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1. Introduction
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The conventional extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) extraction method consists of three main processes, which are crushing, malaxation, and centrifugation [1]. After washing olive fruits, they are crushed using a stone-mill, hammers, disc crushers, de-stoning machines, or blades [2]. The purpose of this step is to facilitate the release of the oil droplets from the Elaioplasts. The minimum size for the continuous separation process of olive oil is 30 μm, but only 45% of the oil droplets have a diameter greater than 30 μm after crushing increases. This ratio reaches 80% with the formation of larger diameter drops from the oil droplets by malaxation [3].Malaxation and crushing are main steps that affect the quality and yield of oil [4]. A flow chart of extra virgin olive oil extraction is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1.
Flow chart of olive oil extraction.
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Conventional techniques in olive oil extraction have not changed significantly for last 20 years [5]. However, in line with research findings and new techniques developed by market demand, the ongoing food industry has become very active in looking for new methods for food innovation. But, it is still very uncommon for the food industry to develop and adopt advanced processing techniques in the direction of consumers’ increasing food safety and quality requirements [6]. Researchers working on the development of food technology are making great efforts to develop and implement “minimal processing” strategies to remove the negative effects of traditional food processing methods. The most general definition of minimal processing can be: preserving the nutritional quality and sensory qualities of food by heat application, which is the basic protection step in food processing, for a shorter period of time. [7]. Emerging technologies including microwave, high-pressure processing, pulsed light, radio frequency, Ohmic heating, ultrasound, and pulsed electric field (PEF) are widely applied emerging minimal processes in the food industry.
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In recent years, novel technologies such as ultrasound, pulsed electric field, or microwave have been adopted in olive oil extraction [1, 8, 9, 10] because of their positive effects including enhanced extraction efficiency, reduced extraction time, increased yield, and low energy consumption.
\n
Ultrasound is one of the main emerging technologies widely used in various extraction processes of plant materials [11, 12]. In order to enhance oil extraction, ultrasound can be applied to the olive paste due to its mechanic effect on the cell membranes, which induces them to release oil easily from vacuoles with a considerably lower malaxation time and higher oil quality and yield [2, 5, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. In addition to the extraction process, ultrasound was also investigated in numerous studies on food processing methods including emulsification, filtration, crystallization, inactivation of enzymes and microorganisms, thawing, and freezing on foods [19, 20].
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It has been demonstrated that pulsed electric field (PEF), another non-thermal technology, is effective for reversible or irreversible permeabilization of cell membranes in several plant tissues, without significant temperature increase [8]. PEF technology, which has been used in the field of food science since 1960, is based on the principle of exposing liquid or solid food products to an electric field causing pores in cell membranes [6].
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Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is an alternative oil extraction method in recent years. Since microwave provides more rapid heating and destruction of biological cell structures in a shorter time, it is a more efficient extraction method than conventional processes. Other important advantages of this method are obtaining high-quality oil and low energy requirement, which cause a significant reduction in environmental impact and financial costs [21].
\n
More emphasis has been placed on the understanding of a superior EVOO quality based on the preservation of the sensory characteristics and positive health properties of olive oil in recent years. This aspect of EVOO quality is strongly related to the presence of phenolic and volatile compounds [13, 22]. Therefore, utilization of an emerging technology in olive oil extraction should not only increase oil yield, but also protect and improve the bioactive oil compounds and the oil quality. Recent studies that applied emerging technologies to olive oil extraction are summarized in Table 1.
2. Ultrasound applications in olive oil extraction
\n
In the olive oil industry, ultrasound is the one of the most promising technologies because of its powerful mechanical and mild thermal effects [32]. Many researchers have used this technology to investigate its effects on overall olive oil quality and yield in the last decade [1, 10, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 33]. In recent years, it has been discovered that using a stronger ultrasound (>1 W/cm2) at a lower frequency (generally around 20–50 kHz), which is also called high-power ultrasound (HPU) (usually around 20–50 kHz), is physically effective in altering the properties of a substance or inactivating microorganisms [6, 7].
\n
High-power ultrasound application in olive oil extraction was first performed by Jiménez et al. [15] under discontinuous conditions. In their studies investigating the effects of direct and indirect ultrasound, they found that direct sonication provided better extractability in high-moisture olives (>50%) while greater extractability was obtained by indirect sonication in low-moisture olive fruits (<50%) [15].
\n
Enrichment of olive oil with main phenols in olive leaves using ultrasound has been studied by researchers [34, 35]. Achat et al. [34] used ultrasound to enrich olive oil with oleuropein both on a laboratory and a pilot plant scale. The ultrasound-assisted extraction method greatly facilitated the enrichment of VOO in phenolic compounds compared to conventional processes. They found that tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, main phenolic compounds present in olive oil, were not significantly degraded by sonication [34].
\n
Clodoveo et al. [10] investigated ultrasound application on olive fruits submerged in a water bath before crushing and also on olive paste after crushing. The purpose of their study was to test the possibility of decreasing the malaxation time. Reduction in the malaxation time and improvement in oil yields and its minor nutritional compounds were attained by ultrasound technology. The results were better in oils obtained by sonication of olives in water bath than those obtained by sonication of olive paste [10].
\n
Bejaoui et al. [25] applied HPU to olive paste through the pipe before centrifugation with continuous conditions. They observed that when the oils were extracted without ultrasound, the extraction yield was 46.83% ± 0.83, while ultrasound treatment of olive paste produced a significant increase in extraction yields to 52.75% ± 1.39.
\n
Aydar et al. [1] used an ultrasound bath in olive oil extraction to find optimum ultrasound-assisted olive oil extraction conditions based on maximum oil yield and minimum free acidity. The acidity of the oils for all experiments was below the legal limit (<8 g oleic acid/kg oil) established for the category of EVOO [36]. The most important impact on the extraction yield and the acidity (p < 0.05) was due to the malaxation temperature. They also observed that ultrasound time had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on the acidity and yield [36].
\n
The effect of malaxation time combined with the use of ultrasound on the oil yield, oxidative and quality characteristics of EVOOs extracted from different Turkish olive cultivars was studied by Aydar [24]. It was found that different sonication and malaxation time combinations did not cause difference (p > 0.05) in the Edremit oil yield and extractability indexes, while they were significantly different in Uslu and Gemlik oils. In that study, oils obtained by 8 min of ultrasound application and 22 min of malaxation had highest oil yield and chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. [24].
\n
\n
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3. PEF applications in olive oil extraction
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Olive paste was exposed to PEF technology involving 50 monopolar pulses of 3 μs at an electric field strength of 1 kV/cm (1.47 kJ/kg) and 2 kV/cm (5.22 kJ/kg) and a frequency of 125 Hz. PEF did not result in any significant differences in fatty acid composition and sensorial properties of oil. In sensorial properties point, panelists evaluated the oil subjected to PEF was less bitter and pungent, and more fruity than the untreated oils. The PEF treatment was very effective to increase the oil yield when combined with malaxation. The oil yield as was high as 14.10% when the olive paste was subjected to PEF at 2 kV/cm and malaxated for 30 min at 15°C. However, the extraction yield was reduced by 50% when no malaxation was applied to olive paste compared to those malaxated for 30 min. [8]
\n
Effect of the use of pulsed electric field (PEF) technology on Arroniz olive oil production in terms of extraction yield and chemical and sensory quality has been evaluated by Puértolas and Marañón [9]. Extraction yield increased by 13.3% in PEF-treated samples (2 kV/cm, 11.25 kJ/kg) compared to control. In addition, the total phenolic content, total phytosterol, and total tocopherol of olive oil extracted with PEF showed significantly higher values (11.5, 9.9, and 15.0%, respectively) than the control group. [9]
\n
\n
\n
4. Microwave applications in olive oil extraction
\n
Over the last few decades, microwave treatments in food processing have gained popularity because of their low heat treatment times, operational simplicity, and high heating rates, which result in lower maintenance requirements. The microwaves obtained from household ovens and many industrial applications are produced efficiently by permanent wave magnetrons (Figure 2) [6].
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Figure 2.
Microwave oven parts.
\n
The effect of heating with microwave and its comparison with conventional heating and ultrasound heating on crushed olives was investigated by Clodoveo and Hbaieb [14]. Results showed that the main quality parameters legally established (acidity, peroxide value, and specific extinction coefficients (K232 and K270)) to evaluate VOO were not affected by the microwave and ultrasound treatments. Moreover, the malaxation time was decreased and extraction yield was improved by ultrasound and microwave treatments compared with the oils that were extracted from the olive paste without malaxation. [14].
\n
Yanık et al. investigated microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MASE) parameters on olive pomace oil. The yield of oil obtained by conventional extraction was lower than that of oil obtained by microwave extraction from olive pomace. It demonstrated that microwave-extracted oils had higher total phenolic (985 mg caffeic acid/kg oil) and tocopherol compounds (278.07 mg/kg oil), also lower peroxide value (17.8 meq O2/kg oil) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (0.44 μg benzo(α)pyrene/kg) compared to oils extracted by conventional industrial methods. [26]
\n
The effect of microwave-assisted solvent extraction at two different radiation power values (170 and 510 W) combined with acetic acid on yield and physicochemical properties of olive oil was studied by Kadi et al. [27]. The UV absorbance values were highest in oils treated with 510-W microwave and 7.5% acetic acid content. Since microwave radiations accelerate the disruption of cells and oil release, they observed similar results to those of previous researchers who also achieved better oil extractability [27].
\n
Malheiro et al. determined the effect of different microwave heating times (1, 3, 5, 10, and 15 min) on three Portuguese olive oils of different origins, one from the north, “Azeite de Trás-os-Montes” protected designation of origin (PDO); one from the center, “Azeites da Beira Interior” PDO; and one from the south of Portugal, “Azeite de Moura”. They evaluated the effect of MW time on free acidity; peroxide value (PV); specific extinction coefficients (K232 and K270); color; and chlorophyll, carotenoid, and tocopherol content of oils. The carotenoids and chlorophyll pigments, which are also significant in determining olive oil stability, decreased by microwave treatment [28].
\n
Leone et al. [30] determined the effect of microwave treatment on oil yield, structure modifications of olive pastes, and total energy consumption for a whole extraction process. The oil extractability was not significantly different from traditional extraction; however, the electrical power consumption using a microwave prototype system was higher by 24% [30].
\n
The possibility of combining megasonic and microwave treatment in a continuous olive oil extraction system to enhance olive oil extractability was examined by Leone et al. [29]. The utilization of combined megasonic and microwave treatment to olive paste resulted in a consistent reduction of viscosity. In result, both microwave and megasonic technologies have improved the oil extractability performance by lowering the consistency of the olive paste [29].
\n
In recent years, infrared spectroscopy, computer vision, machine olfaction technology, electronic tongues, and dielectric spectroscopy are some of the main sensing technologies applied to the virgin olive oil production process. Infrared spectroscopy can also be used to evaluate the official quality parameters of olive fruits and oil [37].
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Worldwide, the total consumption of olive oil increased from 1,666,500 tons in 1990/1991 to 2,978,000 tons in the period of 2017/2018 after 27 years [30]. Recent studies on emerging extraction techniques aim to improve the quality and physicochemical properties of oils and reduce the processing time and energy consumed during extraction compared to traditional methods. Ultrasound, microwave, and pulsed electric field technologies have been successfully applied to olive oil extraction, and several positive impacts on oil yield and quality have been observed. Results show combining these emerging technologies could assist in the development of a continuous olive oil extraction process with a higher extractability than the traditional batch process without significant decrease in oil quality. Long-term stability and sensory studies should also be done to evaluate the long-term effects of these new technologies and to ensure their advantages.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The author declares that she has no “conflict of interest.”
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With these aims, emerging technologies including microwave (MW), pulsed electric field (PEF), and ultrasound (US) have been applied to conventional virgin olive oil extraction process. In this chapter, most recent studies that focused on adaptation of emerging technologies to traditional extraction to increase the yield of olive oil or some minor compounds and bioactive components present in olive oil including tocopherols, chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds have been compiled.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64271",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64271",book:{slug:"technological-innovation-in-the-olive-oil-production-chain"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",email:"alevaydar@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Celal Bayar University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ultrasound applications in olive oil extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. PEF applications in olive oil extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Microwave applications in olive oil extraction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Aydar AY, Bagdatlioglu N, Köseoglu O. Effect of ultrasound on olive oil extraction and optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of extra virgin olive oil by response surface methodology (RSM). Grasas y Aceites. 2017;68:1-11 [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.3989/gya.1057162\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Veneziani G, Sordini B, Taticchi A, Esposto S, Selvaggini R, Urbani S, Di Maio I, Servili M. Improvement of Olive Oil Mechanical Extraction: New Technologies, Process Efficiency, and Extra Virgin Olive Oil Quality. Products from Olive Tree Dimitrios Boskou and Maria Lisa Clodoveo. IntechOpen. 2016. DOI: 10.5772/64796. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/products-from-olive-tree/improvement-of-olive-oil-mechanical-extraction-new-technologies-process-efficiency-and-extra-virgin\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Boskou D. Olive oil, Chemistry and Technology. Thessaloniki, Greece: AOCS; 2006. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1159/000097916\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Clodoveo ML, Hbaieb RH, Kotti F, et al. Mechanical strategies to increase nutritional and sensory quality of virgin olive oil by modulating the endogenous enzyme activities. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2014;13:135-154\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Clodoveo ML. An overview of emerging techniques in virgin olive oil extraction process: Strategies in the development of innovative plants. Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 2013;44:49-59 [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.4081/jae.2013.s2.e60\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Sun D-W. Emerging Technologies for Food Processing. 2nd ed. Dublin: Elsevier Inc.; 2014\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Baysal T, İçier F. Gıda Mühendİslİğİnde Isıl Olmayan Teknolojİler. Bornova, İzmir: Nobel yayıncılık; 2012\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Abenoza M, Benito M, Saldaña G, et al. Effects of pulsed electric field on yield extraction and quality of olive oil. Food and Bioprocess Technology. 2013;6:1367-1373\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Puértolas E, Martínez de Marañón I. Olive oil pilot-production assisted by pulsed electric field: Impact on extraction yield, chemical parameters and sensory properties. Food Chemistry. 2015;167:497-502\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Clodoveo ML, Durante V, La Notte D. Working towards the development of innovative ultrasound equipment for the extraction of virgin olive oil. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2013;20:1261-1270\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Aydar AY. Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials. United Kingdom: Intech Open; 2018. pp. 157-169\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Amirante R, Distaso E, Tamburrano P, et al. Acoustic cavitation by means ultrasounds in the extra virgin olive oil extraction process. Energy Procedia. 2017;126:82-90\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Clodoveo ML. New advances in the development of innovative virgin olive oil extraction plants: Looking back to see the future. Food Research International. 2013;54:726-729\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Clodoveo ML, Hachicha Hbaieb R. Beyond the traditional virgin olive oil extraction systems: Searching innovative and sustainable plant engineering solutions. Food Research International. 2013;54:1926-1933\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Jiménez A, Beltrán G, Uceda M. High-power ultrasound in olive paste pretreatment. Effect on process yield and virgin olive oil characteristics. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2007;14:725-731\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Clodoveo ML, Durante V, La Notte D, et al. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of virgin olive oil to improve the process efficiency. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2013;115:1062-1069\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Clodoveo ML, Camposeo S, Amirante R, et al. Research and Innovative Approaches to Obtain Virgin Olive Oils with a Higher Level of Bioactive Constituents. AOCS Press. 2015. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-1-63067-041-2.50013-6\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Clodoveo ML, Dipalmo T, Schiano C, et al. What’s now, what’s new and what’s next in virgin olive oil elaboration systems? A perspective on current knowledge and future trends. Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 2014;45:49\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Bermúdez-aguirre D, Mobbs T, Barbosa-cánovas GV. Ultrasound Technologies for Food and Bioprocessing. Springer. 2011. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-7472-3\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Chemat F, Zill-E-Huma R, Khan MK. Applications of ultrasound in food technology: Processing, preservation and extraction. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2011;18:813-835\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Çavdar HK, Yanık DK, Gök U, et al. Optimisation of microwave-assisted extraction of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seed oil and evaluation of Its physicochemical and bioactive properties. Food Technology and Biotechnology. 2017;55:86-94\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Taticchi A, Esposto S, Veneziani G, et al. The influence of the malaxation temperature on the activity of polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase and on the phenolic composition of virgin olive oil. Food Chemistry. 2013;136:975-983\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Bejaoui MA, Beltrán G, Sánchez-Ortiz A, et al. Continuous high power ultrasound treatment before malaxation, a laboratory scale approach: Effect on virgin olive oil quality criteria and yield. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2016;118:332-336. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201500020\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Aydar AY. Physicochemical characteristics of extra virgin olive oils obtained by ultrasound assisted extraction from different olive cultivars. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research. 2018;4:1-10\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Bejaoui MA, Beltran G, Aguilera MP, et al. Continuous conditioning of olive paste by high power ultrasounds: Response surface methodology to predict temperature and its effect on oil yield and virgin olive oil characteristics. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2016;69:175-184\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Yanık DK. Alternative to traditional olive pomace oil extraction systems: Microwave-assisted solvent extraction of oil from wet olive pomace. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2017;77:45-51\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Kadi H, Moussaoui R, Djadoun S, et al. Microwave assisted extraction of olive oil pomace by acidic hexane. Iranian journal of chemistry and chemical engineering. 2016;35:73-79\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Malheiro R, Oliveira I, Vilas-Boas M, et al. Effect of microwave heating with different exposure times on physical and chemical parameters of olive oil. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2009;47:92-97\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Leone A, Romaniello R, Tamborrino A, et al. Microwave and megasonics combined technology for a continuous olive oil process with enhanced extractability. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 2017;42:56-63\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Leone A, Tamborrino A, Zagaria R, et al. Plant innovation in the olive oil extraction process: A comparison of efficiency and energy consumption between microwave treatment and traditional malaxation of olive pastes. Journal of Food Engineering. 2015;146:44-52\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Clodoveo ML, Paduano A, Di Palmo T, et al. Engineering design and prototype development of a full scale ultrasound system for virgin olive oil by means of numerical and experimental analysis. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2017;37:169-181\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Amirante R, Paduano A. Ultrasound in Olive Oil Extraction. United Kingdom: Intech Open; 2018. pp. 43-53\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Amirante R, Clodoveo ML. Developments in the design and construction of continuous full-scale ultrasonic devices for the EVOO industry. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2017;119:1-5\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Achat S, Tomao V, Madani K, et al. Direct enrichment of olive oil in oleuropein by ultrasound-assisted maceration at laboratory and pilot plant scale. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2012;19:777-786\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Japón-Luján R, Janeiro P, De Castro MDL. Solid-liquid transfer of biophenols from olive leaves for the enrichment of edible oils by a dynamic ultrasound-assisted approach. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008;56:7231-7235\n'},{id:"B36",body:'European Union Commission Regulation. (EEC) No 2568/91. Brussels: Official European Commission Journal; 1991\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Beltrán Ortega J, Martínez Gila DM, Aguilera Puerto D, et al. Novel technologies for monitoring the in-line quality of virgin olive oil during manufacturing and storage. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2016;96:4644-4662\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",address:"alevyuksel.aydar@cbu.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey
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1. Introduction
Imbalances between generation and consumption cause frequency variations in a power system [1]. To maintain frequency in its nominal value, power systems rely on synchronous machines connected to the grid, which store kinetic energy automatically extracted in response to a sudden power imbalance [2]. However, due to the new environmental policies and the limited fossil fuel reserves, conventional generators are being replaced by renewable energy sources (RES)-based generators [3]. Among the different RES available, the most promising for electrical power generation are PV and wind power installations, which are inverter-interfaced RES (II-RES) [4]. However, the massive penetration of II-RES into the grid can involve several issues that should be taken into account [5]. First, as they depend on weather conditions, these sources are intermittent and uncertain, placing stress on power system operation [6]. Moreover, as they are connected to the grid through inverters which electrically decouple them from the grid [7], the effective inertia of the power system can be reduced [8]. This inertia reduction affects the system reliability, compromising the frequency stability [9]. The rotational inertia is related to both nadir (minimum frequency) and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) [10]. In fact, larger nadirs and faster ROCOFs are obtained in low rotational inertia power systems, subsequently making them more sensitive to frequency deviations [11, 12]. As a result, over the last decade, several frequency control techniques have been proposed to facilitate the massive penetration of wind and PV resources into the grid [13]. In addition, recent contributions investigated the use of smart inverters with voltage and frequency support to enhance grid stability [14]. Such solutions are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic or virtual inertia [15].
This chapter focuses on the current and future inertia concept for power systems. A methodology to estimate the current rotational inertia of power systems based on their electricity generation mix is proposed. In addition, the possibilities of wind and PV power plants to contribute to inertia and participate in frequency control are also presented. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. The inertia analysis and swing equation of generators and current and future power systems are presented in Section 2. In Section 3, the inertia constant estimation methodology is explained, comparing the results to a previous report published by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E). Section 4 reviews different frequency control techniques for PV and wind power plants. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
2. Inertia analysis in power systems
2.1 Inertial response of a synchronous generator: inertia constant
Rotating masses of a synchronous generator store kinetic energy Ekin following Eq. (1), where J is the moment of inertia and ωr is the rated rotational frequency of the machine [16]:
Ekin=12Jωr2.E1
Moment of inertia Jis a measure of the resistance of an object to changes in its rotational motion [17]. However, in power systems, it is common to express inertia constant H instead of moment of inertia J. Actually, the inertia constant of a generator determines the time interval during which an electrical generator can supply its rated power only by using the kinetic energy stored in its rotating masses. H is defined following Eq. (2), being Sr the rated power [18]:
H=EkinSr=12Jωr2Sr.E2
Work in [10] reviews the inertia constants H of conventional power plants proposed in recent decades, which range between 2 and 10 s.
In power systems, the motion of each turbine-generator group is expressed as Eq. (3), where Tm and Te are the mechanical torque of the turbine and the electromagnetic torque of the generator, respectively:
2Hdωrdt=Tm−Te,E3
However, as P=T⋅ω and considering the initial status as 0:
P=P0+ΔP=T0+ΔT⋅ωr0+Δωr,E4
where ΔP=ΔPm−ΔPe and ΔT=ΔTm−ΔTe. Moreover, for small variations:
ΔP≃T0⋅Δωr+ΔT⋅ωr0,E5
and in steady state:
Tm0=Te0,ωr0=1pu.E6
In consequence, considering small variations around the steady state, Eq. (3) can be rewritten as in Eq. (7) [19]:
2HdΔωrdt=ΔPm−ΔPe.E7
Furthermore, some electrical loads connected to the grid are also frequency-dependent, working as a load resource under frequency deviations (i.e., synchronous machines). In this way, the electrical power of those loads can be expressed as:
ΔPe=ΔPL+D⋅Δωr,E8
where ΔPL is the power change of those loads independent from frequency deviations and D is the damping factor (load-frequency response). Subsequently, by including the damping factor in Eq. (7), it is modified to Eq. (9), which is usually referred to as swing equation and represents the motion of a synchronous generator:
2HdΔωrdt=ΔPm−ΔPL+D⋅Δωr.E9
2.2 Aggregated swing equation: application to power systems
To apply the swing Eq. (9) to a power system, all synchronous generators are grouped in an equivalent rotating mass. This is carried out by determining the equivalent inertia constant Heq of such generators:
Heq=∑i=1SGHi⋅SB,iSB,E10
where Hi and SB,i are the inertia constant and rated power of synchronous generator i, SG is the total number of synchronous generators connected to the grid and SB is the rated power of the power system.
In the same way, loads are reduced to an equivalent one with damping factor Deq. If the power system under analysis is stable, an inaccurate value of Deq will not have a significant impact on the study. However, under disturbance situations, the value of Deq can be a major contribution [20]. As variable frequency drives become more common, the equivalent damping factor is expected to decrease [21].
2.3 Hidden and virtual inertia emulation from RES: modified equivalent inertia constant
In recent decades, several policies have promoted the penetration of RES-based generation units, which have replaced synchronous generators directly connected to the grid [22]. However, as some of them are II-RES (i.e., wind and PV), power systems with a high penetration of those RES require new frequency control strategies that emulate the behavior of conventional power plants under power imbalance conditions [23]. Such techniques are commonly referred to as hidden, synthetic, emulated or virtual inertia [15]. By including this emulation of inertia into power systems, equivalent inertia Heq would be modified. Thus, it would have two different components: (i) synchronous rotating inertia coming from synchronous (conventional) generators HS and (ii) emulated/virtual inertia coming from II-RES HV [24, 25]. Thus, Eq. (10) would become:
Heq=∑i=1SGHi⋅SB,i⏞HS+∑j=1VGHV,j⋅SB,j⏞HVSB,E11
where VG is the number of II-RES connected to the grid through emulation/virtual control methods and HV is the inertia constant of the emulated/virtual generation unit. This modified equivalent inertia expressed in Eq. (11) is graphically illustrated in Figure 1, based on [26]. As can be seen, there are three different links between the generation units and the grid frequency: (i) rotational synchronous inertia from conventional generators, (ii) hidden inertia from VSWT and (iii) virtual inertia from PV. This is because modern VSWT have rotational inertia stored in their blades, drive train and electrical generator [27]. However, due to the inverter and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) strategy, they cannot automatically provide this inertia to the grid [28, 29, 30, 31], being thus considered as ‘hidden’ from the power system point of view [32]. In fact, VSWT have inertia constants comparable to those of conventional generators, as summarized in Figure 2. In consequence, it is considered that the inertia provided by VSWT is ‘emulated’ [33].
Figure 1.
Power system with synchronous, hidden and virtual inertia.
Figure 2.
Inertia constant values H for different wind turbine technologies.
On the other hand, PV has no rotating masses [30]. Thus, PV power plants cannot store kinetic energy and their inertia constant is H≃0 [31]. Consequently, they cannot provide inertia unless it is synthetic/virtual, thus being usually referred to as ‘emulated synthetic/virtual inertia’ provided by such PV power plants [34, 35].
Due to the repercussions of II-RES with regard to the rotating inertia of power systems [36], they should start providing active power support under disturbances [37]. The specific literature includes several technologies that allow II-RES to participate in frequency control by providing additional power under disturbances [38, 39, 40].
3. Inertia estimation for power systems
Energy global statistics are provided by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Considering Eq. (10) and the electricity supply within a year presented in [41], it is possible to calculate the equivalent inertia Heq in different regions of the world. According to each technology, the inertia constant H of conventional units is estimated as the mean value of those presented in [10] (i.e., Hcoal=4 s, Hoil=4 s, Hgas=5 s, Hnuclear=4 s, Hhydro=3.25 s). It is considered that II-RES are not participating in frequency control (i.e., not contributing to the system inertia).
Figure 3 depicts the generation mix change between 1996 and 2016. Over these two decades, the total electricity consumption increased by more than 80%. However, in the same time period, RES electricity generation only increased by 4%. Based on the approach previously described to estimate Heq, Figure 4 depicts the change between the inertia constant for the different continents between 1996 and 2016. As can be seen, the inertia reduction in Asia, the USA and South America was negligible (between 2.5 and 3%), whereas in Europe it decreased by nearly 20%.
Figure 3.
Generation mix in the world: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
Figure 4.
Estimated equivalent inertia constants in the world by continent: change between 1996 and 2016.
In line with the inertia reduction suffered, RES supply in Europe increased by nearly 20% (refer to Figure 5). Actually, ENTSO-E has already focused on the high RES integration-low synchronous inertia problem. In one of their published reports, ENTSO-E estimated the evolution of system inertia for different TYNDP scenarios for 2030 in Europe and certain countries (i.e., the United Kingdom, France and Germany), considering that II-RES do not contribute to inertia [42]. In those estimations, Heq depends on the percentage of hours in a year that II-RES are working. Thus, it is possible to compare the Heq estimated in this chapter with the values obtained by ENTSO-E.
Figure 5.
Generation mix in Europe: change between 1996 and 2016. (a) Generation mix in 1996. (b) Generation mix in 2016.
The transition of Heq in a number of European countries can be seen in Figure 6. In [42], considering RES current generation rate: (i) Heq of Europe is within range 3.8–4.5 s; (ii) Heq of the United Kingdom is within range 3–4 s; (iii) Heq of France is 5 s and (iv) Heq of Germany is 3.5 s. Some discrepancies can be observed. The main cause of these is the values of the inertia constant of conventional plants. In fact, if the maximum value of H for all conventional plants is considered (i.e., Hcoal=5 s, Hoil=5 s, Hgas=5 s, Hnuclear=4 s, Hhydro=4.75 s), the Heq results are nearly the same as those presented in [42].
Figure 6.
Equivalent inertia constants estimated in EU-28: change between 1996 and 2016.
4. II-RES frequency control strategies
4.1 Preliminaries
To maintain frequency within an acceptable range, generation and load in the power system must be continuously balanced [43]. In fact, frequency variations from the nominal value can cause several problems including under-/overfrequency relay operations and disconnection of some loads from the grid, among others [44]. Thus, frequency stability is an essential issue for power systems [45].
With the increase in II-RES, the equivalent inertia constant of power systems is reduced, subsequently obtaining (i) larger frequency deviations after an imbalance and (ii) higher ROCOF [7, 46]. As a consequence, II-RES should start providing active power support under disturbances [37].
4.2 PV power plant frequency control strategies
In order to provide additional active power during imbalanced situations, PV power plants can integrate different solutions, mainly based on two principal approaches: energy storage systems (ESS) or de-loading control strategies. Moreover, the technical challenge is more severe with PV power plants than with wind generation, since PV systems cannot provide any inertial response unless special countermeasures are adopted [47].
With regard to ESS, different solutions have been proposed in the literature to be applied to PV systems. Although the relevant benefits of ESS to power system’s operation is widely recognized, some significant challenges can be identified: (i) the selection of a suitable technology to match the power system application requirements, (ii) an accurate evaluation of the energy storage facilities estimating both technical and economic benefits and (iii) a cost decreasing to a realistically acceptable level for deployment [48]. Among the different ESS, the battery energy storage is considered by some authors as the oldest and most mature ESS [49]. In work [50], it is concluded that the Li-Ion batteries are those that best suit frequency regulation services. Batteries are limited in power, though present a high storage ratio [51, 52, 53]; on the other hand, supercapacitors have high levels of power with low energy storage ratio. As a consequence, the battery-supercapacitor combination is proposed as an interesting ESS solution [54]. Indeed, these technologies can help to solve the problem of the ‘intermittent’ nature of solar PV supply [55]. Additional solutions for PV installations based on supercapacitors can be found in [56, 57]. Flywheels are another solution widely proposed as ESS, being applied from very small micro-satellites to large power systems [58]. Work in [59] points out a great benefit of flywheels backing up solar PV power plants, mainly focused on the cloud passing, which can cope with the high cycles of the flywheel technologies. Indeed, flywheels excel in short duration and high cycle applications [60]. Moreover, flywheels have a high efficiency, usually in the range between 90% and 95%, with an expected lifetime of around 15 years [61]. Different solutions propose hybrid ESS coupled to PV power plants [53], such as a battery hybridization with mechanical flywheel [62].
PV power plants usually work at the maximum power point (MPP) according to ambient temperature T and solar irradiation G [63]. However, they can work below their MPP, having thus some active power reserves (headroom) to supply in case of a frequency deviation. This approach is usually referred to as de-loading technique and is commonly proposed for PV installations [64, 65]. In this way, the PV plant is operated at Pdel, below PMPP, so that some power reserves ΔP=PMPP−Pdel are available [66, 67]. As can be seen in Figure 7, Pdel can be related with two different voltages: (i) over the maximum power point voltage, Vdel,1>VMPP, and (ii) under the maximum power point voltage, Vdel,2<VMPP. However, due to stability problems, the de-loaded voltage corresponds to the higher value Vdel,1 [68]. This Vdel is then added to the MPP controller reference, in order to also de-load the inverter. This controller for de-loaded PV is modified in [69], such that the release of the reserve is directly linked to both (i) the frequency excursion and (ii) the availability of the reserve in the PV system. This controller is also proposed in [70].
Figure 7.
De-loading techniques for PV power plants. (a) Vdel.1 > VMPP. (b) Vdel.2 < VMPP.
4.3 Wind power plant frequency control strategies
Wind power plants can also participate in frequency control by using different solutions. Apart from the use of ESS or working with the de-loading control strategy, wind turbines can provide inertial response as conventional generators due to the rotational inertia of the blades and generator [10].
With regard to ESS, wind power plants can also include batteries [71], supercapacitors [72] and flywheels [73]. ESS are considered an alternative to compensate the lack of short-term frequency response ability of wind power plants [74]. The utility-scale battery ESS helps to reduce the ROCOF, providing frequency support and improving the system frequency response [75]. A battery ESS based on a state-machine-based coordinated control strategy is developed in [76] to support frequency response of wind power plants, including both primary and secondary frequency control. A real-time cooperation scheme by considering complementary characteristics between wind power and batteries is discussed in [77] to provide both energy and frequency regulation, considering the battery life cycle. The combination of battery and supercapacitor is considered in [78] as an effective alternative to improve the battery lifetime and enhance the system economy. In this way, an enhanced frequency response strategy is investigated in [79] to improve and regulate the wind frequency response with the integration of ultra-capacitors. With the aim of smoothing the net power injected to the grid by wind turbines (or by a wind power plant), some authors propose to use flywheels [80, 81]. Flywheels are also proposed to dynamically regulate the system equivalent inertia and damping, enhancing the frequency regulation capability of wind turbines [38, 82] and also the entire grid [83]. A coordinated regulation response of the turbine power reserves and the flywheels while participating in primary frequency control is described in [84]. Finally, other works include not only frequency response but also voltage control by using flywheels [85, 86].
In line with PV installations, wind turbines also work in the MPP according to the wind speed vw. As a consequence, the de-loading technique is considered as a solution to provide additional active power in imbalanced situations with wind turbines, by operating them in a suboptimal point through the de-loaded control mode [87]. Wind turbines have two different possibilities to operate with the de-loading technique (refer to Figure 8) [32]: (i) pitch angle control and (ii) overspeed control. The pitch-angle control increases the pitch angle from β0 to β1 for a constant vw; in this way, the supplied power Pdel is below the maximum power PMPP, being thus a certain amount of power ΔP that can be supplied in case of frequency contingency (Figure 8(a)) [88, 89, 90, 91]. When this additional power ΔP is provided, the pitch angle has to be reduced from β1 to β0. The overspeed control increases the rotational speed of the rotor, shifting the supplied power Pdel towards the right of the maximum power PMPP (Figure 8(b)) [87, 92, 93]. As in the pitch-angle control, Pdel is below PMPP [71]. When the additional power ΔP is supplied, the rotor speed has to be reduced from Ωdel to ΩMPP, releasing kinetic energy [39, 87, 92, 93].
Figure 8.
De-loading techniques for wind power plants. (a) Pitch control. (b) Over-speed control.
In order to provide an inertial response, at least one supplementary loop control is introduced into the power controller to increase the generated power by the wind power plant. This additional loop is only activated under power imbalances (i.e., frequency deviations), supplying the kinetic energy stored in the blades and generator to the grid as an additional active power for a few seconds [94]. The droop control provides an additional active power ΔP proportional to the frequency excursion Δf (see Figure 9), as the primary frequency control of conventional power plants. The increase in the active power output then results in a decrease in the rotor speed [95, 96, 97, 98, 99]. ΔP can be estimated following Eq. (12), being RWT the droop control setting of the wind turbine:
Figure 9.
Droop control for VSWTs. (a) Droop characteristic. (b) Block diagram of droop control.
ΔP=−ΔfRWTE12
The hidden inertia emulation technique is based on emulating the inertial response of traditional synchronous generators. Two possibilities are found in the specific literature, as presented in Figure 10: (i) one loop, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF [100, 101, 102], and (ii) two loops, where the additional power is proportional to the ROCOF and the frequency deviation. The second strategy causes the frequency to return to its nominal value [103, 104, 105]. In both cases, the rotor and generator speeds are reduced to release the stored kinetic energy.
Figure 10.
Hidden inertia emulation controllers. (a) One loop. (b) Two loops.
The fast power reserve approach is similar to the hidden inertia emulation technique: an additional power is initially supplied, which makes the rotor speed to decrease. However, in this technique, the additional active power ΔP has been defined as a constant value independent of the system configuration and frequency deviation [106, 107, 108, 109, 110] or variable (depending on the frequency deviation or minimum rotor speed limits) [43, 111, 112]. The rotational speed decrease is then recovered through a recovery period, which can cause a secondary frequency dip due to the sudden decrease of the power generated by the wind power plant. As a consequence, different recovery periods have been proposed in the last decade to avoid this secondary frequency drop [43, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114], even coordinating this period with ESS [115]. Figure 11 shows the fast power reserve emulation control proposed in [106].
Figure 11.
Fast power reserve emulation technique [106]. (a) P – Ω curve. (b) Power variation.
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, we have conducted an extensive literature review of inertia of power systems. A methodology to estimate the inertia constants of different power systems is proposed and verified with the inertia constant results of ENTSO-E. The contribution of wind and PV power plants as ‘hidden inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia,’ respectively, to participate in frequency control has also been discussed, providing significant information for their participation in frequency control.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Spanish Education, Culture and Sports Ministry (FPU16/04282), Spanish Economy and Competitiveness Ministry and European Union FEDER, which supported this work under Project ENE2016-78214-C2-1-R.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
DFIG
double-fed induction generator
ESS
energy storage systems
ENTSO-E
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity
FSWT
fixed-speed wind turbine
HAWT
horizontal axis wind turbine
II-RES
inverter-interfaced renewable energy sources
PMSG
permanent magnet synchronous generator
PV
photovoltaic
RES
renewable energy sources
ROCOF
rate of change of frequency
SCIG
squirrel cage induction generator
VSWT
variable speed wind turbine
WPP
wind power plant
\n',keywords:"frequency control, grid stability, inertia, power systems, inverter-interfaced renewable energy sources",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72357.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72357.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72357",totalDownloads:443,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 30th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"May 30th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Over recent decades, the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES), especially photovoltaic and wind power plants, has been promoted in most countries. However, as these both alternative sources have power electronics at the grid interface (inverters), they are electrically decoupled from the grid. Subsequently, stability and reliability of power systems are compromised. Inertia in power systems has been traditionally determined by considering all the rotating masses directly connected to the grid. Thus, as the penetration of renewable units increases, the inertia of the power system decreases due to the reduction of directly connected rotating machines. As a consequence, power systems require a new set of strategies to include these renewable sources. In fact, ‘hidden inertia,’ ‘synthetic inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia’ are terms currently used to represent an artificial inertia created by inverter control strategies of such renewable sources. This chapter reviews the inertia concept and proposes a method to estimate the rotational inertia in different parts of the world. In addition, an extensive discussion on wind and photovoltaic power plants and their contribution to inertia and power system stability is presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72357",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72357",signatures:"Ana Fernández-Guillamón, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Eduard Muljadi and Ángel Molina-Garcia",book:{id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Technologies and Applications",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"153168",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Lazaro",fullName:"Emilio Gomez-Lazaro",slug:"emilio-gomez-lazaro",email:"emilio.gomez@uclm.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"154049",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Molina-Garcia",fullName:"Angel Molina-Garcia",slug:"angel-molina-garcia",email:"angel.molina@upct.es",position:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Cartagena",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"318862",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez-Guillamon",fullName:"Ana Fernandez-Guillamon",slug:"ana-fernandez-guillamon",email:"ana.fernandez@upct.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"320304",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Muljadi",fullName:"Eduard Muljadi",slug:"eduard-muljadi",email:"mze0018@auburn.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Auburn University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Inertia analysis in power systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Inertial response of a synchronous generator: inertia constant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Aggregated swing equation: application to power systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Hidden and virtual inertia emulation from RES: modified equivalent inertia constant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Inertia estimation for power systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. II-RES frequency control strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Preliminaries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 PV power plant frequency control strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Wind power plant frequency control strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. 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Variable speed wind turbines capability for temporary over-production. In: Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2009. PES’09. IEEE. 2009. pp. 1-7'},{id:"B107",body:'Keung P-K, Li P, Banakar H, Ooi BT. Kinetic energy of wind-turbine generators for system frequency support. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 2009;24(1):279-287'},{id:"B108",body:'El Itani S, Annakkage UD, Joos G. Short-term frequency support utilizing inertial response of DFIG wind turbines. In: 2011 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting; IEEE. 2011. pp. 1-8'},{id:"B109",body:'Hansen AD, Altin M, Margaris ID, Iov F, Tarnowski GC. Analysis of the short-term overproduction capability of variable speed wind turbines. Renewable Energy. 2014;68:326-336'},{id:"B110",body:'Hafiz F, Abdennour A. Optimal use of kinetic energy for the inertial support from variable speed wind turbines. Renewable Energy. 2015;80:629-643'},{id:"B111",body:'Kang M, Kim K, Muljadi E, Park J-W, Kang YC. 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Coordinated control strategy of battery energy storage system and PMSG-WTG to enhance system frequency regulation capability. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy. 2017;8(3):1330-1343'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ana Fernández-Guillamón",address:"ana.fernandez@upct.es",affiliation:'
Department of Automatics, Electrical Engineering and Electronic Technology, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Spain
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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