EDAX quantitative analysis—composition profile for PtNP/rGO_y.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-394-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-393-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-395-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ee9205fd23aa48cbcf3c9d6634db42b7",bookSignature:"Dr. Tao Huang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12177.jpg",keywords:"DNA Methylation, 3D Genome, RNA Modification, Tumorigenesis, Early Detection Biomarker, Development, Chromatin Dynamics, Hi-C, Topologically Associating Domains, Contact Map, N6-Methyladenosine, Eraser",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Highly Cited Chinese Researcher with over 200 journal papers published, and a high h index (48). Dr. Huang was included in the World's Top 2% Scientist list (2020, 2021) and is the Vice President of Life Sciences, The Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"461341",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"tao-huang",fullName:"Tao Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/461341/images/system/461341.jpg",biography:"Tao Huang is an Associate Professor at Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences. He completed his post-doctoral research at the Department of Genetics and Genomics Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, USA. His research interests include bioinformatics, computational biology, systems genetics, and big data research. He has published over 200 articles. 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The new field he was just introducing was defined as having an enormous number of technical applications. And so right he was! In this chapter, we are going to discuss one of those applications. Fuel cells are among the major scientific discoveries that had a strange “life”. Despite their modern tech aura, the wonderful discovery of Mr. Grove, 150 years ago, had in the last 20 years an extremely variable popularity, reaching their peak at the end of the last century, when scientists and stock promoters envisioned a world run on clean and inexhaustible resource—hydrogen. At that time, it was predicted that soon, cars will run on fuel cells and households will generate electricity from back-yard fuel cells. Improvements in stack design during that time led to increased power densities and lower costs. However, high manufacturing costs, marginal performance and short service life stood in the way of turning the hydrogen dream into reality. Nowadays, a new “wave” has emerged, partly due to exactly the new field introduced by Mr. Feynman—nanostructure-based catalysts.
\nThe development of human society requires more resources to meet the enhanced energy demand of society. With the rapid increase in energy demand in people’s everyday lives, research into new environment-friendly energy sources and their practical applications have attracted increasing attention. Fuel cells demonstrated important advantages with distinguishing features compared to conventional power sources, such as internal combustion engines or batteries, namely: higher efficiency and silent operation in comparison to internal combustion engines; no pollution considering the only by-product at the point of use is water; the maintenance of fuel cells is simple; low temperature proton exchange fuel cells (PEMFC) have low heat transmission; operating time is much longer than in the case of batteries, since doubling the operating time needs only doubling the content of fuel and not the doubling of the capacity of the unit itself; as opposed to batteries, fuel cells have no “memory effect” when are replenished.
\nThe main advantages of new nanostructured materials are their very high surface area to volume ratio and high absorption rates. There are nanoscale materials of various types, including nanoparticles, nano-powders, nano-rods, nanotubes, and nanowires. It is well known that nanomaterials have multiple dimensionalities, including zero dimensional, 1-D, 2-D and 3-D. One dimensional materials are widely used in various applications because of their high surface area and porosity. Carbon-type materials are known to have good features, such as abundance, stability, environmental safety and high durability. They exhibit high chemical stability over a wide temperature range in both acidic and alkaline conditions, making them the most suitable candidates for electrodes in electrochemical energy devices. There are many available carbon allotropes, such as buckminster fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene and nano-diamonds. In the last years, graphene is considered as a major material in energy conversion and storage applications in general and in PEM fuel cells topic particularly. Therefore, one of the cornerstones of the push towards future improvements in present-day PEM fuel cell, and the research and development generated by this push, is the introduction of nanostructured catalysts in order to mitigate the main issues of the technology—high prices and low service life.
\nPEMFC cells are currently the leading technology for light duty vehicles and in a smaller proportion for stationary and other applications. Commercialization of light duty FC vehicles started recently. The market for FC vehicles is still limited to the present day, mainly due to an insufficient hydrogen fueling infrastructure, but also to a considerable cost of FC systems able to achieve the target lifetime [1, 2]. For example, it is recognized that a decrease in platinum loading has a negative impact in respect to durability. In this particular domain of catalyst durability for FC systems the smetal-dispersed nanoparticles can concurrently lower the catalytic system cost playing a significant role in technology developments in the near future [3]. Moreover, most of the researches have been devoted to reduce the resistance of the electrolyte membrane by lowering the thickness, which caused inferior mechanical properties of the thinned membrane.
\nThe total cost of a fuel cells stack can be greatly reduced by reducing the catalyst load and using low- or non-Pt-based electrocatalysts. Therefore, the ways to improve the catalytic activity and reduce the cost of anodic and cathodic catalysis are critical issues to achieve the real fueling of the fuel cells. In PEM fuel cells, the efficiency of the cathode electrocatalyst plays an important role in increasing energy conversion efficiency and achieving higher power densities. In recent years, new 3D graphene-based materials have been developed, that have proved to be effective electrocatalysts for ORR [4]. The main directions for increasing the catalytic activity and reducing the production costs for the ORR catalysts were as follows: the development of nano-graphene nanostructures based on noble metals, either by doping with non-metals or by the deposition of non-metallic nanoparticles or metallic oxides with a catalytic role; decreasing the noble metal content of the electrocatalyst.
\nIn recent years, various catalyst support materials have been proposed to meet the challenges. In addition to traditional carbon materials, non-carbon materials such as metal oxides, electro-conducting polymers, carbides, nitrides, etc. have been proposed and sustained as catalysts. The nanostructured materials meet the requirements of a high-surface catalyst with high active surface sites and a low metal load. Consequently, a number of non-metallic catalysts have been developed, but the catalytic performance has been modest [5, 6]. The ORR reaction at the cathode plays a critical role in the performance of a fuel cell. Although substantial advances have been made in cathodic catalysis over the last decades, the slow kinetics of ORR electron transfer and overpotential are the disadvantages that limit the large-scale marketing of PEMFC.
\nThe porous graphene has remarkable properties for electrochemical power systems [7]. In general, nanoelectrocatalysts based on graphene used in PEMFC can be classified into the following types, depending on the composition of the catalysts: (1) Pt-based nanocatalysts supported on graphene; (2) noble metals supported on graphene as electrocatalysts, including transition metals and their oxides, sulphide nanomaterials and metal complexes (3) Pt-free graphene-supported electrocatalysts, including alloys Pd, Au, Ag and nanomaterials; and (4) non-metal electrocatalysts, including surface functionalized graphene and heteroatom doped graphene. It should be noted that, despite the substantial advances made in the construction of advanced electrocatalysts based on graphene and the understanding of their electrocatalytic mechanism, a number of scientific and technical challenges still remain in order to achieve the commercialization of graphite-supported electrocatalysts in fuel cells. It is anticipated that graphene support nanomaterials are a promising class of fuel cell electrocatalysts.
\nThe catalytic activity of the Pt graphene composites can be improved by increasing the charge transfer from the catalysts to the graphene substrate. The chemically functionalized graphene with interlayer structure contains network defects (bare spots, holes) and surface functional groups (carbonyls, epoxies, hydroxyls, etc.) that can bind metal nanoparticles and can retain them on the graphene surface. A strong metal–substrate interaction was demonstrated to enable the stability of the nanocatalyst, which can be improved by dispersion. Using Density Functional Theory (DFT) it was found that surface defects in the graphene support can also act as strong traps for Pt nanoclusters, leading to long-term stability of Pt graphene composites.
\nMetallic graphene hybrids have exhibited significant electrocatalytic activities when used as anodic and cathodic catalysts in PEM fuel cells. Both n- and p-type conductivities can be obtained by selecting metal dopants, and the carrier concentration can be controlled by the quantity of metal deposited [8]. For example, several transition metals with different work functions, such as Ti, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au, and Pt, have been used for graphene band modulation. In particular, band arrangement is not only determined by work function, but also affected by the interfacial interactions, as a consequence the metal structures would influence the charge transfer between metal and graphene. Moreover, first-principles calculations indicated that the carbon-vacancies attract and trap metal atoms [8]. The binding of a single metal atom nearby a single-vacancy (SV) on the graphene was investigated recently for Pt, Pd, Au, and Sn, using the density-functional theory (DFT). Regarding the pristine graphene, Pt, Pd, and Sn prefer to be adsorbed at the bridge site, while Au prefers the top site. On the single-vacancy graphene, all the metal atoms prefer to be trapped at the vacancy site and appear as dopants. The trapping abilities of the SV-graphene for different metal atoms, are different, that is, the Pt and Pd have the larger trapping zones. The diffusion barrier of a metal atom on the SV-graphene is much higher than that on the pristine graphene, and the Pt atom has the highest diffusion barrier from the SV site to the neighboring bridge sites. More electrons are transferred from the adatoms (or dopants) to the carbon atoms at the defect site, which induces changes in the electronic structures and properties of the systems. However, the Pt atom is easier to be incorporated into the SV-graphene [8].
\nIn our previous efforts on the development of innovative fuel cell catalysts, an experimental approach of finding low cost alternative support material in PEMFC was developed [9]. The potential of using graphene oxide as support/catalyst for PEMFC was exploited. Moving forward, Pt/graphene nanocomposites were synthesized using a simple route involving chemical oxidation, exfoliation of graphene oxide, as well as functionalization with a compatible polymer. Poly-diallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDDA) was used as cationic polyelectrolyte, with ability of adsorption on the graphene surface through π−π and electrostatic interactions, acting as a stabilizer for controlled synthesis of Pt/graphene [9, 10].
\nGraphite powder, K2S2O8, P2O5, conc. H2SO4, KMnO4, HI were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, H2O2 and HCl were obtained from Oltchim SA Romania. The electrocatalysts were synthesized via a facile process (Figure 1) described in detail elsewhere [11, 12]. Graphite oxide was prepared by the oxidation of graphite powder using P2O5, H2SO4, and KMnO4 according to the Hummers’ method, namely the graphitic powder was mixed with an oxidizing agent, filtered, washed and dried. Graphite oxide was dispersed in water by sonication for 2 h, forming the stable graphene oxide suspension (GO). Then, solutions of NaCl and the precursor of corresponding metal (water solutions of H2PtCl6 or HAuCl4) were added individually to GO suspension under continuous mechanical stirring (500 rpm for 1 h).
\nReaction routes for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles on graphene oxide.
Freshly prepared solution of NaBH4 was added slowly to the reaction mixture under vigorous stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred for another 24 h for the complete reduction, then washed with large amount of water several times, separated by filtration and centrifugation in order to remove residual ions. The obtained mass was then dried. pH plays an important role in the obtaining of the metal dispersed rGO, therefore the values of this parameter were mentioned in the experimental part (Figure 1) during each proposed fabrication steps. Aqueous NaOH and HCl solutions were used to adjust the pH value. In this work, we took into consideration the preparation of highly dispersed platinum and gold nanoparticles on reduced Graphene Oxide nanosheets with different metal compositions: Pt/rGO_x and Au/rGO_y. It is known the fact that, during reduction step, graphene oxide gradually loses its oxygen-containing groups and could become hydrophobic, thus a direct reduction without a compatible polymer with ability of adsorption on the graphene surface, generally causes irreversible agglomerations. In our developed protocol synthesis PDDA was used as cationic polyelectrolyte owing to its expected reason of stabilizer effect, favoring the electrostatic interactions. Therefore, the bonding of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with PDDA offers the possibility of controlling the behaviors of RGO in suspensions.
\nThe microstructure and morphology of prepared samples were evaluated by using the following techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM), specific surface area. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) measurements were carried out using a Hitachi SU 8230 Scanning Electron Microscope equipped with EDS detector-analyzer. Hitachi HD 2700 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope equipped with EDX Oxford detector-analyzer was used to perform graphene samples analysis. For the analysis, the samples in the form of powder were dispersed in bi-distilled water using a probe-type ultrasonic homogenizer and deposited on a standard Cu TEM grid. Also, EDX analysis was performed to determine the chemical composition of the samples. Autosorb IQ (Quantachrome, USA) instrumentation was used to perform the adsorption and desorption experiments at 77 K after initial pre-treatment of the samples by degassing at 115°C for 4 hours. The powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed at room temperature on a Rigaku SmartLab X Ray Diffractometer with Cu target Kβ1 = 1.39217 Å, Kα1 = 1.540598 Å and Kα2 = 1.544426 Å. The diffraction data was recorded for 2θ angles using the following parameters: tube voltage = 45 kV, tube current = 200 mA, scan range: 5–90°. The identification of the phase was made by referring to the International Center for Diffraction Data—ICDD (PDF-2) database.
\nThe modified carbon paste electrodes were prepared by mixing graphite powder with paraffin oil, then mixing in a mortar until a consistent uniformly wetted paste was obtained. The ratio of the two components was approximately 3:2 (w/w). The obtained paste was placed into a plastic syringe with an inner volume of 1.0 mL. The electrical contact was assured by a copper wire that was inserted into the back of the graphite paste. The modified electrodes were prepared by mixing certain amounts of carbon paste with platinum-doped reduced graphene oxide and gold-doped reduced graphene oxide in ratio of 109.7:0.3 and 109:1 (w/w), respectively. The obtained materials were pressed at the end of carbon paste from syringes. Thus, four electrodes were prepared: bare carbon paste electrode (CPE), graphene oxide modified carbon paste electrode (denoted by GO), platinum-doped reduced graphene oxide (denoted by Pt/rGO) and gold-doped reduced graphene oxide (denoted by Au/rGO). The surface of all electrodes was smoothed by polishing on a piece of weighing paper. Electrochemical measurements were carried out on a potentiostat/galvanostat system AutoLabPGStat 12, controlled by GPES (general purpose electrochemical system), electrochemical interface for Windows (version 4.9.007). Three electrodes in one compartment cell (10 mL) were used in all experiments. A glassy carbon electrode (Metrohm, 3 mm in diameter) and each modified carbon paste electrodes served as working electrodes. The counter electrode was a large area Pt wire. All experimental potentials were referred to Ag/AgCl, KClsat as reference electrode.
\nThe electrochemical characterization of the modified carbon paste electrodes was carried out by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The CV experiments were recorded in 0.5 M KCl solution containing 1.0 mmol L−1 K3Fe(CN)6 in the potential range of (−0.35) to (+0.8) V at scan rates of 20–120 mV s−1. DPV curves were recorded in the same potential domains with 5 mV potential and 25 mV as modulation amplitude.
\nFirstly, the characterization of the prepared materials was performed to validate the microstructural quality and to confirm the metal presence and the structured morphology (Figures 2 and 3).
\nXRD patterns of metal-dispersed nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide composites: Pt/rGO—up and Au/rGO—down.
Co-localized SE—secondary electrons (left), ZC—phase contrast (middle) and TE—transmission electrons (right) images of the Pt/rGO_x sample.
The crystalline structure of Pt/rGO_x and Au/rGO_y composites was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD patterns of prepared doped-graphene with Pt or Au nanoparticles are presented in Figure 4. The prepared materials exhibited characteristic diffraction peaks at 39.76° (38.18°), 46.24° (44.39°), 67.46° (64.58°), 81.29° (77.55°)corresponding to the (111), (200), (220), (311) planes of face-centered cubic structure of Pt (PDF Card 00-004-0802) and Au (PDF Card 00-004-0784), respectively. The diffraction peaks in all samples are also assigned to the structure of the graphene oxide support.
\nHigh resolution STEM images of the Pt/rGO_x sample were recorded in the marked area in the co-localized images from above (left). The lattice constant from the area marked in orange was measured and the resulting profiles revealed Pt and graphene specific d-spacings (right).
Based on the intensity of the main peaks from the XRD patterns and using on the Scherrer’s equation, the mean crystallites sizes were computed: Dhkl = Kλ/Bhklcos θ, where Dhkl is the crystallite size in the direction perpendicular to the lattice planes (hkl), K is a constant related to crystallite shape, λ is the X-ray wavelength in nm, and Bhkl is the peak width at half-maximum peak height. The crystalline size estimated from the Scherrer equation is between 14 and 25 nm for Au/rGO and 7–15 nm for Pt/rGO.
\nThese obvious characteristic peaks indicate a good crystallinity of the supported Pt/Au nanoparticles in the prepared composites.
\nThe distance between two layers is an important parameter to evaluate the structural information of graphene. Due to the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups attached on both sides of the graphene sheet and the atomic-scale roughness arising from structural defects (sp3 bonding) generated on the originally atomically flat graphene sheet the d-spacing of the GO. The rGO (002) plane was observed at 2θ of about 23° indicating interatomic spacing of about 0.384 nm.
\nBoth metal-dispersed nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide presented similar XRD peaks corresponding to the face-centered cubic crystalline Pt/Au and no trace of other phases was detected, suggesting that the modification of the drying conditions does not provide a major influence to the crystalline structure.
\nThe morphology of reduced graphene oxide doped with gold or platinum samples (Pt/rGO_x and Au/rGO_y) used in this work was examined using scanning transmission electron microscopy technique and the results are shown in Figure 5. The images were obtained with different detectors: SE—secondary electrons (left), ZC—phase contrast (middle) and TE—transmission electrons (right) at the same location on the sample. Structural studies were performed on all samples and obtained images were almost similar for each class of materials, namely Pt/rGO_x and Au/rGO_y, respectively.
\nCo-localized SE—secondary electrons (left), ZC—phase contrast (middle) and TE—transmission electrons (right) images of the Au/rGO_y sample.
The (200) plane in Platinum Nanoparticle with face-centered cubic structure was identified with a 1.922 Å d-spacing (ideal 1.962 Å)—up. Single layer graphene flake was identified with a 2.421 Å d-spacing (ideal 2.45 Å)—down.
\nThe (111) plane in Gold Nanoparticle with face-centered cubic structure was identified with a 2.328 Å d-spacing (ideal 2.35 Å)—up. Single layer graphene flake was identified with a 2.461 Å d-spacing (ideal 2.45 Å)—down.
\nFigures 5 and 6 show the high resolution STEM micrographs, in which the interplanar distances can be clearly seen. The as marked interplanar distances are inserted in profiles from the orange marked areas, corresponding to the (111) and (200) face-centered cubic structure of Pt and Au, respectively, which is in agreement to XRD results.
\nHigh resolution STEM images of the Au/rGO_y sample were recorded in the marked area in the co-localized images from above (left). The lattice constant from the area marked in orange was measured and the resulting profiles revealed Au and graphene specific d-spacings (right).
STEM images showed the Pt and Au nanoparticles supported on the rGO as well-dispersed and well-separated metal nanoparticles, indicating a good spatial distribution of metal nanoparticles on the layered graphene sheets.
\nElement | \nPtNP/rGO_1 | \nPtNP/rGO_2 | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weight % | \nAtomic % | \nWeight % | \nAtomic % | \n|
C | \n58.96 | \n86.01 | \n62.47 | \n85.87 | \n
O | \n10.25 | \n11.22 | \n11.57 | \n11.98 | \n
Pt | \n30.78 | \n2.77 | \n25.96 | \n2.20 | \n
EDAX quantitative analysis—composition profile for PtNP/rGO_y.
The Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectra (EDX) were measured to characterize the elemental heterogeneity of PtNP/rGO_x and AuNP/rGO_y composites. The quantitative analysis was performed at 400x magnification. The EDX spectra for PtNP/rGO_x show signals for carbon, oxygen and platinum with composition presented in Table 1. The EDX spectra for AuNP/rGO_y, present signals for carbon, oxygen and gold with composition presented in Table 2.
\nElement | \nAuNP/rGO_1 | \nAuNP/rGO_2 | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Weight % | \nAtomic % | \nWeight % | \nAtomic % | \n|
C | \n74.91 | \n87.16 | \n72.75 | \n86.46 | \n
O | \n13.79 | \n12.04 | \n14.11 | \n12.59 | \n
Au | \n11.30 | \n0.80 | \n13.14 | \n0.95 | \n
EDAX quantitative analysis—composition profile for AuNP/rGO_y.
Samples | \nSBET (m2 g−1)(a) | \nBJH pore volume (cm3 g−1)(b) | \nBJH pore radius (nm) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Pt/rGO | \n158 | \n0.101 | \n1.857 | \n
Au/rGO | \n107 | \n0.059 | \n1.964 | \n
Textural properties of Pt/rGO and Au/rGO.
BET surface area calculated from the linear part of the BET plot (P/P0 = 0.1–0.3).
BJH pore volume, taken from the volume of N2 adsorbed at P/P0 = 0.99, using BJH method.
With the desirable structural information presented so far, the materials with higher metal content, were further characterized and tested.
\nThe doping of Pt/Au into graphene oxide is expected to produce some changes in surface area and consequently to the pore size. Thus, due to the porous appearance of the materials confirmed by the performed analysis and taking into account the need for a high surface area to provide an efficient ORR performance, we subsequently analyzed the surface area. The nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms were studied using Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and are provided in Figure 7. The hysteresis study also revealed that hysteresis loops showed parallel adsorption and desorption branches, regarded as Type H4 behavior among the IUPAC classification. This observation allows for a better understanding of the porous character of the prepared samples, demonstrating the presence of pores that are open at the end, but unconnected to each other. As shown, the isotherm curves of adsorption/desorption performance of samples were compatible with isotherm Type IV, with an abrupt increase at high relative pressure, with respect to IUPAC classification.
\nBET isotherms corresponding to Pt/rGO_x and Au/rGO_y.
The BET specific surface areas are adequate, namely 158 and 107 m2 g−1 for Pt- and Au-doped graphene oxide with highest metal content. Our measured surface area of the prepared doped graphene samples could be connected with the stacking structure and agglomerated morphology of the reduced graphene sheets and could be attributed to an increasing in the number of closed pores during platinum/gold doping. The estimated radii presented in Table 3 suggest a hierarchical interconnected porous framework in the prepared doped graphene. Different pore types displayed different roles in the PEMFC electrochemical performance, thus the existence of various porous characteristics ensures sufficient space that enables the access of the reactants to the catalytic sites and could accelerate the kinetic process of ion diffusion.
\nEntry | \nElectrode type | \nIa (A) | \nIc (A) | \nΔE (mV) | \nA (cm2) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nCPE | \n2.40·10−6 | \n−3.23·10−6 | \n325 | \n0.0165 | \n
2. | \nGO | \n6.14·10−6 | \n−5.99·10−6 | \n182 | \n0.0309 | \n
3. | \nAu/rGO | \n9.45·10−6 | \n−1.47·10−5 | \n200 | \n0.2020 | \n
4. | \nPt/rGO | \n5.01·10−6 | \n−8.04·10−6 | \n153 | \n0.0660 | \n
Electrochemical data from CV measurements at 20 mV/s; Ia and Ic represent the anodic and cathodic peak currents, ΔE is the separation between the peak potentials and A is the area of an electrode, with the corresponding measurements units.
Based on the structural information presented above, the prepared Pt- and Au-doped graphene oxide was evaluated as ORR cathode under practical FC operation conditions. In comparison to commercial Pt/C, a better cathode performance, including the prepared catalytic system based on doped graphene can be easily anticipated, taking into account our recent results [11]. This improvement in performance was explained on the basis of higher electrical conductivity and durability parameters, essential for the PEMFC commercialization.
\nElectrochemical processes occur at the electrode/solution interface, in contrast to many other chemical measurements that involve bulk solutions. Due to the fact that the reaction is controlled by the electrode potential, electrochemistry is very sensitive and selective for the detection of electroactive species in extremely low limits of detection (nanomolar) and very small sample volumes (μL). The material used defines the performance, hence the continuous interest in developing new generation of electrodes. Carbon materials are widely used in industrial electrochemistry and modified electrodes are still developing with the aim of enhancing both the electrochemical characteristics and performance. There is a large range of carbon based forms available for use as an electrode material, with various allotropic forms exhibiting distinct properties. Among them, graphene materials present an enormous interest for electrochemists owing to their extraordinary physical, chemical and electrical properties. Graphenes are reported as performing electrode constituents for a wide variety of electrochemical applications, including the fabrication of energy storage devices, membrane material, and simultaneous characterization of ascorbic acid, dopamine and uric acid levels [13]. Graphene is the thinnest electrode material, but there are experimental parameters to be overcome: the first problem is the electrical connection of the graphene; the second issue is to avoid the aggregation of graphene sheets to form graphite through strong π–π interactions between the constituting sheets; the last limitation regards the quality of the obtained graphenes by various routes with different electrochemical properties.
\nThe aim of the present research is the fundamental electrochemical characterization of modified graphene-based electrode materials. In electrochemical measurements, supporting electrolytes are widely used. They contain chemical species which are not electroactive in the range of used potentials and have higher conductivity and ionic strength in comparison with electroactive species. Therefore they increase the conductivity of the solution, maintain constant ionic strength and pH, eliminate the transport of electroactive species by ion migration. KCl solutions are widely used as supporting electrolyte, due to relatively high ion conductivity; also potassium ion has a smaller hydration sphere than other alkaline ions We focused our attention on developing novel electrodes using carbon paste as support to investigations of the classical ferri/ferro redox process with attention on the electrochemistry of Pt-doped reduced graphene oxide electrodes. All the modified electrodes were tested for the redox process of 1 mM potassium ferrocyanide(II) using 0.5 M KCl as electrolyte.
\nThe electrochemical response of a standard glassy carbon was first tested. Figure 8 depicts the cyclic voltammetry of the ferri/ferro redox system, scanned from 20 to 120 mV/s in the −0.35 to 0.80 V potential range. The peak-to-peak separation (ΔEp) at 100 mV s−1 is 181 mV. Analysis of the peak-to-peak separation as a function of voltage scan rate indicates that the electrochemical process is quasi-reversible within the employed scan rates. Monitoring of the voltammetric peak height as a function of the square-root of scan rate shows a highly linear response, indicating a diffusion electrochemical process in accordance with reported literature data [14].
\nCyclic voltammograms for 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution on glassy carbon electrode, v = 20–120 mV s−1 (left) and plot of I
The focus herein is to electrochemically characterize reduced GO modified electrodes for efficiency towards ferri/ferro redox probe. For achieving this goal, carbon paste electrodes were prepared by mixing graphite powder with paraffin oil in a ratio of approximately 3:2 (w/w). The two components are hand mixed in a mortar until a consistent wet paste is formed. The obtained paste is placed into a plastic syringe with an inner volume of 1.0 mL. For assuring the electrical contact, a copper wire was inserted into the back of the carbon paste. A control experiment was first performed utilizing a bare carbon paste electrode. The electrochemical characteristic signatures are similar with those of the glassy carbon, the peak-to-peak separations (ΔEp) at 100 mV s−1 being 325 mV. This, together with smaller intensity of the peaks indicates that the bare carbon paste electrode is not sensitive to the chosen redox probe. However, the electrochemical process is also diffusion controlled, the voltammetric peak height as a function of the square-root of scan rate also showing a linear response (Figure 9).
\nCyclic voltammograms for 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution on bare carbon paste electrode, v = 20–120 mV s−1 (left) and I
Next, the modified electrodes were prepared by mixing certain amounts of carbon paste with graphene oxide and then, carbon paste with metal-doped graphene oxide. We have previously observed that modified gold-doped reduced graphene oxide electrodes are sensitive for ferri/ferro redox systems. In all cases, the surface of the electrodes was smoothed by polishing with filter paper. All electrodes were kept in distilled water before and after measurements. The electrochemical measurements were carried out on a potentiostat galvanostat system using one compartment cell of 10 mL containing three electrodes. Each modified carbon paste electrode served as working electrodes. The counter electrode was a large area Pt wire and Ag/AgCl, KClsat constituted the reference electrode. The experiments were run in the potential range of −0.35 to 0.8 V at various scan rate.
\nTo ensure a better evaluation of the Pt-doped rGO modified electrode, similar experiments with GO-modified electrode were performed. By comparison with the bare carbon paste electrode, the experimental results showed better defined anodic and cathodic peaks related to Fe(CN)63−/Fe(CN)64− redox couple for slow (20 mV/s) and high scan rates (100 mV/s) (Figure 10). The peak separation potential ΔEp was observed as 182 mV, similar with the results observed for the standard glassy carbon electrode. A comparison of cyclic voltammetry measurements is presented in Figure 11. In the case of the GO-modified electrode, for both slow and fast sweep rates, both the anodic and the cathodic peaks are sharper and well defined when compared to bare carbon paste electrode. This highlights the positive effect of the graphene oxide on the carbon paste support used for the preparation of the modified electrodes, an improvement of the analytical signal (peak height) being clearly observed.
\nComparison of the cyclic voltammograms of the modified electrodes according to the legends performed at 20 mV/s (left) and 100 mV/s (right) scan rate.
Cyclic voltammograms for 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution on GO modified electrode, v = 20–120 mV s−1 (left) and I
The voltammetric profile of GO modified electrode was next explored by sweep rate variation from 20, 40, 80 to 120 mV/s. The results show that the anodic peaks increases with increasing the sweep rate and moves to positive potentials. Also, by increasing the sweep rate, the peak shape does not modify, which leads to the conclusion that this modified electrode is sensitive for the electrochemical investigation of the ferri/ferro process. Analysis of the voltammetric peak height as a function of the square-root of the scan rate reveals a highly linear response as observed for the above two investigated electrodes.
\nOwing to the superior electrochemical response of the GO-modified electrode, we further explored whether the introduction of metal-doped rGO onto the carbon paste modified electrodes improves the electrochemical response of the studied redox system. Thus, we studied the Pt-doped rGO modified electrode. Figure 12 shows an overlay of the cyclic voltammograms of Pt/rGO and GO modified electrodes. Analysis of the cyclic voltammograms reveals that the platinum-doped rGO modified electrode exhibits an enhancement of the current response when compared to GO which translates in better electrocatalytic activity for both oxidation and reduction processes, due to the metal presence. A better electrochemical performance than the non-metal modified GO electrode was recorded with a current 3.94 times higher than bare carbon paste electrode (Table 4). Both anodic and cathodic peak potentials are shifted by approximately −80 mV for Pt/rGO, when compared with the potential of bare carbon paste electrode. An increase in the peak currents and a decrease in the separation between the peak potentials (ΔEp) at 20 mV s−1 were observed for all modified electrodes in comparison to the bare CPE (ΔEp = 385 mV), indicating that the electron transfer reaction was kinetically and thermodynamically favored at the graphene oxide modified electrode surface.
\nOverlay of the cyclic voltammograms for GO and Pt-doped rGO modified electrodes for the redox process of 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution (v = 20 mV s−1).
By increasing the scan rate, the intensity of the peak increases not only in the anodic direction, but also in the cathodic side. The peaks are not well defined, most likely because of the low concentration of the platinum-doped reduced graphene oxide in the modified electrode. The effect of varying the scan rate results in the slight shifting of the peak potentials to higher values, indicating a quasi-reversible electron transfer. The plot of the peak height
Cyclic voltammograms for 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution on Pt/rGO modified electrode, v = 20–120 mV s−1 (left) and plot of I
We have shown earlier that Au/rGO modified electrode exhibits an enhancement of the current response when compared to classical glassy carbon, which translates in better electrocatalytic activity for both oxidation and reduction processes. The Au/rGO modified electrode showed a current almost four times higher than bare carbon paste electrode.
\nA comparison of the cyclic voltammograms of GO, Pt- and Au-doped graphene material electrodes is shown in Figure 14. The cyclic voltammetric response of the gold-containing modified electrode shows well defined redox peaks with a peak-to-peak separation, ΔE, of 200 mV. Thus, it was clearly revealed that the insertion of gold onto the modified graphene oxide electrodes gives improved electrochemical response for the ferri/ferro redox signal. However, the parameter of most significant importance is represented by the position of the voltammetric peak, rather than the magnitude of the wave. In the case of the metal-doped graphene modified electrodes, the larger peak current is likely due to a slightly larger surface area at the electrode (see Table 4).
\nOverlay of the cyclic voltammograms for GO, Pt-doped rGO and Au-doped rGO modified electrodes for the redox process of 1.0 mM K3Fe(CN)6 in 0.5 M KCl solution (v = 20 mV s−1).
In order to better investigate the electroanalytical outcome of these graphene modified electrodes, we performed differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) measurements. The DPV experiments were meant to support the cyclic voltammetry investigations, as it is clearly known that DPV can assist in resolving the signals due to species with close half-wave potentials, as it measures the difference between two currents, before the end of the pulse and before its application. The strength of this technique is evident when poor electrochemical signals are obtained in cyclic voltammetry, enabling the registration of well-defined signals through the elimination of the non-Faradaic processes. Moreover, DPV provides useful information when the resolving of the voltammetric signals given by two species with close half-wave potentials is needed, producing easily quantifiable peak shaped responses.
\nFigure 15 compares the differential pulse voltammograms of the graphene modified carbon paste electrodes, as well as the classical glassy carbon electrode. In all cases, sharp and well-resolved peaks are observed. The anodic (right side) and cathodic (left side) peaks are higher for the metal-doped reduced graphene oxide modified electrodes with the highest peak current being observed for the gold doped reduced graphene oxide modified electrode. An important parameter of an electrode material is its electronic properties, namely, the density of electronic states (DOS). The DOS of graphene materials has been reported as being high and it can be increased by varying the amounts of loaded graphene. Gold has a DOS of 0.28 states atom−1 eV−1 with high conductivity due to high proportion of atomic orbitals. Thus, the Au-doped rGO modified electrodes are highly sensitive for electrochemical investigation of the ferri/ferro redox system.
\nDPV voltammograms for graphene modified electrodes and commercially available glassy carbon electrode (GC): oxidation (left) and reduction (right) with optimized DPV parameters: modulation amplitude of 25 mV and step potential 5 mV.
The active surface areas of the graphene modified electrodes were estimated according to the slope of the Ia
where Ia refers to the anodic peak current, n to the electron transfer number, A to the surface area of the electrode, D is the diffusion coefficient, c the concentration of K3[Fe(CN)6] and ν is the scan rate.
\nFor n = 1 and D = 6.68 × 10−6 cm2 s−1 using the slope of the Ip–ν1/2 relation, the microscopic areas were calculated for all the used modified electrodes. The results show that metal-doped graphene oxide materials cause an increase in the active surface of the electrode. The comparison between modified GO electrode and Au-doped rGO reveals a higher active surface of the latter electrode which recommends this material as an electrocatalyst for the ORR reaction in fuel cells. Also, the Pt-doped rGO modified electrode exhibits an electrode active surface two times higher than the graphene oxide modified electrode.
\nUnder PEMFC conditions at cell voltage of around 1.0 V during no-load, the Pt metal dissolution is expected. Moreover, Pt oxides are produced at potentials higher than 0.6 VSHE. In particularly at potentials above 0.95 VSHE, oxygen atoms can replace Pt atoms, thus the potential cycling cause remarkable changes of the catalyst structure. The catalyst exposure to such an accelerated test namely the potential cycling between 0.0–1.2 VSHE lead to a fast catalyst aging, opposed to the constant potential holding test [17]. Thus, the potential cycling could be used as simultaneous CV characterization and degradation testing tool.
\nFor this purpose, the in-situ electrochemical evaluation was performed in a single fuel cell system PEMFC with active area of 25 cm2 (ElectroChem, USA). A detailed description of the electrodes and membrane electrode assembly fabrication procedure was reported in our previous studies [11, 12, 13]. For actual study, the Pt loading was established at 0.2 mgPt cm−2 for anode of all developed fuel cells. The cathode catalyst layer was modified by taking into account three FC configurations, as follows: deposition of commercial Pt/C catalyst Hispec 4000 with 0.4 mgPt cm−2 loading (case 1); commercial Pt/C 0.2 mgPt cm−2 and Pt/rGO with 0.2 mgPt cm−2 loading (case 2); commercial Pt/C 0.2 mgPt cm−2 and Au/rGO with 0.2 mgAu cm−2 loading (case 3).The fuel cell test station included specific devices such as configured workstation, fuel cell, DS electronic load, bubble-type humidifiers. The PEMFC was operated at 0.7 V for 1 h for membrane electrode assembly conditioning. After steady state operating conditions were maintained, the cyclic voltammetry measurements were performed in a H2/N2 mode cell, from 0.025 to 1.2 V at a scan rate of 0.05 V/s. The flow rates of reactants (50 and 150 mL min−1) gases (H2 and N2) were adjusted using flow controllers. The cell temperature and pressure were fixed at 70°C and 1 bar pressure. The developed control system based on NI c-RIO hardware was used to control the PEMFC system.
\nCarbon corrosion causes the detachment of metal nanoparticles and thus electrical isolation and electrocatalytic inactivity. Taking into account the instabilities due to catalyst support which lead to diminishing of FC performance, we investigated the support aging. Figures 16–18 present the cyclic voltammograms before and catalyst exposure to 2000 cycles between 0.025 and 1.2 V potential cycling. Our preliminary results indicated that the oxidation and reduction signals approx at 0.025–0.3 V decreased differently after accelerated test, indicating the loss in electrochemical surface area for all cases, more pronounced being recorded for commercial catalyst. In case 1 it is easily to observe the change in hydrogen adsorption/desorption on Pt both for hydrogen oxidation and hydrogen reduction. In case 2 and 3, insignificant changes were observed for reduction signal, which recommend Pt- and Au-doped rGO as potential ORR catalyst for a more comprehensive investigation.
\nCyclic voltammetry of commercial Pt/C for 2000 cycles in following operation conditions: temperature 70°C; scan rate 50 mV/s.
Cyclic voltammetry of Pt/rGO for 2000 cycles in following operation conditions: temperature 70°C; scan rate 50 mV/s.
Cyclic voltammetry of Au/rGO for 2000 cycles in following operation conditions: temperature 70°C; scan rate 50 mV/s.
Clearly, there are many types of GO modified electrodes and each is performing for different redox system, but the electrochemistry of graphene materials is far from being fully explored. The graphene based material modified electrodes presented herein can significantly contribute to the fundamental understanding of graphene electrochemistry and its application as an electrode material. Future work can be directed to exploring these modified electrodes towards the application of graphene materials in ORR reactions for the development of performing fuel cells.
\nIn conclusion, we have successfully synthesized PtNP/rGO and Au NP/rGO nanomaterials. The successful incorporation of Au and Pt nanoparticles into the graphene oxide structure was confirmed. SEM and STEM images show the good spatial distribution of metal nanoparticles onto the layered graphene sheets. Electrocatalytic performance of the prepared materials towards the ORR reaction using cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry show that metal-doped graphene oxide materials caused an increase in the active surface of the electrodes. The results obtained by electrochemical characterizations suggest that metal-dispersed nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide holds a great application potential as a promising electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction due to the advantages of facile preparation and increased catalytic performance. It can be anticipated that the PtNP/rGO and AuNP/rGO composite materials hold great potential for developing novel ORR electrodes for PEM fuel cells. This imparts a high level of confidence that the materials developed as ORR electrocatalysts will be used in our future studies for the fabrication of cathodes for PEM fuel cell, the goal being the improvement of the fuel cell in terms of performance, life time and durability. Therefore, the reason for designed ORR electrocatalyst involves the advantage of improved catalytic activity due to the incorporation of a noble metal (platinum/gold) and ameliorated durability from the 1-dimensional structure.
\nThis work is supported by the Ministry of Research and Innovation from Romania by the National Plan of R&D, Project No. PN 18 12 01 02, PN 18 12 01 04 and by Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation, under Project M-ERA.net 37/2016. The authors wish to thank Dr. Izabela Jinga from the Centre of Organic Chemistry ‘Costin D. Nenitescu’ Romanian Academy for her work in the electrochemical experimental study.
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
This chapter discusses Islamic banking and Islamic accounting development and implementation in Indonesia. The first part of this chapter elaborates on the emergence and development of Islamic banks (IBs) in Indonesia. Then, the next part discusses the history and role of Islamic accounting in Indonesia. The chapter intended to develop understanding related to Indonesia Islamic banking and accounting as a unique case of Islamic finance state of the art.
As the most Muslim populous country in the world, the development of Islamic banking in Indonesia is not without challenges. The emergence of Islamic banks in Indonesia was triggered by internal and external factors. The growth of demand in permissible (
Upon the establishment, the development of Islamic banks became more steady and apparent over time. In 2020 itself, the growth of Islamic banking (yoy) had double-digit increment for 13.11 percent (yoy). Even though the Islamic banking industry growth is increasing, the inferior competitive advantage only contributes to less than 10 percent of national banking assets [4]. Hence, in 2021, the ministry of state-owned enterprise combined three state-owned Islamic banks (PT. Bank Syariah Mandiri, PT. Bank Negara Indonesia Syariah, and PT. Bank Rakyat Indonesia Syariah) into PT. Bank Syariah Indonesia (BSI) through merger. This merger resulted in the improvement of the competitive advantage of BSI to its conventional counterparts [4]. This momentum marked the commitment of the government and stakeholders to boost the development of Islamic banking in Indonesia.
Accountability is important to ensure the relevance and reliability of information in Islamic banks. It can be said that the development of Islamic accounting in Indonesia is driven by the growth of Islamic banking and finance [5]. There is a demand to accommodate accounting standards for Islamic transactions; hence, reliable information can be used by users for making a sound decision.
Until today, the Islamic or Sharia accounting in Indonesia has developed to myriad activities and transactions performed by Islamic banks (i.e.
The history of Islamic banks in Indonesia cannot be detached from the Islamic banking as a global phenomenon. The early concept of Islamic financial institutions was established by the idea of a bank with a profit-sharing system [1, 2]. In the 1940s, a Pakistan bank specifically set up to manage Hajj (pilgrimage) funds was founded but failed to prevail. The establishment of Mit Ghamr Local Saving Bank in Egypt marked as a breakthrough of modern Islamic banking in 1963. By 1967, the National Bank of Egypt and the Central Bank of Egypt took over Mit Ghamr operation due to declining performance during political turmoil. With this acquisition, Mit Ghamr’s interest-free principle has been abandoned, and banks are once again functioning on an interest basis. In 1971, the concept of interest-free was finally reinvented during the Sadat administration with the establishment of the Nacelle Social Bank. The purpose of the bank is to continue its business according to the concepts practiced by Mit Ghamr. The growth of economy also drove more Muslim countries to facilitate Islamic principle-based banks. Dubai Islamic Bank in 1971, the first bank initiated by private institutions, indicated growing interest in the Islamic financial facilities. In 1975, Faysal Islamic Bank started to operate in Sudan and Egypt, and at the same time, the Kuwait government established Kuwait Finance House. Finally, the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) was formed in October 1975, which consisted of 22 founding Islamic countries. IsDB provides financial assistance for the development of its member countries, helping them to establish Islamic banks in their respective countries and playing an important role in research in Islamic economics, banking, and finance. Now, IsDB, based in Jeddah-Saudi Arabia, continues to operate with more than 56 member countries. Subsequently, the efforts to establish Islamic banks began to spread in many countries. Some countries such as Pakistan, Iran, and Sudan decided to change their financial system by adopting an interest-free system. In other Islamic and Muslim majority countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia, interest-free banks operate side by side with conventional banks.
Despite the grassroot Islamic microfinance in Indonesia already prevailing, the contemporary Islamic banking development was marked in the 1980s. Expecting efficiency and economic strengthening, the Indonesian government implemented deregulation allowing banks to set interest rates in 1983 [3, 4]. “Pakto 88,” a monetary policy package as part of deregulation, was promulgated to support liberalization of Indonesia banking system encouraging the emergence of banks. Along with, grassroot developing Islamic financial institutions, named BMT Salman ITB in Bandung and Koperasi Ridho Gusti in Jakarta, paved a way to be a pilot model for Islamic banks in Indonesia. In 1990, the Indonesia Ulema Council (Majelis Ulama Indonesia a.k.a. MUI) formed a task force to establish the first Islamic bank in Indonesia, PT. Bank Muamalat Indonesia (BMI). Initially, the bank received less recognition from the public due to lack of legal foundation to operate. The legal basis for banking under the Sharia system was only in one of the paragraphs of “banks with a profit-sharing system” in Law no. 7 of 1992, without details on the basis of Sharia law and the types of businesses that are allowed. In 1998, Law No. 7/1992 became Law No. 10 of 1998, clearly stating that there are two banking systems (dual-banking system) in the country, the conventional banking system and the Islamic banking system. This law encouraged the establishment of several other Islamic banks or Islamic windows, namely Bank IFI, Bank Syariah Mandiri, Bank Niaga, Bank BTN, Bank Mega, Bank BRI, Bank Bukopin, BPD Jabar, and BPD Aceh.
The dual-banking system in Indonesia allows conventional banks and Islamic banks to operate. The operationalization of both banking in parallel is called the dual-banking system. According to Indonesian Law No. 21 of 2008 about Islamic banking (or Sharia Banking) [5],
In addition, the law also mandates Islamic banks to perform social functions by facilitating collection of Islamic alms and charities and distributing it through Islamic charitable institutions. There are three categories of Islamic bank entities operating in Indonesia: Islamic commercial banks, Islamic-windowed banks, and Islamic rural banks. Islamic commercial banks are full-fledged Islamic banks that offer only Islamic financial products and operate under Islamic principles. Islamic-windowed banks, however, are business units or divisions of a conventional commercial bank (CCB). This business unit offers Islamic financial products. Meanwhile, Islamic rural banks are banks that operate in certain regions and only offer a more limited type of product compared with Islamic commercial and Islamic-windowed banks. Usually, the size of Islamic rural banks is significantly smaller than Islamic commercial banks. All these banks must comply with Islamic banking regulation.
Substantially, Islamic banks must nurture their identity as value-based institutions. Islamic bank’s ethical identity explains how Islamic value is followed by the institution to stakeholders as a distinguishing characteristic from conventional banking practices [1, 2, 3]. There are five main traits of Islamic banks identity, namely: underlying philosophy and values; provision of interest-free products and services; restriction to Islamically acceptable deals; focus on developmental and social goals; and subjection to additional reviews by the Sharia Supervisory Board (SSB) [6]. The traits are broken down into several indices such as commitment to Sharia, existence of SSB, contribution to alms and charity (zakat and shadaqah), commitment to employees, and so on. While Belal et al. [7] conducted a longitudinal study to Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited (IBBL), a panel study of Islamic Identity Index measurement that was conducted by Zaki et al. [8] compares communicated and ideal ethical identities similar to those in Haniffa and Hudaib [9] but targeted Islamic banks in Asia. The result shows that three out of seven banks show value above the average, while the remaining have wide disparity. It indicates that not all Islamic banks in Asia have shared identity as Islamic banks. From the research, it is interesting that Indonesia Islamic bank’s ethical identity index outperforms other Islamic banks in Asia even compared with Middle Eastern banks. It suggests that there is more consideration in the institutionalization of Islamic banks in Indonesia so that it can represent the Islamic norms and values in the banking industry.
The implementation of the regulatory and supervisory functions of Islamic banking from the aspect of implementing prudential principles and good governance is carried out by the Financial Services Authority (Indonesian: Otoritas Jasa Keuangan a.k.a. OJK) as is the case with conventional banking, but with a regulation and supervision system that is adjusted to the peculiarities of the Islamic banking operational system. The problem of fulfilling Sharia principles is unique for Islamic banks, because essentially Islamic banks are banks that offer products that comply with Islamic principles.
As prudential institutions, banks bear responsibility to manage its risk accordingly. As the distinction between conventional and Islamic banks, all stakeholders demand Islamic compliance as the foundational value of Islamic banks. The uniqueness of Islamic Banks (IB) entails consequence on risk exposing the bank [4]. Salem [5] argues that credit risk in IBs is higher than that in Conventional Banks (CBs) due to potential moral hazard triggered by asymmetric information embedded in Profit-Loss Sharing (PLS) contracts. However, deliberate negligence or misconduct committed by the
Systems to ensure sharia compliance are important in Islamic banking. Therefore, the existence of Sharia Supervisory Board (SSB) in Indonesia Islamic Banking is mandatory. According to Law No. 21 of 2008 about Sharia Banking, the National Sharia Board of Indonesian Ulema Council (Indonesian: Dewan Standar Nasional Majelis Ulama Indonesia a.k.a. DSN MUI) issues Islamic legal guidance (fatwa) on lawfulness of Islamic bank’s products and then SSBs guard its implementation in IBs. Additionally, OJK stipulates that all Islamic banking products may only be offered to the public after the bank has received a fatwa from the DSN-MUI and obtained permission from the OJK. At the operational level, each Islamic bank is also required to have a Sharia Supervisory Board (SSB), which has two functions, the first is the sharia supervisory function and the second is an advisory function when banks are faced with questions about whether an activity is sharia-compliant or not, as well as in the process of developing a product that will be submitted to DSN to obtain a fatwa. In addition to these functions, Sharia Banking is also directed to have an internal audit function that focuses on monitoring sharia compliance to assist DPS, and in carrying out external audits used by sharia banks are auditors who have qualifications and competencies in Islamic law subjects.
OJK categorizes institutions in Islamic financial industry into three subsectors, namely Islamic banks, Islamic non-banking financial institutions (Islamic NBFI), and Islamic capital market with a total capitalization of assets for IDR 1801.40 trillion or USD 127,71 billion (excluding Islamic stocks) in 2020 [17]. Islamic capital market contributes the largest proportion for IDR 1076.22, then Islamic banking for IDR 608.90, and the least, Islamic financial non-banking institutions for IDR 116.28 trillion (USD 1 = IDR 14,050). Since its establishment, the growth of Islamic financial industry in Indonesia has been growing. Regardless of its contribution to national market share that only counts for 9.95 percent in 2020, the growth of Islamic financial assets recorded 22.71 percent (yoy) consisting of the growth of Islamic capital market, Islamic banks, and Islamic NBFI for 30.58, 13.11, and 10.15, in sequence. From the banking industry, Sharia commercial banks dominate the growth proportion followed by Sharia business units and Sharia rural banks (Figures 1 and 2).
The growth of Islamic finance and banking assets in Indonesia from 2016 to 2020. Source: Financial service authority (OJK), 2021.
Islamic banks’ main indicators and performance in 2020. Source: Financial service authority (OJK), 2021.
The future of Islamic banking in Indonesia is promising if stakeholders, especially the government, commit to the development of the industry. The dual-banking system put Islamic banking in a competition with conventional banking. As a “new-comer” in the financial industry, Islamic banking market capitalization is far below conventional banking. The size of Islamic banks is significantly low compared with its counterparts, leading to the low capacity of lending. Nationally, the market share of the banking industry in terms of assets shows the dominance of several banks in BUKU 41, while most banks still have a small business scale and market share, including Islamic banks. Structurally, both conventional commercial banks (CCBs) and Sharia commercial banks (SCBs), the majority of banks are in BUKU 2 with 58 BUK (
Classification of commercial banks based on business activity in Indonesia in 2020. Source: Financial service authority (OJK), 2020.
Bank’s rank based on assets in Indonesian, 2020. Sources: Financial service authority (OJK), 2020.
The Financial Services Authority (OJK) encourages banking consolidation policies and strengthens bank capital in Indonesia as stated in POJK No. 12/POJK.03/2020 concerning Commercial Bank Consolidation. In 2021, the Ministry of State-Owned Company of Indonesia finalized the merger of three state-owned Islamic banks. PT. Bank Syariah Mandiri, PT. Bank Negara Indonesia Syariah, and PT. Bank Rakyat Indonesia Syariah were merged into PT. Bank Syariah Indonesia. By the end of 2021, there are 12 operating Sharia commercial banks in Indonesia from [16] the prior of the merger (Table 1) [12]. This merger has brought three largest Sharia commercial banks, which were previously excluded from the top 10 of the biggest operating commercial banks nationally, up the ranks to the seventh position with 2.7 percent of the national market share of the banking industry. The Islamic bank merger is an important consolidation momentum for Islamic banking to be able to present Islamic Banks that are strong in capital and able to compete in the national banking industry. In addition, the “new” bank, Bank Syariah Indonesia, has the opportunity to join BUKU 4 by increasing the scale of the economy so that it can contribute significantly to the national economy. This merger manifested as the commitment of the Indonesian government to support Islamic bank’s development.
Year | Sharia commercial banks | Sharia business units | Sharia rural banks |
---|---|---|---|
2014 | 12 | 22 | 163 |
2015 | 12 | 22 | 163 |
2016 | 13 | 21 | 166 |
2017 | 13 | 21 | 167 |
2018 | 14 | 20 | 167 |
2019 | 14 | 20 | 164 |
2020 | 14 | 20 | 164 |
Oct-21 | 12 | 20 | 163 |
The number of Islamic banks in Indonesia according to classification.
Sources: Financial service authority (OJK), 2020.
The growth of Islamic banking in Indonesia is promising. During the 2020 pandemic, Islamic banks still maintained their growth and robustness through the crisis. The bank should keep innovating to capture larger market share. If Indonesian Islamic banks fail to capture the potential benefit from Muslim demography, the industry might not develop [1]. Islamic banks must maintain their identity by balancing the social function and communicating its value to the users. Reputational risks remain the vital issue in Islamic banks. Muslim community is diverse, many interpret Islamic law differently according to schools or teachings. Sharia governance may offer solutions for a systematic Sharia compliance guarantor that bridge different opinions among Sharia scholars and build public trust to the permissibility
A recent opportunity to be captured by Islamic banks is the digitalization of banking services. Young adults in their productive age dominate Indonesia populations. This generation has high literature in digital technology, especially the internet. Financial technology has emerged as the institution offers digital-based financial services. The easy, timeless, and reliable platform has captured the young generation to use financial services from start-up companies. Albeit becoming a new competitor for conventional banking, this institution may not replace the role of conventional banking later in the future due to the fundamental role and robustness of banking institutions that are supported by other supporting prudential institutions. The Islamic banks must capture the momentum to invest in technology. First, branding is important to capture the new market by making Islamic financial transactions user-friendly and easy to access. This branding also involves the strategy to increase awareness and literacy on Islamic banking that has been lacking in the society. Second, the bank should maintain its security as the number of cyberattacks increases, ranging from identity theft, skimming, to phishing, and banks must mitigate this risk appropriately to protect the customers.
As previously mentioned, the development of Islamic accounting in Indonesia cannot be separated from the establishment of the first Islamic Bank in Indonesia, namely Bank Muamalat Indonesia (BMI) in 1991 and the existence of Law No. 7 of 1992 concerning banking, which is further detailed in Government Regulation 72 of 1992, Law no. 10 of 1998 and Law no. 23 of 1999. After BMI was established, there was a problem because BMI was an Islamic Bank but the financial statements made were not based on Sharia accounting. In addition, the existence of this Islamic bank also requires supervision and auditing of Islamic bank products. These factors encourage the importance of developing Islamic accounting.
In 2002, IAI through the Financial Accounting Standards Board (DSAK) ratified PSAK No. 59, Islamic Banking Accounting, which became effective in January 2003. Another thing that contributed to the development of Islamic accounting was the emergence of the IAI Sharia Accounting Committee in 2005. In 2010, IAI decided to transform the institution by establishing a Sharia Financial Accounting Standards Board (DSAS), which is authorized to formulate Islamic Financial Accounting Standards (IFAS). Islamic accounting, in Indonesia is often called as Sharia accounting, is accounting based on an Islamic (teachings) paradigm. It is an instrument or subsystem to implement Islamic teachings, especially in business. Therefore, the objectives of Islamic accounting must be consistent with the objectives of Islamic teachings (
To achieve the above objectives, Islamic accounting relies on various principles: (1) brotherhood (
In general, the model or approach to develope Islamic accounting can look like Figure 5. From Figure 5, there are two approaches in developing Islamic accounting [19]. The first approach is often called the “ideal” approach. In this approach, the development of Islamic accounting begins with the search for sharia sources and then is derived into Sharia accounting standards. The second approach is often referred to as the “pragmatic” approach. This approach starts from conventional accounting, then the purification process is carried out. Conventional accounting that is not in accordance with sharia is abandoned and which is not contrary to sharia remains. Islamic Financial Accounting Standard Board (
Approaches in Islamic accounting development. Source: Sholihin [
In developing Islamic Financial Accounting Standards (IFAS), DSAS IAI is very careful and follows a very strict due process. The due process adopted in the preparation of Islamic financial accounting standards are: (1) identifying the issues (and consulting with the Consultative Board of IAI if necessary), (2) conducting research related to the issues that have been identified, (3) discussing the material, (4) ratifying and publishing the exposure draft, (5) conducting public hearings and if necessary conducting limited hearings, (6) discussing public input, and (7) ratifying standards. In the discussion, the first thing to discuss is the aspect of transaction clarity from a sharia perspective. Even though during the discussion, there were already members of DSAS IAI from DSN MUI who became members, institutionally DSAS IAI again proposed the standards that had been ratified to DSN MUI to be checked/reviewed again for compliance with Sharia. So, Sharia accounting standards in Indonesia are developed by starting from the clarity of sharia aspects and ending with checking again the conformity of the standards with sharia. This procedure is intended to achieve the blessing of the ratified Islamic accounting standards and not to conflict with sharia.
To date (December 2021), several Statements of Islamic Financial Accounting Standards (SIFAS) have been published by DSAS. In addition to PSAK 59 (Islamic Banking Accounting), DSAS have published SIFAS 101 (Sharia Financial Statement Presentation), SIFAS 102 (Accounting for
Until now, DSAS continues to work to develop various accounting standards to support the development of Islamic economics and finance. DSAS IAI in developing standards uses a transaction-based approach, not an accounting approach for certain institutions, even though the first Islamic accounting standard that appears is Islamic Banking Accounting (PSAK 59).
From the SIFAS above, it can be seen that the DSAS IAI does not only focus on accounting standards for commercial activities. However, DSAS IAI also pays great attention to the aspects of social finance (Social Islamic Finance), namely the issuance of SIFAS 109 and SIFAS 112. SIFAS 109 is currently being reviewed due to the development of various programs and social activities in the distribution of zakat, infaq, and alms for community empowerment.
The mapping of transactions used by Islamic banking and how the match between those transactions and the IFAS can be seen in Figure 6 [20].
Mapping between transactions in Islamic Bank (in blue) and the accounting standard (in gray). Source: Hendarsyah [
This chapter discusses the development of IBs in Indonesia and explains the development of Islamic financial accounting standards including how the standards are developed (the due processes). This chapter also describes whether Islamic financial accounting standards developed in Indonesia have sufficiently fulfilled the accounting standards needed by Islamic banks in Indonesia.
Islamic banks (IBs) have distinctive characteristics compared to the conventional ones. IBs only perform permissible (
Upon the establishment, the development of Islamic banks became more steady and apparent over time. Hence, in 2021, the ministry of state-owned enterprise combined three state-owned Islamic banks (PT. Bank Syariah Mandiri, PT. Bank Negara Indonesia Syariah, and PT. Bank Rakyat Indonesia Syariah) into PT. Bank Syariah Indonesia (BSI) through merger. This merger resulted in the improvement of the competitive advantage of BSI to its conventional counterparts. This momentum marked the commitment of the government and stakeholders to boost the development of Islamic banking in Indonesia.
Accountability is important to ensure the relevance and reliability of information in Islamic banks. Consequently, there is a demand to accommodate accounting standards for Islamic transactions to provide reliable information for users for making a sound decision.
Until December 2021, several Statements of Islamic Financial Accounting Standards (SIFAS) have been published by DSAS IAI. In addition to PSAK 59 (Islamic Banking Accounting), DSAS have published SIFAS 101 (Sharia Financial Statement Presentation), SIFAS 102 (Accounting for
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However, for a balanced electrical power demand and supply, it is necessary to respond requirement at any time without any interruption with the strategy of demand response programs (DRP) to the users. In order to promote smart usage of electrical power, smart grid networks are gradually transforming conventional grids in many places. As a part of smart grid, conventional houses may be transformed to smart house by simply implementing some intelligent controller with interfaces like smart plugs to the conventional electrical appliances. This chapter elaborates a new strategy of home energy management system (HEMS) in a smart grid environment to transform any ordinary premises to smart house to be energy efficient by simply rescheduling operation time.",book:{id:"6698",slug:"smart-microgrids",title:"Smart Microgrids",fullTitle:"Smart Microgrids"},signatures:"Mohammad Shakeri and Nowshad Amin",authors:[{id:"192623",title:"Dr.",name:"Nowshad",middleName:null,surname:"Amin",slug:"nowshad-amin",fullName:"Nowshad Amin"},{id:"237347",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakeri",slug:"mohammad-shakeri",fullName:"Mohammad Shakeri"}]},{id:"57505",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71470",title:"Robotic Technologies for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Assembly",slug:"robotic-technologies-for-proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cell-assembly",totalDownloads:1379,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stacks and their components are currently being manufactured using laboratory fabrication methods. While in recent years these methods have been scaled up in size, they do not incorporate high-volume manufacturing methods. In this context, manufacturing R&D is necessary to prepare advanced manufacturing and assembly technologies that are required for low-cost, high-volume fuel cell power plant production. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has identified high-priority manufacturing R&D needs for PEMFCs. Along with efforts to develop technologies for high-speed manufacturing of fuel cell components, DOE identified the need for demonstrating automated assembly processes for fuel cell stacks. The scope of this chapter is to review current manufacturing R&D efforts in the area of automated processes for assembling PEMFC stacks, to present the current state of development, successful demonstrations, related technological challenges and the technical solutions used to overcome them. An emphasis of this review is on the design of tools used for robotic grasping, handling and inserting fuel cell components in the stack and on the use of design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) strategies that enable the automated assembly process.",book:{id:"6285",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cell",title:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell",fullTitle:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell"},signatures:"Vladimir Gurau, Devin Fowler and Daniel Cox",authors:[{id:"219399",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Gurau",slug:"vladimir-gurau",fullName:"Vladimir Gurau"},{id:"220252",title:"MSc.",name:"Devin",middleName:null,surname:"Fowler",slug:"devin-fowler",fullName:"Devin Fowler"},{id:"222195",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Cox",slug:"daniel-cox",fullName:"Daniel Cox"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57392",title:"Advanced Supporting Materials for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells",slug:"advanced-supporting-materials-for-polymer-electrolyte-membrane-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Among the various kinds of fuel cell, polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is the most prominent energy conversion device for portable applications. The catalyst-supporting materials provide active triple phase boundary for electrochemical reactions where the reactant molecules can easily interact with the catalyst surface. Catalysts play a vital role for improving the overall efficiency of the fuel cells through the advancement in the catalyst and their supporting materials for cathodic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in PEMFCs. The supporting materials mainly contribute to increase the electrocatalytic activity of the catalysts by providing more active surface area and extended life-time. The major roles of supporting materials are (i) they act as electron source with improved conductivity; (ii) they hold the metal nanoparticles; (iii) they possess higher surface area and (iv) they should have better stability under operating conditions. In this chapter, the various supporting materials were reviewed carefully based on their nature and performance toward the electrochemical reduction of oxygen for PEMFCs. They are classified into three major categories as (i) carbon supports; (ii) carbon-free supports, and (iii) polymer nanocomposites. In summary, the overall view on support materials and their role on electrocatalysis for fuel cell reactions is provided.",book:{id:"6285",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cell",title:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell",fullTitle:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell"},signatures:"Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran",authors:[{id:"210500",title:"Dr.",name:"Narayanamoorthy",middleName:null,surname:"Bhuvanendran",slug:"narayanamoorthy-bhuvanendran",fullName:"Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran"}]},{id:"66339",title:"Cathode for Thin-Film Lithium-Ion Batteries",slug:"cathode-for-thin-film-lithium-ion-batteries",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Thin-film lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have attracted considerable attention for energy storage device application owing to their high specific energy compared to conventional LIBs. However, the significant breakthroughs of electrochemical performance for electrode materials, electrolyte, and electrode/electrolyte interface are still highly desirable. This chapter firstly gives an overview of cathode materials including lithium-containing cathode (e.g., LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, LiFePO4, LiNi1−x−yMnxCoyO2, LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4) and lithium-free cathode (e.g., vanadium oxides) for LIBs in terms of specific capacity, energy density, working voltage, cycling life, and safety. In the meanwhile, the existing drawbacks and limitations of various battery chemistries are also analyzed. Furthermore, some modification strategies for these cathode materials have also been discussed for improving electrochemical performance. Finally, the thin-film Li-ion battery applications of these cathode materials are summed up toward next-generation flexible and high-energy devices.",book:{id:"6837",slug:"lithium-ion-batteries-thin-film-for-energy-materials-and-devices",title:"Lithium-ion Batteries",fullTitle:"Lithium-ion Batteries - Thin Film for Energy Materials and Devices"},signatures:"Yuan-Li Ding",authors:[{id:"269473",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanli",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",slug:"yuanli-ding",fullName:"Yuanli Ding"}]},{id:"57548",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview of PEM Fuel Cell Technology",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-of-pem-fuel-cell-technology",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6285",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cell",title:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell",fullTitle:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell"},signatures:"Tolga Taner",authors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}]},{id:"60763",title:"Assessment of Reliability of Composite Power System Including Smart Grids",slug:"assessment-of-reliability-of-composite-power-system-including-smart-grids",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The large service interruptions of power supply in the transmission system have significant impact on modern society. The aim of the power system engineers is to prevent and mitigate such events with optimal decisions in design, planning, operation and maintenance. Due to the rapid growth in the power demand and competitive power market scenario, the transmission and distribution systems are frequently being operated under heavily loaded conditions. This tends to make failure of components more frequent in the power system necessitating large downtime to repair or replace the equipment. A majority of the service interruptions are happening due to lack of proper planning and operation of power system. Therefore, complete reliability assessment in generation, transmission and distribution systems is needed at the planning stage. The reliability assessment in smart grids is very much beneficial to the power operator and reduces the risk of grid failure due to failure of major components in power systems. This chapter is confined to composite power system reliability assessment. The composite power system combines both the generation and transmission systems’ adequacy. The generation system in the composite power system includes both conventional and renewable sources. The composite power system reliability assessment is quite difficult due to the large number of equipment, interconnected network topology and uncertainties in generation capacity. The reliability assessment concentrates mainly on the use of probabilistic states of components in generation and transmission systems to evaluate the overall reliability. This analysis will result in a cost-effective system configuration to provide continuous power supply to the consumers at reasonable cost. The reliability level of the system is measured by the defined indices. One of these indices is the probability of average power availability at load bus. This reliability assessment mainly focuses on development of methods to evaluate the probability of average power availability at load buses for a specified system configuration. This chapter discusses the two main techniques called node elimination method and modified minimal cut set method.",book:{id:"6698",slug:"smart-microgrids",title:"Smart Microgrids",fullTitle:"Smart Microgrids"},signatures:"Thotakura Bharath Kumar, M. Ramamoorty and O. Chandra Sekhar",authors:[{id:"236816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharath Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"T",slug:"bharath-kumar-t",fullName:"Bharath Kumar T"},{id:"237692",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramamoorty",middleName:null,surname:"M",slug:"ramamoorty-m",fullName:"Ramamoorty M"},{id:"244043",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra Sekhar",middleName:null,surname:"O",slug:"chandra-sekhar-o",fullName:"Chandra Sekhar O"}]},{id:"58665",title:"Degradation in PEM Fuel Cells and Mitigation Strategies Using System Design and Control",slug:"degradation-in-pem-fuel-cells-and-mitigation-strategies-using-system-design-and-control",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The rapid miniaturization of electronics, sensors, and actuators has reduced the cost of field sensor networks and enabled more functionality in ever smaller packages. Networks of field sensors have emerging applications in environmental monitoring, in disaster monitoring, security, and agriculture. Batteries limit potential applications due to their low specific energy. A promising alternative is photovoltaics. Photovoltaics require large, bulky panels and are impacted by daily and seasonal variation in solar insolation that requires coupling to a backup power source. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are a promising alternative, because they are clean, quiet, and operate at high efficiencies. However, challenges remain in achieving long lives due to catalyst degradation and hydrogen storage. In this chapter, we present a design framework for high-energy fuel cell power supplies applied to field sensor networks. The aim is to achieve long operational lives by controlling degradation and utilizing high-energy density fuels such as lithium hydride to produce hydrogen. Lithium hydride in combination with fuel-cell wastewater or ambient humidity can achieve fuel specific energy of 5000 Wh/kg. The results of the study show that the PEM hybrid system fueled using lithium hydride offers a three- to fivefold reduction in mass compared to state-of-the-art batteries.",book:{id:"6285",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-fuel-cell",title:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell",fullTitle:"Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell"},signatures:"Jekan Thangavelautham",authors:[{id:"210571",title:"Prof.",name:"Jekan",middleName:null,surname:"Thangavelautham",slug:"jekan-thangavelautham",fullName:"Jekan Thangavelautham"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"765",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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