactive oxygen species from phagocytes; as free oxygen radicals particularly superoxide and hypochlorous acid provides room for the development of atherosclerotic plaque, thus honey might interrupt the formation of atherosclerotic plaque [62].
The anticoagulant mechanisms maintain the constant blood flow while inhibiting the progress to hypercoagulable states. The process of maintaining the delicate balance between the coagulation system, the integrity of the haemostasis and the significant contributions of the various system involved is continuous. Supplementation with traditional medications could be beneficial in the treatment and prevention of hypercoagulable states. Further studies are required to evaluate the new classes of anticoagulants and traditional medications with anticoagulant potentials towards improving healthcare to the patients demanding hypercoagulable therapy.
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Abu-Eishah"}]},{id:"13747",doi:"10.5772/14702",title:"Application of Room Temperature Ionic Liquids in Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors",slug:"application-of-room-temperature-ionic-liquids-in-electrochemical-sensors-and-biosensors",totalDownloads:9792,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"1373",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids: Applications and Perspectives"},signatures:"Farnoush Faridbod, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Parviz Norouzi, Siavash Riahi, and Hamid Rashedi",authors:[{id:"18565",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Ganjali",slug:"mohammad-reza-ganjali",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Ganjali"},{id:"20605",title:"Dr.",name:"Parviz",middleName:null,surname:"Norouzi",slug:"parviz-norouzi",fullName:"Parviz Norouzi"},{id:"20606",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnoush",middleName:null,surname:"Faridbod",slug:"farnoush-faridbod",fullName:"Farnoush Faridbod"},{id:"20607",title:"Dr.",name:"Siavash",middleName:null,surname:"Riahi",slug:"siavash-riahi",fullName:"Siavash Riahi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"20532",title:"1,2,3-Triazolium Salts as a Versatile New Class of Ionic Liquids",slug:"1-2-3-triazolium-salts-as-a-versatile-new-class-of-ionic-liquids",totalDownloads:6032,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"327",slug:"ionic-liquids-classes-and-properties",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids - Classes and Properties"},signatures:"Zekarias Yacob and Jürgen Liebscher",authors:[{id:"52686",title:"Prof.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Liebscher",slug:"jurgen-liebscher",fullName:"Jürgen Liebscher"},{id:"56807",title:"Prof.",name:"Zekarias Yacob",middleName:null,surname:"Fundusa",slug:"zekarias-yacob-fundusa",fullName:"Zekarias Yacob Fundusa"}]},{id:"72530",title:"Application of Vortex Control Principle at Pump Intake",slug:"application-of-vortex-control-principle-at-pump-intake",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Vortex flow in a pump intake could affect a pump operation significantly if not treated appropriately. Many researches have been conducted to determine the best control method for vortex flow in pump sumps so that the pump lifespan can be maximized. In this study, a vortex control principle designed to minimize the impact of submerged vortex flow in pump sump on major pump components is presented. This principle employs a device called the plate type floor splitter which serves the function of eliminating vortices formed on the sump floor and reduces the intensity of swirling motion in the intake flow. A pump sump model was built to carry out the study by installing a floor splitter plate sample under the pump suction inlet and the corresponding parameters used to quantify the swirl intensity known as the swirl angle was measured. Procedures for the measurement were conducted based on ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard. A numerical simulation was performed to study the flow in a full-scale pump sump. The results showed that the installation of floor splitter plate can eliminate vortices efficiently and reduce swirl angle significantly. However, optimization of floor splitter design is needed to achieve a reduction effect that can reduce swirl angles to an acceptable value of lower than 5° according to ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard.",book:{id:"10080",slug:"vortex-dynamics-theories-and-applications",title:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications"},signatures:"Zambri Harun, Tajul Ariffin Norizan and Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"313310",title:"Mr.",name:"Tajul Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Norizan",slug:"tajul-ariffin-norizan",fullName:"Tajul Ariffin Norizan"},{id:"317421",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Hanna Melini",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Mohtar",slug:"wan-hanna-melini-wan-mohtar",fullName:"Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar"}]},{id:"20216",title:"Ionic Liquids in Separation Techniques",slug:"ionic-liquids-in-separation-techniques",totalDownloads:8523,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1300",slug:"applications-of-ionic-liquids-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Jolanta Flieger and Anna Czajkowska-Żelazko",authors:[{id:"20797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Flieger",slug:"jolanta-flieger",fullName:"Jolanta Flieger"},{id:"136020",title:"Prof.",name:"Czajkowska",middleName:null,surname:"Żelazko",slug:"czajkowska-zelazko",fullName:"Czajkowska Żelazko"}]},{id:"71403",title:"Supercritical-Fluids Thermophysical Properties and Heat Transfer in Power-Engineering Applications",slug:"supercritical-fluids-thermophysical-properties-and-heat-transfer-in-power-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Researches on specifics of thermophysical properties and heat transfer at supercritical pressures (SCPs) started as early as the 1930s with the study on free-convection heat transfer to fluids at a near-critical point. In the 1950s, the concept of using SC “steam” to increase thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants became an attractive option. Germany, USA, the former USSR, and some other countries extensively studied heat transfer to SC fluids (SCFs) during the 1950s till the 1980s. This research was primarily focused on bare circular tubes cooled with SC water (SCW). However, some studies were performed with modeling fluids such as SC carbon dioxide and refrigerants instead of SCW. Currently, the use of SC “steam” in coal-fired thermal power plants is the largest industrial application of fluids at SCPs. Near the end of the 1950s and at the beginning of the 1960s, several studies were conducted to investigate a possibility of using SCW as a coolant in nuclear reactors with the objective to increase thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants (NPPs) equipped with water-cooled reactors. However, these research activities were abandoned for some time and regained momentum in the 1990s. In support of the development of SCW-cooled nuclear-power reactor (SCWR) concepts, first experiments have been started in annular and various bundle flow geometries. At the same time, more numerical and CFD studies have been performed in support of our limited knowledge on specifics of heat transfer at SCPs in various flow geometries. As the first step in this process, heat transfer to SCW in vertical bare tubes can be investigated as a conservative approach (in general, heat transfer in fuel bundles will be enhanced with various types of appendages, that is, grids, end plates, spacers, bearing pads, fins, ribs, etc.). New experiments in the 1990–2000s were triggered by several reasons: (1) thermophysical properties of SCW and other SCFs have been updated from the 1950s–1970s, for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in the critical/pseudocritical points was “officially” introduced in 1990s; (2) experimental techniques have been improved; (3) in SCWRs, various bundle flow geometries will be used instead of bare-tube geometry; (4) in SC “steam” generators of thermal power plants, larger diameter tubes/pipes (20–40 mm) are used, however in SCWRs hydraulic-equivalent diameters of proposed bundles will be within 5–12 mm; (5) with Research and Development (R&D) of next-generation or Generation-IV nuclear-power-reactor concepts, new areas of application for SCFs have appeared—for example, SCP helium was proposed to be used as a reactor coolant, SCP Brayton and Rankine cycles with SC carbon dioxide as a working fluid are being developed, etc. A comparison of thermophysical properties of SCFs with those of subcritical-pressure fluids showed that SCFs as single-phase fluids have unique properties, which are close to “liquid-like” behavior below critical or pseudocritical points and are quite similar to the behavior of “gas-like” substances above these points. A comparison of selected SCW heat transfer correlations has shown that their results may differ from one to another by more than 200%. Based on these comparisons, it became evident that there is a need for reliable, accurate, and wide-range SCW heat transfer correlation(s) to be developed and verified. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to summarize in concise form specifics of supercritical-fluids thermophysical properties and heat transfer in power-engineering applications.",book:{id:"9201",slug:"advanced-supercritical-fluids-technologies",title:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies"},signatures:"Igor L. Pioro",authors:[{id:"15933",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Leonardovich",surname:"Pioro",slug:"igor-pioro",fullName:"Igor Pioro"}]},{id:"41932",title:"The Structure of Supported Ionic Liquids at the Interface",slug:"the-structure-of-supported-ionic-liquids-at-the-interface",totalDownloads:3572,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3178",slug:"ionic-liquids-new-aspects-for-the-future",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids - New Aspects for the Future"},signatures:"Fatemeh Moosavi",authors:[{id:"23490",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fatemeh",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"fatemeh-moosavi",fullName:"Fatemeh Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"935",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne 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learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö 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Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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