International classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity using to BMI.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6095",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Insecticides - Agriculture and Toxicology",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Agriculture and Toxicology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They are used primarily in agriculture to control pests that infest crop. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems: many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain. The presence of these chemicals in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems has become an important issue globally. The book Insecticides - Agriculture and Toxicology provides information on the use of insecticides in pest management in order to enhance crop protection and their effects on nontarget organisms.",isbn:"978-1-78923-167-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-166-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-288-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68177",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"insecticides-agriculture-and-toxicology",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4e249884334e8155c1e57e34b7d8c9d2",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",publishedDate:"May 23rd 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6095.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9341,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:46,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:91,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 23rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 20th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/83759/images/3549_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ghousia Begum got her Ph.D from Osmania University and continued her postdoctoral wok in the same University. In 1998 she was appointed Junior Scientist in Biology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Chemical Technology. She has significantly contributed to the field of Ecotoxicology, Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity and Environmental Biology. Her research interests lies in how environmental changes, particularly toxicants affect physiological functions in aquatic animals especially in fish She is also working on alternative animal models which include lower invertebrates (Daphnia) and vertebrates (Zebra fish and edible fishes) for toxicity evaluation. She has published more than 30 research articles in reputed journals. She has more than 500 citations to her credit\nShe has been awarded YOUNG SCIENTIST AWARD for the year 1993 by National Environmental Science Academy (NESA), gold medal for academic excellence and SCIENTIST OF THE YEAR AWARD-2012 by NESA. She has edited a book entitled “ECOTOXICOLOGY” published by InTech. Presently she is editorial board member in eleven journals and editor of two journals. Many journals in the area of environmental biology, toxicology and related areas used her as peer reviewer.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Chemical Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"310",title:"Pestology",slug:"agronomy-pestology"}],chapters:[{id:"58734",title:"Biorational Insecticides and Diatomaceous Earth for Control Sustainability of Pest in Chickpea and Mexican Bean Weevil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71534",slug:"biorational-insecticides-and-diatomaceous-earth-for-control-sustainability-of-pest-in-chickpea-and-m",totalDownloads:1050,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainability involving the conservation and/or enhancement of natural resources and environmental protection can be practiced with biorational insecticides or diatomaceous earth. Two researches were carried out; in one, the objective was to determine the efficacy of biorational insecticides in controlling chickpea leaf miner, Liriomyza sativae Blanchard, without completely inhibiting the presence of parasitoids of this pest. Biorational insecticides were chlorantraniliprole, cyromazine and spinosad, and conventional insecticide was chlorpyrifos, which were similarly effective to control adults and larvae of Liriomyza. Most chickpea production in 2012–2013 (1993.3 and 1806.8 kg ha−1) was obtained where chlorantraniliprole and chlorpyrifos were applied, respectively, and where spinosad and cyromazine were applied also exceeded the performance of absolute control (1213.6 kg ha−1). In 2013–2014, the increased production was 1621.9 kg ha−1 with chlorantraniliprole and 1556.3 kg ha−1 with chlorpyrifos, significantly different from the absolute control that produced 1136.5 kg ha−1. Earnings were MX$ 21011.7 in 2012–2013 and MX$ 16036.7 in 2013–2014 with chlorantraniliprole, while in the absolute control, earnings were MX$ 12305.1 and MX$ 11083.5. Chlorantraniliprole was the biorational insecticide that caused greater effect in the management of this pest of chickpea and crop yields. While in another research, the objective was to determine the efficacy of different doses of diatomaceous earth against Mexican bean weevil Zabrotes subfasciatus Boheman. An experiment was carried out in two phases: in first, one tested diatomaceous earth at doses of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 g kg−1 of seed, with samples at 15, 30, 45, and 60 days after application (daa), while in the second, the doses were 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 g kg−1 and samples at 10, 20, 30, and 40 daa. The parameters evaluated were weevil mortality and seed germination. The results indicated that the doses from 0.8 to 5.0 g kg−1 of diatomaceous earth efficiently controlled the Mexican bean weevil. The treatments did not inhibit seed germination.",signatures:"Jacobo Enrique Cruz Ortega, Leopoldo Partida Ruvalcaba,\nRaymundo Medina López, Tomás Díaz Valdés, Teresa de Jesús\nVelázquez Alcaraz and Felipe Ayala Tafoya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58734",authors:[{id:"206346",title:"Dr.",name:"Partida",surname:"Ruvalcaba Leopoldo",slug:"partida-ruvalcaba-leopoldo",fullName:"Partida Ruvalcaba Leopoldo"},{id:"206348",title:"Dr.",name:"Medina",surname:"López Raymundo",slug:"medina-lopez-raymundo",fullName:"Medina López Raymundo"},{id:"206349",title:"Dr.",name:"Cruz",surname:"Ortega Jacobo Enrique",slug:"cruz-ortega-jacobo-enrique",fullName:"Cruz Ortega Jacobo Enrique"},{id:"206350",title:"Dr.",name:"Díaz",surname:"Valdés Tomás",slug:"diaz-valdes-tomas",fullName:"Díaz Valdés Tomás"},{id:"206351",title:"Dr.",name:"Velázquez",surname:"Alcaraz Teresa De Jesús",slug:"velazquez-alcaraz-teresa-de-jesus",fullName:"Velázquez Alcaraz Teresa De Jesús"},{id:"206352",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayala",surname:"Tafoya Felipe",slug:"ayala-tafoya-felipe",fullName:"Ayala Tafoya Felipe"}],corrections:null},{id:"60115",title:"Plant Lectins with Insecticidal and Insectistatic Activities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74962",slug:"plant-lectins-with-insecticidal-and-insectistatic-activities",totalDownloads:1315,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lectins are an important group of proteins which are spread in all kingdoms of life. Their most lighted characteristic is associated to their specific carbohydrate binding, although function has been not even identified. According to their carbohydrate specificity, several biological activities have been assessed, finding that lectins can be used as mitogenic agents, biomarkers, and cytotoxic and insecticide proteins. Lectins have been classified according to several features such as structure, source, and carbohydrate recognition. The Protein Research Group (PRG) has worked on Colombian seeds from the family of Fabaceae and Lamiaceae plants, isolating and characterizing their lectins, and found more than one lectin in some plants, indicating that according to its specificity, different lectins can have different biological activities. In the case of legume domain lectins, they have shown the biggest potential as insecticide or insectistatic agents due to the glycosylation pattern in insect midgut cells. This review attempts to identify the characteristics of plant legume lectin domains that determine their insecticidal and insectistatic activities.",signatures:"Edgar Antonio Reyes-Montaño and Nohora Angélica Vega-Castro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60115",authors:[{id:"100016",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar Antonio",surname:"Reyes-Montaño",slug:"edgar-antonio-reyes-montano",fullName:"Edgar Antonio Reyes-Montaño"},{id:"207931",title:"Dr.",name:"Nohora Angélica",surname:"Vega-Castro",slug:"nohora-angelica-vega-castro",fullName:"Nohora Angélica Vega-Castro"}],corrections:null},{id:"58195",title:"Role of the Formulation in the Efficacy and Dissipation of Agricultural Insecticides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72340",slug:"role-of-the-formulation-in-the-efficacy-and-dissipation-of-agricultural-insecticides",totalDownloads:2071,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Considering the implications the formulation may have on the effectiveness and residuality of an active ingredient, four trials were conducted comparing two commercial formulations of the diazinon insecticide, two of acetamiprid, two of lambda-cyhalothrin, and, finally, three formulations of imidacloprid. For diazinon and acetamiprid, the comparison parameters used correspond to efficacy against three key pests in apple trees: Cydia pomonella, Diaspidiotus perniciosus, and Pseudococcus viburni; for l-cyhalothrin, efficacy against C. pomonella was compared; and for imidacloprid, differences in control P. viburni were established. In all cases, their persistence was established in terms of initial and final residue levels in samples of fruits, at 1 and 25 days after application (DAA). Different formulations of the same insecticide correspond to a relevant factor in the general behavior that each product presents in field conditions, being able to affect parameters such as its persistence in the fruit and/or initial deposit of the active ingredient. This variation was demonstrated in the comparison performed on acetamiprid, imidacloprid, and diazinon, but it was not so in l-cyhalothrin. Efficacy was affected in all parameters evaluated for each group of insecticides, demonstrating that different formulations can deliver different biological activity in the control of various pests.",signatures:"Karina Buzzetti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58195",authors:[{id:"214596",title:"Dr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Buzzetti",slug:"karina-buzzetti",fullName:"Karina Buzzetti"}],corrections:null},{id:"60444",title:"Evaluation of Insecticides in Protective Clothing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76075",slug:"evaluation-of-insecticides-in-protective-clothing",totalDownloads:922,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The exposure to insecticides causes several health problems, which can be aggravated by more toxicity. Therefore, to avoid this exposure, it is required to use protective clothing. The use of protective equipment against pesticides is indispensable and essential from the preparation/handling regulations of the pesticides spray to the application of diluted formulations. However, even with this protection, workers are not totally immune to the contamination of pesticides. There are several factors that contribute to the loss of efficiency of protective clothing against pesticides, such as field use, activity of application, the type of material, seam presence, clothing model, types of formulation used in the application, the process of washing, and the ironing of clothes after their use.",signatures:"Melina Espanhol Soares and Flávio Soares Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60444",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60444",authors:[{id:"234424",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Melina",surname:"Espanhol Soares",slug:"melina-espanhol-soares",fullName:"Melina Espanhol Soares"},{id:"240925",title:"Prof.",name:"Flávio",surname:"Soares Silva",slug:"flavio-soares-silva",fullName:"Flávio Soares Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"58221",title:"Particulate Nanoinsecticides: A New Concept in Insect Pest Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72448",slug:"particulate-nanoinsecticides-a-new-concept-in-insect-pest-management",totalDownloads:1674,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanostructured alumina (NSA) has insecticidal properties and has been demonstrated to be effective against stored product insect pests in laboratory bioassays. NSA is a nano-engineered material synthesized by oxidation of metals, and resulting particles show fixed electric charges. On the other hand, insects exhibit their own electric charges generated by triboelectrification. We propose that the mechanism of action of NSA involves two steps occurring in sequential order. First, a strong electrical binding between negatively charged NSA particles and positively charged insect. Next, dehydration of the insect occurs due to the strong sorbtive action of the NSA particles that remove the insect cuticular, leading to death by dehydration. As postulated for insecticidal inert powder in generals, particles attach to the insect cuticle surface disrupting water balance, and effectiveness decreases as ambient humidity increases, given that electrostatic bond forces are reduced by electrostatic discharge. The high insecticidal efficacy of NSA is a result of its intrinsic electric charge, small particle size and high sorptive potential due to its large specific surface area. NSA could provide an alternative to conventional synthetic organic insecticides due to its strong insecticidal properties with the advantage that its mechanism of action involves physical and electrostatic phenomena.",signatures:"Teodoro Stadler, Micaela Buteler, Susana R. Valdez and Javier G.\nGitto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58221",authors:[{id:"207985",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Teodoro",surname:"Stadler",slug:"teodoro-stadler",fullName:"Teodoro Stadler"},{id:"208044",title:"Dr.",name:"Micaela",surname:"Buteler",slug:"micaela-buteler",fullName:"Micaela Buteler"},{id:"208045",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Javier",surname:"Gitto",slug:"javier-gitto",fullName:"Javier Gitto"},{id:"210819",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana Ruth",surname:"Valdez",slug:"susana-ruth-valdez",fullName:"Susana Ruth Valdez"}],corrections:null},{id:"58125",title:"Propesticides and Their Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71532",slug:"propesticides-and-their-implications",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With increasing knowledge of the biochemistry and genetics of major pest insects, weeds, and agricultural pathogens, the design of such selectivity becomes a part of pesticide development and is achieved by appropriate structural modification of the parent lead molecule which is called as propesticide. In a strict sense, a propesticide is a biologically inactive compound requiring structural transformation(s) after application to become pesticidally active. Various pesticides have come to the limelight of being a propesticide by carrying out studies on their metabolic fate in organisms. Studies on the metabolic fate of diafenthiuron in vitro by liver microsomes from various vertebrates revealed a variety of possible transformations of the thiourea. Few have been developed by reversibly masking the active ingredients. Fluorinated N-acylaziridine behaves as a propesticide of the fluorinated carboxylate and the hydrolysis of the former to 2-methylaziridine and carboxylate being activation pathway. Imidacloprid and the thiazolylmethyl analogue masked with oxodioxolyl group decomposed with half life of 15.4 and 11.4 h in alkaline and physiological salt solutions, respectively, releasing imidacloprid quantitatively. New propesticide with two effects of both benzoylphenyl ureas and carbamates were designed and synthesized.",signatures:"Shaon Kumar Das and Irani Mukherjee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58125",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58125",authors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das"},{id:"213740",title:"Prof.",name:"Irani",surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"irani-mukherjee",fullName:"Irani Mukherjee"}],corrections:null},{id:"58099",title:"Toxic Effects of the Organophosphorus Insecticide Fenthion on Growth and Chlorophyll Production Activity of Unicellular Marine Microalgae Tetraselmis suecica: Comparison between Observed and Predicted Endpoint Toxicity Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72321",slug:"toxic-effects-of-the-organophosphorus-insecticide-fenthion-on-growth-and-chlorophyll-production-acti",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides the results of a laboratory ecotoxicological study conducted to assess the acute toxicity of the organophosphorus pesticide fenthion toward the marine microalgal species Tetraselmis suecica. Bioassays were performed, and algal densities and chlorophyll pigments fractions were measured in the exponential phase after 96 h of exposure to fenthion. Two quantitative structure activity relationships (QSARs) were used to estimate the toxicity of 13 primary metabolites and degradation products of fenthion toward the selected organism; the first was based on the use of the n-octanol/water partition coefficient, whereas the second was based on the solubility of the compound in water. Results revealed that fenthion can have marked effects on the growth and photosynthesis of the target primary producers of marine ecosystems T. suecica. The parent pesticide toxicant was found not toxic to the tested algal species up to 1.00 mg L−1, while higher treatment concentrations not only affected algal densities and significantly decreased specific growth rate values (μ) (p < 0.05) but also decreased the contents of photosynthetic pigments. The comparison between the observed and the predicted toxicity values of the parent compound fenthion indicated that the predictive capability of the QSARs applied can be considered highly satisfactory. Consequently, both QSAR models were used for the prediction of toxicity data of fenthion’s principal metabolites and degradation products.",signatures:"Maria C. Vagi, Andreas S. Petsas, Maria D. Pavlaki, Niki M.\nSmaragdaki and Maria N. Kostopoulou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58099",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58099",authors:[{id:"200196",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Petsas",slug:"andreas-petsas",fullName:"Andreas Petsas"},{id:"200198",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Vagi",slug:"maria-vagi",fullName:"Maria Vagi"},{id:"217857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Pavlaki",slug:"maria-pavlaki",fullName:"Maria Pavlaki"},{id:"217858",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Kostopoulou",slug:"maria-kostopoulou",fullName:"Maria Kostopoulou"},{id:"229000",title:"Ms.",name:"Niki",surname:"Smaragdaki",slug:"niki-smaragdaki",fullName:"Niki Smaragdaki"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"677",title:"Ecotoxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1925c37f0dfc6eb0d8448aa22777eb9e",slug:"ecotoxicology",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6566",title:"Biomarker",subtitle:"Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d50cce2242888a02ce742196a7dbf09f",slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6566.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5526",title:"Biological Control of Pest and Vector Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e787450cc7eded94883ef67852a07b4",slug:"biological-control-of-pest-and-vector-insects",bookSignature:"Vonnie D.C. 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The incidence of malnutrition has expanded exponentially over the last three decades. At either ends of the nutritional spectrum, malnutrition is concerning to health care professionals and transcends the economic status worldwide, affecting both developed and developing countries. According to the World Health Organization, the incidence of malnutrition is declining among children but remains at critical levels. In 2017, globally there were 151 million children under 5 years of age who were stunted, 51 million children classified as wasted and 38 million children who were overweight. Alternatively, The WHO identifies that global adult undernutrition examined using low body-mass index (BMI) as a proxy has decreased from 13.8% in 1975 to 8.8% in 2014; corresponding levels for women are 14.6 and 9.7%. Conversely, the incidence of malnutrition on the other extreme (overnutrition) was identified as being 1.9 billion among adults (accounting for 38% of the global adult population). Malnutrition has been defined as a health condition where there is an imbalance in the body’s supply and usage of energy, protein and other vital nutrients resulting in discernible physiological changes and clinical health outcomes [1]. The epidemiology of malnutrition is difficult to track due to the expansive nature of the definition. Many studies reference malnutrition as undernutrition concerning only weight but the umbrella term also includes conditions of micronutrient deficiencies such as iron, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin D, magnesium, iodine, and vitamin B12 which are the leading deficiencies globally. Moreover, overnutrition including overweight and obesity is often not classified as malnutrition, but the concept encompasses these states of nutrition and is important in the public health predictions for non-communicable diseases. Nutritional deficiencies are ranked in the top 20 leading worldwide disease and disability burden in 2016, according to the Institute of Health Metrics Evaluation [2], and is a pivotal global concern (see Figure 1).
\nThe global burden of disease. Source: Ritchie and Roser [
The prevalence of malnutrition in hospitalised adults has been extensively reported in the international literature and varies between 13 and 78% among acute-care patients [3]. Reports pertaining to Latin America describe adult specific values with a much narrower range, with prevalence levels in hospitalised adults totalling 20–50% [4]. The variability in data may be due to tautology of the term, the assessment criteria and variations in institutions. Nevertheless, the impact on health outcomes are consistent across studies.
\nThe effects of malnutrition are extensive and include delayed recovery and prolonged hospital stay, increased risk of morbidity and mortality, increased general practitioner visits, and an increased probability of admission to tertiary care facilities [3]. Correspondingly, other literature supports these data and reports that poor nutritional states are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, increased length of hospitalisation, more frequent re-admissions, increased infectious and non-infectious clinical complications and increased healthcare costs [4].
\nHospital admissions, duration of hospitalisation and the economic burden of malnutrition have been studied extensively. Contemporary evidence points to a disparity in the length-of-stay (LOS) of adequately-nourished patients when compared with malnourished patients. South African data points to an observation that malnourished patients’ LOS approximates 4½ days, which was 43% longer than the stay of the well-nourished patients. Earlier evidence identified an even wider variance between the two states of nutrition, where malnourished patients had demonstrably significantly higher incidence of complications (27.0 vs. 16.8%), increased mortality (12.4 vs. 4.7%), longer LOS (mean of 16.7 vs. 10.1 days) and increased hospital costs [5]. Congruently, Canadian based assessments have also found that malnutrition directly contributes to lengthy hospital stay. After controlling for demographic, socioeconomic, and disease-related factors and treatment, malnutrition at admission was independently associated with prolonged LOS [6]. It was estimated that nutritionally at-risk patients have a fourfold increased cost of hospital care when compared with well-nourished patients in part due to their delay in recovery and the protraction of their hospitalisation. Moreover, in the United Kingdom in 2009, health costs associated with malnutrition was quantified as being at least £13 billion annually [3].
\nThough undernutrition is a public health issue that undermines the health outcomes of hospitalised patients, malnutrition in the form of overnutrition is also a complex public health challenge with debilitating impact on clinical outcomes and hospitalisations. Worldwide, at least 2.8 million people die each year because of overweight or obesity, and an estimated 35.8 million (2.3%) of global disability adjusted life years (DALYs) are caused by overweight or obesity [7, 8]. Weight related malnutrition is classified by several organisations including CDC, UNICEF [9] and WHO. The World Health Organization’s classification is made using weight and height indices and is outlined in Table 1.
\nClassification | \nBMI (kg/m2) | \n|
---|---|---|
\n | Principal cut-off points | \nAdditional cut-off points | \n
Underweight | \n||
Severe thinness | \n<16.00 | \n<16.00 | \n
Moderate thinness | \n16.00–16.99 | \n16.00–16.99 | \n
Mild thinness | \n17.00–18.49 | \n17.00–18.49 | \n
Normal range | \n18.50–24.99 | \n18.50–22.99 | \n
23.00–24.99 | \n||
Overweight | \n≥25.00 | \n≥25.00 | \n
Pre-obese | \n25.00–29.99 | \n25.00–27.49 | \n
27.50–29.99 | \n||
Obese | \n≥30.00 | \n≥30.00 | \n
Obese class I | \n30.00–34.99 | \n30.00–32.49 | \n
32.50–34.99 | \n||
Obese class II | \n35.00–39.99 | \n35.00–37.49 | \n
37.50–39.99 | \n||
Obese class III | \n≥40.00 | \n≥40.00 | \n
International classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity using to BMI.
Source: Adapted from WHO (1995, 2000, 2004).
Current epidemiological data provide concerning evidence of the global expansion of overnutrition. While substantial work has been undertaken to curtail the incidence of undernutrition which has improved over the last decade, there has been a significant increase in the incidence of overnutrition with corresponding increases in the prevalence of non-communicable diseases and poor quality of life. The increase in the rates of obesity and overweight status is not only evident in developing and Agrarian societies but is also featured prominently in industrial societies. Figure 2 provides a summary of the status of obesity and overweight in WHO regions in 2015 Global Health Observatory data. The WHO makes an even more stark comparison of developing and developing countries, the Organisation suggests that the prevalence of elevated body mass index increases with the income level of countries up to upper middle-income levels. The prevalence of overweight in high income and upper middle-income countries was more than twofold greater than that of low and lower middle-income countries.
\nGlobal overweight status. Source: [
Overweight and obesity influence health outcomes and hospitalisation. The prevalence of obesity is high among patients with type 2 diabetes and this may result in the omission of nutritional assessments for these patients [10]. Current evidence also identifies positive health outcomes associated with obesity in specialised admitted patients. European data provide evidence of lower in-hospital mortality and length of ICU stay in overweight and morbidly obese critically ill patients and is consistent with earlier studies that reported better clinical outcomes for critically ill patients with increased BMI [11]. The factors that underpin the physiological benefits of increased BMI in critically ill patients are related to the adequacy of metabolic substrates, the increased capacity for catabolism and increased energy reserves. However, the explanatory factors of improved mortality rates in ICU has not been well examined and many others have been advanced including differences in adipokines and inflammatory mediators, such as leptin and interleukin-10, secreted by fat cells, which are thought to have attenuative inflammatory properties thereby theoretically improving survival during critical illness. Another credible explanation is that persons with higher BMI may have lower severity of illness than their normal BMI counterparts through intangible means [11]. The nutritional status of ICU patients provides an interesting counterpoint to general hospital admissions, however global data on the epidemiology of obesity among patients admitted to ICUs remains limited. Yet, such data are important to understand the possible regional variability of the burden imposed by obesity on outcome and utilisation of healthcare resources. Correspondingly, other European evidence supports this report and identified a concept called the “obesity paradox” where a seemingly negative health condition (overnutrition) is associated with a positive clinical outcome (reduced hospital length of stay). Shorter hospital stay was reported in populations other than critically ill patients. Parissis et al., [12] found that patients with chronic heart failure, who also had higher BMI had associated lower in-hospital mortality.
\nAlternatively, and much more common are the negative health outcomes associated with overnutrition. There is a strong positive linear relationship between obesity, overweight and the incidence of non-communicable diseases. There is an analogous increase in the prevalence of comorbidities in tandem with BMI particularly concerning arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and dyslipidaemia. Moreover, current evidence identified that overweight/obese patients represented most of Acute Heart Failure cases, as well as had a higher prevalence of non-cardiovascular comorbidities [12]. Furthermore, North American statistics provide evidence of an inverse near-linear relationship with in-hospital mortality and BMI [12]. Moreover, overnutrition is associated with an increased risk of worsened health status in diabetic patients. The evidence points to poor glycaemic control for obese diabetics when compared to normal weight diabetics [10].
\nThe paradigm of malnutrition is considerable, and the concept is linked with many factors. These determinants are usually categorised as clinical and social. Figure 3 provides a summary of the determinants and correlates of malnutrition.
\nFactors influencing malnutrition. Source: Bapat et al. [
There are six major physiological factors that are described as influential on malnutrition statuses among people. According to Triantafillidis et al. [14] the six main physical determinants of malnutrition, particularly undernutrition, are:
Decrease in oral intake due to primary physiological changes or secondary to health effects
Restrictive diets such as low carb, very low carbohydrate diets (VLCD), low fat, veganism among others
Therapeutic fasting related primarily to presenting health condition such as in gastrointestinal disorders like Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis and with bowel prep before gastrointestinal surgeries, or due to diarrhoea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting
Alteration in taste due to drugs, vitamin and mineral deficiencies including in zinc deficiency, and with proinflammatory mediators
Anorexigenous effect of proinflammatory cytokines
Gastrointestinal losses which impair energy and nutrient balances
Diarrhoea
Rectorrhagia (rectal bleeding without faeces)/hematochezia (bleeding with stools)
Loss of mucus and electrolytes
Protein-losing enteropathy (disease of the small intestine)
Metabolic disorders which interferes with energy balance
Increase in resting energy expenditure due to inflammation, fever, and sepsis
Enhanced fat oxidation
Increase in nutritional requirements due to increase substrate requirement for macro and micronutrients with subsequent switch from anabolism to catabolism
Inflammatory states
Increased basal oxidative metabolism—including during fever
Infectious complications-with activated immune response
Postsurgery with substantial tissue repair
Drug interactions limiting absorption, digestion and usage of essential micronutrients—vitamins, minerals and electrolytes
Corticosteroids and calcium reabsorption
Corticosteroids and protein catabolism—influencing turnover and nitrogen balance
Salazopyrin and folate absorption
Methotrexate and folates
Cholestyramine and fat-soluble vitamins
Antimicrobials esp. cephalosporins and vitamin K; inhibit endogenous metabolism and intestinal absorption
Antisecretors and iron
Gastrointestinal or support organ structural dysfunction resulting in poor absorption of nutrients
Reduction of the absorptive surface due to intestinal resection and enteric fistulas and high output fistulas
Blind loops and bacterial overgrowth
Poor absorption of bile salts in ileitis or resection
Mucosal inflammation and inflammatory diseases [14]
Alternately, the determinants of overnutrition are fewer and varies widely from those resulting in undernutrition, however the concept of energy and food intake is consistent across malnutrition categories. There are definitive proponents of obesity development. It is documented that increased consumption of energy dense foods which are correspondingly poor in micronutrients, greater than physiologic demand will lead to weight accumulation, shifting the beam of the pendulum from balance to excess [10]. North American data identifies biological, behavioural and social contributors of obesity, insomuch as Lifshitz and Lifshitz [15] proposes that the causes of obesity are multifactorial, they include:
A genetic predisposition
Hormonal activity
Health status and disease burden
An environmental susceptibility to gain weight
Increased energy intake
Reduced energy expenditures
Structural environmental changes creating an obesogenic environment
Abundance of high-caloric density, low-quality food
Food selection/preparation
National and international food policies
The factors increasing the risk of malnutrition exist for malnourished states central to as well as external to hospitalisation. Though the factors outlined hitherto contributes significantly to hospital-based malnutrition, the unique concept of hospitalisations worsens the risk and the incidence of malnutrition. In secondary care facilities malnutrition, and more frequently undernutrition, develops as a result of insufficient energy and nutrient intake, impaired digestion/absorption/utilisation or loss of nutrients due to illness or trauma through wounds, fistulas, or excreta as well increased metabolic demands during illness, recovery, and physiological response [4]. There remains no consensus on the definition of malnutrition, especially undernutrition, with a profusion of criteria possibly explaining some of the inconsistencies in the prevalence rates reported in the literature. Generally, unintentional weight loss >5% in a short period of time (over 3–6 months) and decreased food intake are among the definitive parameters of undernutrition [4]. Consistent with the challenges in defining malnutrition, so too is there challenge in delineating all the factors that correlate with malnutrition, particularly undernutrition.
\nSupportive evidence precedes these assertions and describe the causes of “disease-related malnutrition” as being inclusive of insufficient food/nutrient intake, impaired nutrient digestion and absorption and increased requirements for nutrients with increased losses (e.g., from wounds, malabsorption) and catabolism [1]. While other evidence points to a strong social link, where nutritional status at hospital admission is said to be compounded by primary malnutrition mainly reflecting poor socioeconomic conditions, and secondary malnutrition usually influenced by the impact of degenerative, terminal and chronic diseases [16].
\nAcute malnutrition takes place in a few weeks to months, it primarily affects lean body stores and is usually managed effectively to prevent permanent impact, especially in children. It occurs in a range of instances including during emergencies, seasonally and endemically [17]. These situations usually contribute to undernutrition through severe restrictions to nutrient and energy supply. In the former case, hospital-based emergencies may result in medium term therapeutic fasts, while in countries which rely heavily on agriculture and have variable weather pattern, food security may be critically impacted creating a unique form of dietary restriction. In undernutrition, there is a greater risk of death which is related not only to the infection but also to the loss of muscle mass with concordant limits to immunity and primary metabolic functions. Fat stores, which are used up in cases of undernutrition without infection, may also play a role in survival and regulate bone linear growth [17].
\nIn as much as malnutrition is debilitating and associated with severe health outcomes, there are vulnerable groups for which malnutrition, particularly undernutrition, is more likely to affect and by extension more probable to result in death. The literature suggest that malnutrition is a problem in many different disease groups, including cancer (5–80%), neurology (4–66%), surgical/critical illness (0–100%), respiratory disease (5–60%), gastrointestinal and liver disease (3–100%), HIV/AIDS (8–98%) and renal disease (10–72%) [1]. Over a similar period in Cuba the rates of undernutrition were alarming 41.2% were classified as undernourished and 11.1% of patients were considered severely undernourished. Malnutrition rates increased progressively with prolonged length of stay [18]. Current evidence highlights that patients who are hospitalised are at risk of developing iatrogenic malnutrition or hospital-based malnutrition due to several reasons. Patients admitted in hospitals, for instance after an acute exacerbation of a chronic condition, are at high risk of developing disease-related malnutrition (DRM) a consequence of loss of appetite, poor nutritional intake, and disease-related catabolism and in severe instances cachexia [19]. In addition to the clinical conditions that may predispose patients to malnutrition, age and gender are also factors which create additional risk. Children and infants with limited physiological and nutritional reserves, pregnant women who must physically meet her needs and that of a growing foetus as well as the elderly are numbered among the vulnerable, nutritionally at-risk group. Hospitalised elderly patients are particularly vulnerable to develop DRM because of poor nutritional antecedents including decreased fat free mass and impaired protein, energy, and fluid intake [19]. Consequently, care must be taken to screen, assess, manage and follow up patients who are at-risk of malnutrition in an effort to reduce the associated risk of mortality and morbidity across differing health conditions/disease states and the lifecycle [20].
\nNegative health outcomes resulting from poor nutrition is pervasive across all life stages and impacts individuals differently in each group due to physiological and developmental differences among groups. Consequently, health care professionals must be keen to ensure that the unique characteristics and risks in each group are evaluated. Therefore, international organisations such as PAHO, WHO and CDC have instituted concerted efforts, but the rates and impact of childhood malnutrition continues to be extensive. Childhood is characterized by a period of dependence, rapid growth and limited nutritional reserves accordingly, parental neglect, limited knowledge and socioeconomic capacity may negatively influence nutritional adequacy. Globally childhood malnutrition continues to be a public health problem with alarming statistics in 2015, out of the 1.5 million children who died, nearly half (45%) of these deaths resulted from malnutrition or its correlates [21]. In the Latin America and the Caribbean, the rates are more concerning with infant mortality rate being 11 per 1000 live births in Barbados [22]. Furthermore, infants and children exposed earlier and more sustainably to poor states of nutrition have a greater probability of experiencing more severe and chronic health outcomes as a result. In utero as well as cohort studies of the Latin Americas and the Caribbean and European societies suggest that foetus exposed to poor maternal nutrition, and children 0–6 months old exposed to poor nutritional profiles are more likely to be hospitalised, exhibit mental disorders such as personality and schizoid disorders and have chronic diseases including hypertension and diabetes [22, 23]. Moreover, European evidence points to greater episodes of diarrhoea, vomiting, poor recovery, longer hospital stays and greater health care costs in admitted children with body mass indices less than two standard deviations in children compared to healthy controls [24]. Nevertheless, the morbidity associated with nutritional inadequacies in children can be attenuated with early and appropriate nutritional interventions. Studies concerning the Caribbean and West African population have shown that the rate of hospitalisation and mental illness associated with poor childhood nutrition declined with nutritional supplementation in both Barbados and Mauritius [23].
\nSimilar to the physiological impact in infancy and childhood, pregnancy and lactation create nutritional vulnerabilities for the foetus and the mother. The additional metabolic demands, nutritional requirements of the foetus and the capacity to support the organ changes coupled with emotional and physiological factors limiting dietary intake increase the risk of nutritional inadequacy in pregnancy. Current evidence suggests that it increases the risk of morbidity and mortality for both the mother and the unborn child. In Latin America, there are reports of a lack of specialised tool to examine maternal nutritional states as well as a lack of protocols to guide nutritional support and intervention [21]. In pregnancy, poor maternal weight gain, low haemoglobin levels, and impaired fasting plasma glucose levels, as well as poor maternal dietary intake and physical inactivity are important predictors of infant mortality, maternal mortality, low birth weight and poor infant growth and development [21]. The authors suggest that assessment, screening, follow-up and maternal care are important modulators of these outcomes.
\nFor adolescents, the portion of the lifecycle is characterized by rapid growth and organ development, greater autonomy and independence, access to media and dietary advice. Contingent on the adolescent’s support and capacity to negotiate these changes he may be at risk of developing micronutrient deficiencies such as iron and calcium, or experience macronutrient imbalances associated with obesity and wasting as well as eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia [25]. Growth should be monitored at regular intervals throughout childhood and adolescence and should also be measured every time an adolescent visits a healthcare facility for preventive, acute, or chronic care. In children ages 2–20 years several nutritional and developmental indices should be measured as a standard procedure to identify and treat potential nutritional risks and disorders including standing height-for-age, weight-for-age, and body mass index (BMI)-for-age [26].
\nWhile adolescence malnutrition is plagued with equal risks of acute and chronic outcomes, in adulthood the risks associated with nutritional imbalances have greater links to chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular and endocrine disorders. These disorders worsen morbidity risk in nutritionally unhealthy adults through poorer quality of life and longer periods of disability adjusted life years (DALY) mainly as a result of the contribution of overweight and obesity. Similarly, underweight, using mid upper arm circumference as a proxy for assessment, has shown strong negative correlations with in-hospital mortality in adults. It accounted for a nearly (3.8) fourfold increased risk of in-hospital mortality when compared with healthy controls [27]. Other evidence points however to a protective effect of obesity on in-hospital mortality in adults where odds of death was 0.9 and 0.7 in overweight and obese patients compared to normal weight adult counterparts. Other evidence however confirmed the findings of Asiimwe [27] inasmuch as it reports that the odds of dying were higher in hospitalised undernourished adult patients [28].
\nNutritional health maintenance and its sequelae of outcomes are similarly perplexing in the elderly. They have a double burden of increased micronutrient requirements such as iron, calcium, and phosphorus with a discordant reduction in the requirement for macronutrients. In the face of this conundrum, the health care provider must be careful of the nutritional prescriptions to balance macronutrient requirements to attenuate chronic disease risk as well as to maintain adequate micronutrient requirements to prevent and manage important metabolic changes associated with the physiological features of aging. Furthermore, the older adult is described as nutritionally vulnerable because he has reduced physical reserve that restricts the ability to mount a vigorous recovery when there is an acute health threat or stressor [29]. In developing as well as developed countries malnutrition is identified as an independent predictor of mortality. The mortality rate in malnourished elderly Brazilians aged between 60 and 69 years was 3.34 deaths per 1000 inhabitants, and among those aging 70 years and older, 11 deaths per 1000 inhabitants [30]. The factors contributing to the elderly’s nutritional vulnerability include multiple medical conditions, and polypharmacy, physiological changes affecting intake and absorption including xerostomia, anorexia of aging and achlorhydria, obesity, and limited socioeconomic resources. Conversely, having adequate muscle mass, replete micronutrient stores, healthy dietary practices and adequate social support are protective factors against nutritional inadequacy in the elderly population [29]. Consistent across all life stages is the risk of nutritional ill health, unique to each segment of the cycle is a physiological and development paradigm that creates a distinctive risk for the individual. Critical to the successful negotiation of the life stage is the public health role that providers play, they must be equipped to screen, assess, diagnose, and prescribe appropriate individualised plans and evaluate nutritional outcomes. It is important therefore for the health care provider to be conversant regarding the procedures for managing both elements of the spectrum of malnutrition.
\nComparable with the debate concerning the criteria for defining undernutrition, there continues to be a rigorous academic discourse surrounding the management of undernutrition.
\nThough the debate is still raging, institutes such as BAPEN, ASPEN and ESPEN and health professionals have advanced nutritional prescriptions linked to the energy, amino acid and electrolyte needs. Protein and energy supply in undernourished patients contribute to supporting metabolic reactions, providing substrates for immune functions and expansion of lean body reserves, while electrolytes and major minerals such as iron, sodium, phosphorus and potassium are essential for electrical and neuronal conductivity and several metabolic homeostatic reactions. Energy and protein recommendations are usually the most varied elements of the debate, nevertheless contemporary and classical evidence converges on the general recommendations for nutritional support of undernourished clients. These patients should be prescribed a diet based on the following allowances: protein, 1.1–1.5 g/kg; calories, 30–35 kcal/kg; sodium, 87–120 mEq/day; potassium, 1.1–1.5 mEq/kg; phosphorus, <17 mg/kg. Additional nutritional supports in the form of high-protein or high-protein and high-calorie supplements were also provided to individual patients whose weight was <80% of their habitual body weight, if they had more than 3 kg (5–7 lb) of weight loss in a month, and/or their serum albumin was <3.5 g/dl [31, 32]. Despite the benefits that can be accrued from nutritional support, the problem is still evident in the Low and Middle-Income countries of the Latin Americas. In eight Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, and Peru), malnutrition was found to be prevalent among hospitalised patients and caloric intake failed to meet targeted energy delivery in 40% of hospitalised adults receiving nutrition therapy. The evidence suggested that supplemental administration of parenteral and enteral nutrition was associated with improved energy and protein delivery and reduced mortality levels [33].
\nFor children, malnutrition-especially undernutrition may be more incestuous and accompanied by infectious diseases, worm and helminth infections and involve both macro and micronutrient deficiencies. Current evidence outlines that childhood malnutrition is a significant contributor to mortality rates of children under five. The risk of death may be attenuated by energy supply dependent on calorimetric determinants and earlier antibiotic therapy [34].
\nTo effectively manage undernutrition, patients’ nutritional status must be determined, and the nutritional prescription individualised based on their needs. Screening and assessment are the procedures necessary for the classification of client’s nutritional status. Furthermore, nutritional risk screening is an important modulator of mortality and morbidity risk particularly in hospitalised surgical patients [35]. Current research supports this finding, as nutritional screening is described as one of the most critical initial steps in nutritional management. Many health care professional groups (ASPEN, BAPEN and ESPEN) currently recommend nutritional screening of acute care patients, either before elective admissions or within 24–48 h after emergency admissions. It is imperative to identify and classify malnourished patients promptly to prevent or counter the associated negative health outcomes. Currently, physicians and nurses assess patients on admission to hospital, and it has been suggested that they are in an ideal position to screen patients for malnutrition [3]. Moreover, clinicians suggest that nutritional status evaluation include clinical and biochemical assessments. Standard biochemical assessments should include basic serum electrolyte tests as well as serum albumin and prealbumin levels which are direct markers of lean body mass. For several authors, serum albumin level is the best prognostic indicator of nutritional status because of its ability to detect protein-energy malnutrition, which may not be accompanied by declines in body mass index and body weight or may be sub-clinical especially in the acute phases. Additionally, serum albumin level was identified a better predictor of some types of morbidity, particularly sepsis and major infections, than other types [36].
\nEffective nutritional management strategies include: appropriate weighing practices; documentation of weight fluctuations; monitoring of biochemical parameters and food intake; and clear malnutrition identification criteria through nutritional screening. Using nutritional experts and multidisciplinary nutritional teams is also recommended to help combat malnutrition [3].
\nFurthermore, there abounds a plethora of algorithms that outlines effective nutritional management procedures inclusive of screening, assessment and intervention guidelines. There are disease specific algorithms as well as population specific protocols available including guidelines from ASPEN as outlined in Figure 4.
\nNutrition care algorithm. Source: [
Algorithms such as the one advanced by ASPEN are available and supported by hospital protocols but there remains low levels of nutritional screening and assessment particularly in resource restricted low-income countries such as Latin America and the Caribbean, the rates are troubling. In a study of 14 countries, only two were found to have national policies regarding best practices for nutrition therapy in hospitals or long-term care facilities and this data was associated with only 9% of patients who required parenteral or enteral nutrition receiving the treatment [4].
\nIn children, several indices have been identified by health authorities including the WHO as being suitable in identifying malnutrition and its risk. Current evidence points to mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) providing better estimates of childhood mortality when compared with weight-for-height. Weight-for-height is unstable and variable in acute conditions affecting body water. It is more sensitive to dehydration, such as in the case of diarrhoea, where dehydration causes weight loss with little impact on lean body mass [17], therefore MUAC which is more robust against these changes, is recommended as a more stable measure of nutritional status and risk.
\nConsistent with the need for nutritional screening, assessment and evaluation, is the poignant value of hospitals and primary as well as tertiary care facilities being staffed with professionals knowledgeable, skilled and resourced to deliver adequate nutritional support. In stark contrast to this recommendation is the reality of the characteristics of human resources that people these institutions. In some studies, provider knowledge, understanding and data usage was identified as a barrier to optimal nutritional support [38]. In Swedish settings, limited access to nutrition related education as well as availability of training programmes were identified as having negative effects on nutritional support and management [39]. Furthermore, there is low nutrition related health literacy among health care professionals partly attributable to a weak “nutritional culture” correspondent with inadequate academic training and preparation of health care professionals [40]. This partly due to limits in the nutritional education and training afforded to health care providers.
\nWhile health care workers recognised the value of nutritional screening and assessment, deficiencies in their knowledge and skill limit the benefits that could be accrued from early and consistent nutritional evaluation. Coupled with individual level limitations there are also policy level challenges as well as institutional and nationally challenges in some respects [39]. In the Latin America, the culture, value, and significance of nutritional support in health care are limited even as the prevalence of malnutrition and its outcomes rise. The increased rates of community and hospital malnutrition and its morbidity and mortality risks in Latin America occur alongside a limitation in the awareness levels of providers concerning the management of disease-related malnutrition [42]. It however, represents an opportunity to improve nutrition care by increasing education and training. Healthcare administrators, clinical leaders and educators, and clinicians must first recognise the significance of nutrition to health care and then must be knowledgeable in order to realise the benefits of nutritional support in hospitals.
\nThough there are inconsistencies in the proponents’ views on the diagnosis and treatment of malnutrition there is consensus on the need for treatment and the value of nutritional support to health care outcomes. Current guidelines published by the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) provide primarily recommendations for nutritional therapy specific to organ/system dysfunctions and medical specialty [19]. However, large developed and developing countries fail to institute these recommendations in the abundance and the absence of adequate resources. Knowledge, experience, self-confidence, and self-efficacy may be the intangible factors constraining the implementation of these guidelines. Current evidence points to their impact on negative clinical and health outcomes including worsening risk of mortality and morbidity as a consequence of undertreatment of vulnerable hospitalised patients.
\nSignificantly, developed and emerging societies are plagued with malnutrition and its consequences as well as institutional and provider level incompetencies to manage the spiralling problem. The burden is more severe in resource restricted countries. To attenuate the negative effects of malnutrition developing countries should employ the following strategies:
Evaluate, adopt and customise appropriate nutritional management algorithms to guide health care practitioners
Institute appropriate national and institutional policies to guide and support the use of nutritional treatment protocols
Assess the training and educational needs of the health care teams
Organise regular and contemporary education/training procedures and updates for all members of the health care team
Engender a culture of nutritional significance and value to health care development and recovery
Reinforce nutritional evaluation and follow-up during and post hospitalisation
Adopt international primary and public health strategies to minimize primary malnutrition risk
Support the documentation of unique nutritional support procedures and the statistics concerning nutritional management
The global incidence of malnutrition is significant. Nutritional inadequacies directly impact hospital morbidity and mortality rates, worsening death for the most parts and to a lesser extent obesity has been linked to a protective effect. The condition severely diminishes quality of life for individuals of all ages. Health care providers through their capacity and responsibility to screen, assess and intervene serve as critical modulators of malnutrition outcomes. Nevertheless, their attenuative capacity is severely restricted through limited nutrition health related culture, training, education and resource limitations. Notwithstanding the significant challenges, countries and health care institutions must recognise the role nutrition plays in morbidity and mortality and institute effective action, including training and education, as well as policy and resource provision in order to stymie the negative impact of nutrition on morbidity and mortality.
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\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11044",title:"Dysphagia",subtitle:"New Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8961f55525f51bd82d3daa09debd158f",slug:"dysphagia-new-advances",bookSignature:"Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11044.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10473",title:"Sarcoidosis",subtitle:"New Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bffdfb8619408d0a5608527292b6985",slug:"sarcoidosis-new-perspectives",bookSignature:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari and Entezar Mehrabi Nasab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10473.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",middleName:null,surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1854,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:10520,totalCrossrefCites:134,totalDimensionsCites:305,abstract:null,book:{id:"314",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:2864,totalCrossrefCites:139,totalDimensionsCites:302,abstract:null,book:{id:"3839",slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8820,totalCrossrefCites:95,totalDimensionsCites:256,abstract:null,book:{id:"727",slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]},{id:"64762",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82511",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10461,totalCrossrefCites:107,totalDimensionsCites:248,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"27687",doi:"10.5772/29869",title:"Heavy Metals and Human Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18969,totalCrossrefCites:87,totalDimensionsCites:196,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14590,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ozioma-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ozioma Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1214,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"64762",title:"Mechanism and Health Effects of Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans",slug:"mechanism-and-health-effects-of-heavy-metal-toxicity-in-humans",totalDownloads:10470,totalCrossrefCites:107,totalDimensionsCites:247,abstract:"Several heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust and are exploited for various industrial and economic purposes. Among these heavy metals, a few have direct or indirect impact on the human body. Some of these heavy metals such as copper, cobalt, iron, nickel, magnesium, molybdenum, chromium, selenium, manganese and zinc have functional roles which are essential for various diverse physiological and biochemical activities in the body. However, some of these heavy metals in high doses can be harmful to the body while others such as cadmium, mercury, lead, chromium, silver, and arsenic in minute quantities have delirious effects in the body causing acute and chronic toxicities in humans. The focus of this chapter is to describe the various mechanism of intoxication of some selected heavy metals in humans along with their health effects. Therefore it aims to highlight on biochemical mechanisms of heavy metal intoxication which involves binding to proteins and enzymes, altering their activity and causing damage. More so, the mechanism by which heavy metals cause neurotoxicity, generate free radical which promotes oxidative stress damaging lipids, proteins and DNA molecules and how these free radicals propagate carcinogenesis are discussed. Alongside these mechanisms, the noxious health effects of these heavy metals are discussed.",book:{id:"7111",slug:"poisoning-in-the-modern-world-new-tricks-for-an-old-dog-",title:"Poisoning in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Poisoning in the Modern World - New Tricks for an Old Dog?"},signatures:"Godwill Azeh Engwa, Paschaline Udoka Ferdinand, Friday Nweke Nwalo and Marian N. Unachukwu",authors:[{id:"241837",title:"Mr.",name:"Godwill Azeh",middleName:null,surname:"Engwa",slug:"godwill-azeh-engwa",fullName:"Godwill Azeh Engwa"},{id:"274194",title:"BSc.",name:"Paschaline Ferdinand",middleName:null,surname:"Okeke",slug:"paschaline-ferdinand-okeke",fullName:"Paschaline Ferdinand Okeke"},{id:"286975",title:"Dr.",name:"Friday",middleName:null,surname:"Nweke Nwalo",slug:"friday-nweke-nwalo",fullName:"Friday Nweke Nwalo"},{id:"286976",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Unachukwu",slug:"marian-unachukwu",fullName:"Marian Unachukwu"}]},{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6231,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31230,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"3",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83158",title:"Cannabis and the Brain: Friend or Foe?",slug:"cannabis-and-the-brain-friend-or-foe",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106669",abstract:"Legalization of cannabis in the US and other countries highlight the need to understand the health consequences of this substance use. Research indicates that some cannabis ingredients may play beneficial role in treating various medical conditions while other ingredients may pose health risks. This review is focused on the brain and mental health effects of cannabis use. The rationale for examining cannabis use in behavioral and neural conditions is that these conditions are highly widespread in the US and account for high level of medical healthcare and associated cost. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the known medicinal benefits of selected cannabis cannabinoids in conditions like pediatric epilepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and the known side effects or contraindications in conditions such as addiction, cognition, and psychosis. Several recommendations are made as to studies that will help further understanding the increasing role of cannabis in neuropsychiatric health and disease.",book:{id:"11714",title:"Cannabinoids - Recent Perspectives and Applications in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11714.jpg"},signatures:"Ali E. Dabiri and Ghassan S. Kassab"},{id:"83161",title:"Repurposing BCG and MMR Vaccines for Combating Covid-19: A Review and Opinion Based on Clinical Evidence",slug:"repurposing-bcg-and-mmr-vaccines-for-combating-covid-19-a-review-and-opinion-based-on-clinical-evide",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106788",abstract:"Our review comprehends past and recent developments encircling the two vaccines, BCG and MMR, which have efficacy lasting 10 years and are known to trigger the production of Interferon and various cytokines. BCG has depicted long-lasting effects, reduction in mortality, and hospitalizations associated with various diseases in different age groups as per studies across Sweden, West Africa, Spain, and Indonesia. Clinical trials are in progress in Holland, Australia, and Germany to study its effects on COVID-19. Most Asian countries with childhood BCG vaccination programs have shown lower COVID-19-related per capita death rates. The MMR vaccination has shown a reduction in hospitalizations and COVID-19-related deaths in about 11 countries, and a randomized clinical trial has been proposed in New Orleans. Reasons such as inhibition of pulmonary inflammation and structural similarity have been cited for such consequences. BCG and MMR may serve to shorten the duration of infection, minimize harmful pathology, reduce hospitalization rates, and curb the spread of the disease, but more research is required to assess the associated risks, especially for the elderly and people with comorbidities who are prone to severe complications of COVID-19.",book:{id:"11724",title:"COVID-19 Vaccines - Current State and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11724.jpg"},signatures:"Kasturi Mahesh Tawde, Aditya Manivannan Iyer and Harshal Ashok Pawar"},{id:"83136",title:"Vector Control: Insights Arising from the Post-Genomics Findings on Insects’ Reproductive Biology",slug:"vector-control-insights-arising-from-the-post-genomics-findings-on-insects-reproductive-biology",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106273",abstract:"The high prevalence of neglected vector-borne diseases, such as Chagas disease and dengue fever, imposes enormous health and financial burdens in developing countries. Historically, and still, to this day, the main effective methods to manage those diseases rely on vector population control. Although early efforts in understanding vector-specific biology resulted in important advancements in the development of strategies for the management of vector-borne diseases, studies regarding the complex physiology of local vector species were weakened by the expanding use of insecticide-based tools, which were, at the time, proven simpler and effective. The rising threat of insecticide resistance and climate change (which can expand endemic areas) has reemphasized the need to rely on thorough species-specific vector biology. One approach to controlling vector populations is to disrupt molecular processes or antagonize the metabolic targets required to produce viable eggs. Here, we discuss new findings arising from post-genomics molecular studies on vector reproductive biology and discuss their potential for the elaboration of new effective vector control interventions.",book:{id:"11227",title:"New Advances in Neglected Tropical Diseases",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11227.jpg"},signatures:"Isabela Ramos and Fabio Gomes"},{id:"83146",title:"Metabarcoding and Digital PCR (dPCR): Application in the Study of Neglected Tropical Diseases",slug:"metabarcoding-and-digital-pcr-dpcr-application-in-the-study-of-neglected-tropical-diseases",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106272",abstract:"neglected tropical diseases such as Chagas disease, dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and malaria cause millions of deaths each year and they are caused by a variety of pathogens whose diagnosis is very limited or subject to conventional testing, making a treatment less accessible, accurate and timely diagnosis for choosing their treatments. Traditional methods for pathogen detection have not been able to meet the growing need for diagnosis and control. The incorporation of new technologies such as next-generation sequencing (NGS) and digital PCR (dPCR) represent a better diagnostic possibility due to their ability to absolutely quantify pathogens with high selectivity and precision. Our planet is currently experiencing environmental changes of an unprecedented magnitude and rate, including climate change, globalized pollution, biodiversity loss, and land use changes, so neglected diseases require a comprehensive understanding of the ecology of vectors in the different eco-epidemiological contexts, as well as of the transmission cycles of pathogens and their transmission dynamics. In this sense, NGS and dPCR open a new panorama for a better understanding of these diseases with the aim of proposing new programs for their care.",book:{id:"11227",title:"New Advances in Neglected Tropical Diseases",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11227.jpg"},signatures:"María de la Soldedad Lagunes-Castro, Aracely López-Monteon, Daniel Guzmán-Gómez and Angel Ramos-Ligonio"},{id:"82798",title:"Biomarkers in Multiple Sclerosis",slug:"biomarkers-in-multiple-sclerosis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106052",abstract:"Clinical, biological, and radiological evidence are currently needed to diagnose MS, but lack of preclinical biomarkers hinders the earliest possible diagnosis and treatment. Conventional biomarkers target immunity, blood-brain barrier disruption, demyelination, and neuronal and axonal damage, as well as mitochondrial activity. An increase of specific brain metabolites with 30–40% is registered before detection of MRI lesions in MS. Potential lipid biomarkers are fatty acids, phospholipids, and oxysterols. The role of proteoforms in the pathogenesis of MS was confirmed. Serum neurofilament light chains (sNfL) are currently being studied as a readily available biomarker for prognosis and response to treatment in MS. The sNfL levels reflect ongoing neuroaxonal damage caused by inflammation, and the sNfL levels predict disease activity over the next few years. The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thinning is reliable as a biomarker of disability worsening. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and CRP are also MS biomarkers. The development of rationally targeted therapeutic agents that allow preventive treatment to stop the disease is also delayed without definite biomarkers.",book:{id:"11312",title:"Multiple Sclerosis - Genetics, Disease Mechanisms and Clinical Developments",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11312.jpg"},signatures:"Valentina Ignatova"},{id:"83129",title:"Airborne Transmission and Control of Influenza and Other Respiratory Pathogens",slug:"airborne-transmission-and-control-of-influenza-and-other-respiratory-pathogens",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106446",abstract:"Despite uncertainty about the specific transmission risk posed by airborne, spray-borne, and contact modes for influenza, SARS-CoV-2, and other respiratory viruses, there is evidence that airborne transmission via inhalation is important and often predominates. An early study of influenza transmission via airborne challenge quantified infectious doses as low as one influenza virion leading to illness characterized by cough and sore throat. Other studies that challenged via intranasal mucosal exposure observed high doses required for similarly symptomatic respiratory illnesses. Analysis of the Evaluating Modes of Influenza Transmission (EMIT) influenza human-challenge transmission trial—of 52 H3N2 inoculated viral donors and 75 sero-susceptible exposed individuals—quantifies airborne transmission and provides context and insight into methodology related to airborne transmission. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. 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