\r\n\tThere are different types of multiple pregnancies: fraternal twins, identical twins, triplets, and higher-order multiples. Symptoms of multiple pregnancies are larger uterus than expected for the date in pregnancy, increased morning sickness, increased appetite, and excessive weight gain. In this book, we will examine the clinical aspects of multiple pregnancies and management. Also, we will examine the management of cases of twins including antenatal care, delivery, and postpartum.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-198-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-197-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-199-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"70396c6f5f2928c422c1eaf6d33c6269",bookSignature:"Prof. Hassan S Abduljabbar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11732.jpg",keywords:"Multiple Pregnancies, Twins, Physiology, Incidence, Epidemiology, Demographics, Predisposing Factors, Prenatal Diagnosis, Zygosity, Complications, Management of Birth, Antenatal Care",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"22 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, consultant, clinician, researcher, editor, and referee of many international scientific medical journals. Dr. Abduljabbar is president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the president of the Federation of Arab Gynecology Obstetrics Societies. He has published more than seventy-five scientific articles and edited several books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68175/images/system/68175.png",biography:"Hassan S. Abduljabbar, MD, FRCSC, American Board Diplomate, is a professor at the College of Medicine, King Abdulaziz\nUniversity, Saudi Arabia. He is also the president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Federation of Arab\nGynecology Obstetric Societies (FAGOS). He is a referee for\nmany international scientific journals. He is also an examiner for\ngraduate degrees as well as for the Saudi and Arab board exams.\nDr. Abduljabbar has published more than fifty articles and edited three books.",institutionString:"Dr. Erfan & Bagedo General Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2013",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Clinical Aspect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31dfd32a77f71bc348d7922af48b8e62",slug:"steroids-clinical-aspect",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"814",title:"Steroids",subtitle:"Basic Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74304f5d822f8f45d4b48a0e00ebd375",slug:"steroids-basic-science",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5937",title:"Obstetrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"092197b1191815505a23e7dd1c9edde6",slug:"obstetrics",bookSignature:"Hassan Salah Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5937.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10485",title:"Fibroids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64ad14b1aba83e47fb100fa63e21533e",slug:"fibroids",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7132",title:"Complications of Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2bdac8e99a71feab10bd0b9e1063bb9",slug:"complications-of-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10721",title:"Preeclampsia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb38592b7a656d02dd6b28c34e43de32",slug:"preeclampsia",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10721.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57372",title:"Role of Gait Training in Recovery of Standing and Walking in Subjects with Spinal Cord Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71312",slug:"role-of-gait-training-in-recovery-of-standing-and-walking-in-subjects-with-spinal-cord-injury",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The act of learning how to walk (as a child, or more frequently, after sustaining an injury or disability) is so-called gait training or gait rehabilitation. In this chapter, we focus on gait training after spinal cord injury (SCI). The purpose of gait training for subjects with SCI is usually to increase walking endurance and to decrease subject’s dependency. Standing and walking can help to prevent contractures of the lower limb joints, as well as osteoporosis, spasticity, bed sores and edema, complete discharge of bladder, and prevention of bladder infection in subjects with SCI [1, 2, 3, 4].
\n
Spinal cord injury is spinal cord damaging that causes changes in function, most frequently and importantly, disruption in lower limb motor and sensation. Inability to walk is the most important limitation for affected patients [5]. Among lots of serious problem which patients encounter with, but after injury the first question is “will I ever walk again?” [6]. As a result, retraining the affected patients to achieve walking ability is important.
Aerobic capacity out of which the first six factors are impaired in spinal cord injured individuals.
\n
In patients with SCI, there are no main determinants of normal gait, but in recent years, there have been advancements in how the patients can increase the ability to walk. Rehabilitation procedures should focus on the development of outcome by using the neuroplasticity and by using a functional training.
\n
Lovely et al. in 1990 demonstrated neuronal circuits below the level of lesion become activated by an appropriate afferent input. They established that stepping practice plays an important role in training [8]. When the practice of stepping is accomplished, walking can be done more effective than when it is not practiced. In spinal cord, when a motor task wants to be recognized in neural circuit, it should be practiced appropriately and sufficiently. The name of this process is training [9]. De Leon et al. in 1998 and Wirz et al., 2001 stated that appropriate afferent input activate neuronal networks below the level of injury in a SCI patients, and activated neural network generate electromyography activity for suitable function (even in complete SCI without supraspinal input) [10, 11]. Dietz et al. in different experiments in human and animals revealed externally assisted walking, with tools and equipment or therapist, when appropriate afferent input will drive to spinal cord, a locomotor pattern will train and muscle activity (EMG) will be turned on even in complete SCI; however, muscle activity in complete SCI is low in comparison with healthy subjects but muscle EMG will increase by practicing more and more during training sessions [12].
\n
One of the important afferent inputs is foot load receptor input. Researchers perceive the importance of these kinds of afferent input when they use externally assisted walking while patients are unloading. In this experiment, they understand unloading does not activate muscle EMG activity and they claim that, body unloading and reloading are considered to be of crucial importance to convince training effects upon the neurological locomotor centers, because the afferent input from foot pressure during the stance phase is essential for the activation of spinal neuronal network (Figure 1) [13]. Dietz in 2008 suggested that another important input after foot contact pressure is proprioceptive input from extensor hip muscles. Foot sole mechanoreceptor with hip extensor muscles proprioception provides load information (Figure 1) [13].
\n
Figure 1.
Schematic drawing of the afferent input from load- and hip joint [14].
\n
\n
\n
2. Gait rehabilitation interventions following spinal cord injury
\n
Until now, many therapeutic strategies have been developed for promoting locomotor activity of SCI subjects ranged from those that compensate for weakened or lost function (e.g. orthotic gait training) to strategies based on the concepts of central nervous system (CNS) plasticity (e.g. Erigo therapy and body weight–supported tread mill training) [15, 16]. Strategies that are based on the concept of CNS plasticity have shown improvement and enhancement in walking ability of SCI subjects through implementing the task-specific sensory input and repetitive and intensive gait therapy [17, 18]. These strategies will be explained as following.
\n
\n
\n
3. Early gait rehabilitation interventions after spinal cord injury (Erigo therapy)
\n
SCI subjects, in acute stages, are disposed to orthostatic hypotension occurrences while transferred from a horizontal to an upright position due to the lack of sympathetic activity and also leg muscle contractions that finally lead to delay in starting the functional gait training [18, 19]. On the other hand, the mobilization and verticalization of SCI patients in acute care with limited or no capacity for cooperation can be very challenging. One approach to decrease the orthostatic hypotension incidences is utilizing tilt table. Many limitations related to the use of traditional tilt table have been reported such as no leg movements, limited training duration due to the lack of patient’s cardiovascular stability and excessive labor load on therapist for passive movements. Therefore, for overcoming of such limitations a novel, robotic tilt table so-called Erigo was designed and developed, which offered a locomotion therapy at a very early stage of rehabilitation. These types of approaches through utilizing a safe mobilization and intensive sensorimotor stimulation, ambulates the lower extremity, and suggests a wide range of positive impacts and functions to enhance early rehabilitation of SCI patients [18, 19, 20].
\n
The design and construction of the “Erigo” was based on the conventional tilt table but combines gradual verticalization plus robotic leg movement’s therapy and functional electrical stimulation [18] (Figure 2). The main superiority of “Erigo” to the traditional tilt table was utilizing the robotic leg movement and the cyclic leg loading that produce critical afferent stimuli for the central nervous system [18, 20, 21]. These afferent stimuli result in muscle activation, improved muscle pump function and venous return, which eventually result in improved cardiovascular stability in SCI subjects. There are a few studies about the efficacy of “Erigo” following spinal cord injury [18, 22, 23]. According to the previous research by Colombo et al., using Novel tilt table (tilted to 60° upright position) in five subjects with complete SCI (ASIA impairment scale A between C4 and C7) resulted in the increase of blood pressure and after stopping the automated movement, the mean arterial pressure decreased statistically significant(P < 0.0001) [14]. Although this study showed the positive effects of passive movements of leg through using “Erigo” therapy on circulatory system in SCI patients, it has to be stated that further studies are necessary to test this type of approach in a larder patients group of SCI with different level of injury and also in the long term to indicate the direct effects of “Erigo” therapy.
\n
Figure 2.
Erigo components.
\n
Also Laubacher et al. indicated that the “Erigo” therapy is practical for respiratory and cardiopulmonary training and evaluation of incomplete SCI subjects and they found it was a tolerable and implementable approach [22]. Another approach in the rehabilitation of SCI subjects is combining the tilt table with vibrating foot plates (whole-body vibration) that focus on the activation of muscular and vascular systems. Herrero et al., found that whole body vibration (WBV) is an effective approach to enhance leg blood flow and to stimulate muscle activity in SCI subjects; therefore, they concluded that this approach could be incorporated in the rehabilitation programs of SCI subjects. So in future studies, we need to compare the efficacy of Erigo therapy and whole body vibration (WBV) on orthostatic, blood pressure, and EMG in subjects with SCI [24].
\n
Also integrating functional electrical stimulation (FES) into “Erigo” provides more physiological and clinical benefits (Figure 3). The nerve endings are stimulated through attaching electrodes to the skin, which results in contraction and activation of muscles. Many positive effects have been reported by using of “Erigo” plus FES like improving in the cardiovascular system and metabolism condition, decreasing spasticity, improving the muscle tone, reducing long-term consequences due to the lack of muscle activity, inducing functional movements, increasing cardiovascular stability during upright position, and promoting the orthostatic tolerance by enhancing venous return in individual with SCI [18, 22, 25, 26]. Thrasher et al. compared the effects of isometric FES and dynamic FES on cardiovascular parameters on an active tilt-table stepper in 16 young and healthy adults. They stated that isometric FES led to short-term increases in blood pressure and also heart rate, but dynamic FES maintained increase in blood pressure over the long term. They postulated that however FES has potential to counteract orthostatic stress it should be combined with movements of leg [27]. In a pilot study, Yoshida et al. found that through applying FES cyclically to the leg muscles of 10 SCI subjects at T6 or higher, they could better retain their blood pressure. Although FES and passive stepping by Erigo achieves this function by inducing venous return, passive stepping was less effective than FES in this study [23]. Finally, many studies are needed to extend these findings to the community of people with SCI with different levels of injury.
\n
Figure 3.
Functional electrical stimulation synchronized with leg cycling in “Erigo”.
\n
\n
\n
4. Body weight–supported treadmill training approaches after spinal cord injury
\n
The most outstanding strategy for regaining the walking ability in SCI subjects is body weight–supported treadmill training (BWSTT) [16, 26, 28]. Traditionally, BWSTT device supported some of the SCI patient’s body weight by using a harness, as therapists manually assist their legs via the stepping movement on a treadmill. Although, it has been shown that such interventions could enhance and promote locomotor activity in SCI subjects, according to the previous researches, traditional gait therapy had many disadvantages such as excessive labor load on therapists, confined training duration, and gait pattern without any feedback for patients (Figure 4) [17]. Therefore, body weight–supported treadmill training using lower extremity robotic exoskeleton (e.g. Lokomat) was designed and developed and initially implemented for SCI rehabilitation. The BWSTT with robotics exoskeleton has originated from the central pattern generator (CPG) and is a secure and functional intervention that allows gait training by covering the limitations of conventional gait therapy [16, 29].
\n
Figure 4.
Traditional BWSTT (A) V.S. BWSTT plus robotic exoskeleton (B).
\n
One of the famous robotics exoskeleton use in conjunction with the BWSTT is the Lokomat (Hocoma AG, Volketswil, Switzerland), which is a bilateral robotic orthosis, worn by patients, and attaches to a treadmill frame to provide powered assistance at the hip and knee in the sagittal plane, while a therapist can check the system and regulate assistance as necessary (Figure 5) [17, 28].
\n
Figure 5.
Lokomat components.
\n
The Lokomat has been demonstrated to be effective in producing more normal walking patterns and promoting walking ability in subjects with incomplete SCI. Generally, applying the robotic exoskeleton device in conjunction with the BWSTT, in gait rehabilitation procedure, could potentially accelerate recovery of walking ability in individual following SCI through enhancing the duration of training and reducing the labor load on physical therapists [17, 28, 29].
\n
\n
\n
5. Orthotic gait training
\n
There are different types of orthoses and assistive devices for standing and walking in complete and incomplete spinal cord injury subjects [30]. This type of intervention ranged from solid ankle foot orthosis to reciprocating gait orthoses and powered gait orthoses, which were used to low incomplete level of spinal cord injury and high complete or incomplete level of injury [31]. In general concept, all orthoses were used with walking aid for ambulation. Several factors influenced the providing walking ability via orthoses in the SCI subjects, which gait training is the important of them [32].
\n
\n
\n
6. Orthotic gait training of SCI subjects with the mechanical orthoses
\n
There were different types of mechanical orthoses such as hip-knee-ankle-foot orthosis, reciprocating gait orthosis (RGO) (Figure 6), hip guidance orthosis, and medial linkage orthoses (e.g. walkabout orthosis (WO), Primewalk orthosis (Figure 7)) to provide standing and walking in subjects with SCI [30]. Several studies evaluated this type of orthoses on walking ability in these subjects [30]. Based on the evaluation of the energy expenditure, Harvey et al. demonstrated that energy consumption of walking with the WO were greater than walking with the isocentric reciprocating gait orthosis (IRGO) in SCI subjects with T9–12 paraplegia [33]. In addition in another study, Harvey et al. demonstrated that stand up and sit down with WO was easier than IRGO, but IRGO provided faster and more independent ambulation [34]. In comparison of the attitude of subjects with SCI when using WO and the IRGO, Harvey et al. reported few subjects used orthosis more than once every 2 weeks, and SCI individuals were primarily wearing the orthoses for therapeutic aims [35]. To evaluate the influence of Primewalk orthosis and walkabout orthosis in improving the walking performance in subjects with SCI, Ongio et al. demonstrated the Primewalk orthosis had better effect in walking efficiency than that of the Walkabout orthosis [36].
\n
Figure 6.
Isocentric reciprocating gait orthosis [32].
\n
Figure 7.
Walkabout orthosis and Primewalk orthosis.
\n
Training time announced different in this field between 2 until 12 weeks. Longitudinal training program demonstrated the better results on the improvement of walking parameters. The maximum rate of the speed of walking reported from 0.13 to 0.63 m/s, which is 13–57% of the optimal speed (1.1 m/s) required for successful community ambulation [37]. Home or indoor mobility for exercise, upright posture, and standing reported final benefits of orthotics gait rehabilitation [38, 39].
\n
The successful orthotic gait rehabilitation in SCI subjects related to the several factors included well-motivated, with complete level of injury at T9 or below, incomplete level of injury, postural control, and [39, 40, 41] good upper extremity strength, as well as less spasticity and low level contractures [42], reduced thoracolumbar mobility, back pain, or any musculoskeletal problems that influenced standing upright [33, 43]. Orthotic gait rehabilitation can be influenced by the acceptance of orthoses. In other words, acceptance of orthoses may be influenced by donning and doffing time, the best time for donning and doffing of orthosis should be less than 5 minutes [31].
\n
\n
\n
7. Orthotic gait training of SCI subjects with powered gait orthoses
\n
Providing gait training in different environments such as clinic, home, or community announced as the main benefit of wearing powered gait orthosis [3]. Only limited PGOs are currently commercially available to the public and therefore would be able to be used in the field in SCI subjects. The concept of using PGOs is the reduction of energy demand in uses and reduces loads on the upper limb joints.
\n
The HAL-5 Type-C (hybrid assistive limb) (Figure 8), the ReWalk powered orthosis (Argo Medical Technologies) (Figure 9 ), the wearable power assist locomotor (Figure 10), and the eLEGS-powered orthosis (Berkeley Bionics) (Figure 11) are commercially powered orthoses for ambulation in SCI subjects.
\n
Figure 8.
The HAL-5 type-C (hybrid assistive limb).
\n
Figure 9.
The ReWalk powered orthosis (Argo Medical Technologies).
\n
Figure 10.
The wearable power assist locomotor.
\n
Figure 11.
The eLEGS-powered orthosis (Berkeley Bionics).
\n
In the evaluation of the gait training with the HAL-6LB on the SCI subject for 8 days, for 2 hours per day, Tsukahara et al. reported that walking speed and cadence were 0.11 m/s and 20 steps/minutes, respectively [44]. In the evaluation of Rewalk exoskeleton on safety and tolerance in SCI patients, Zeilig et al. reported that mean time to walk 10 m was 47 seconds following training when using the Rewalk [45]. In another study, distance walked for 50–100 m announced between 5 and 10 minutes continually. The mean walking speed was 0.25 m/s [46]. In the evaluation of the wearable power assist locomotor orthosis (WPAL) on walking, physiological cost index (PCI) and muscle activity of the upper extremities in SCI subjects, Tanabe et al. reported all patients walked independently with the new powered device. The increased walking duration and distance of walking and reduction of the PCI and muscle activity of upper limbs with the WPAL compared to that the Primewalk orthosis [47]. Based on the literature in this field, we can conclude that PGOs can enable safe walking and reduce energy expenditure compared to mechanical orthoses in SCI subjects.
\n
\n
\n
8. Orthotic gait training with hybrid system (bracing combined with FES) in SCI
\n
High level of energy demand and high effort and loads on the upper limb joints announced the main complication of the orthotics gait rehabilitation with mechanical orthoses. Combination of the mechanical orthoses and FES innovated to improve gait parameters and reduce the loads and energy demand in SCI subjects. The main concept of the using this type of approach announced trunk and hip stability and facilitate forward progression.
\n
Different studies in this field evaluated the hybrid systems on the walking capacity in SCI subjects [38, 40, 48, 49]. Distance walked was announced as 180–1400 m in these studies [38, 40, 48, 49]. Although there was no significant improvement in the walking speed, but improvement in the distance walked was observed in trails in this field. The rate of the distance walked was announced between 3 and 400 m when the FES or orthoses were trained alone [38, 40, 48]. In subjects with incomplete level of spinal cord injury, the gait training with hybrid systems provided improvement in ambulation capacity compared to bracing or FES using alone [50].
\n
\n
\n
9. Orthotic gait training protocol
\n
The training approach announced different among the studies on SCI population [51]. Training protocol has been performed different for powered and mechanical orthoses. Based on the time of the training program, five studies had a shorter training period [26, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55], while several weeks to months were reported in other studies [32, 51]. Training protocol was being done on the different surfaces including sidewalk, grass, or stairs [56, 57, 58]. Yong et al. used the training protocol with powered gait orthosis on the treadmill to increase confidence of SCI subjects and improvement of the walking speed on them [59]. While in using powered gait orthosis, Arazpour et al. [60] performed upper extremity strengthening and lower extremity stretching as the main section of the training during orthotic gait rehabilitation. Further study on how different training programs affected the walking ability outcomes in the SCI patients will be beneficial in this field.
\n
Orthotic training in SCI subjects can be reduced fatigue and fear of falling and increased the stepping [61]. It was announced that after training program, SCI subjects had walking ability and performance of activity of daily living. The SCI subjects may have less energy demand during walking with orthoses compared to without orthotic gait training condition [32].
\n
\n
\n
10. Positive results of walking in SCI subjects
\n
Complications of SCI such as spasticity, joint contractures, pressure sores, osteoporosis, and urinary tract infections may be present in subjects with SCI [1, 2]. Standing and walking provides physiological and psychological benefits for individuals with SCI [3]. A reduction of bed sores, osteoporosis, spasticity, contractures, and improvement of bladder and bowel functions have all been announced after standing and walking in subjects with SCI [1, 4]. Orthotic gait training is the intervention, which can help in SCI subjects.
\n
Future study in this field must be focused on the following terms:
The effect of orthotics gait training on the quality of life in SCI subjects
The effect of orthotics gait training on the electromyography of the lower limb muscles
Comparison between orthotics gait training with RGOs and powered orthosis on the walking parameters and other related parameters
\n
\n\n',keywords:"spinal cord injury, gait training, standing, walking",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57372.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57372.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57372",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57372",totalDownloads:1169,totalViews:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:43,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2017",dateReviewed:"September 27th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 13th 2018",dateFinished:"October 27th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Gait training has an important role in rehabilitation of standing and walking in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. There were different types of gait training in these subjects. Both the body weight support treadmill training and robotic-assisted and robotic exoskeleton are effective and secure methods for gait training and improving the energy demand and metabolic cost in SCI patients in different level of injury. The powered exoskeletons can provide patients with SCI the ability to walk with the lowest energy consumption. The powered exoskeleton’s energy consumption and speed of walking depend on the training duration. Based on different types of gait training methods, training time, and other affected parameters, the aim of this chapter was to evaluate the role of gait training in recovery of standing and walking in SCI patients.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57372",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57372",book:{id:"6069",slug:"essentials-of-spinal-cord-injury-medicine"},signatures:"Mokhtar Arazpour, Guive Sharifi, Mohammad Ebrahim Mousavi\nand Maryam Maleki",authors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour",email:"m.arazpour@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179731/images/system/179731.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"206315",title:"Dr.",name:"Guive",middleName:null,surname:"Sharifi",fullName:"Guive Sharifi",slug:"guive-sharifi",email:"gibnow@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"213561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Ebrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Mousavi",fullName:"Mohammad Ebrahim Mousavi",slug:"mohammad-ebrahim-mousavi",email:"Me.mousavi2001@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gait rehabilitation interventions following spinal cord injury",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Early gait rehabilitation interventions after spinal cord injury (Erigo therapy)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Body weight–supported treadmill training approaches after spinal cord injury",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Orthotic gait training",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Orthotic gait training of SCI subjects with the mechanical orthoses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Orthotic gait training of SCI subjects with powered gait orthoses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Orthotic gait training with hybrid system (bracing combined with FES) in SCI",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Orthotic gait training protocol",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Positive results of walking in SCI subjects",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Eng JJ, Levins SM, Townson AF, Mah-Jones D, Bremner J, Huston G. Use of prolonged standing for individuals with spinal cord injuries. Physical Therapy. 2001;81(8):1392-1399\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Anson C, Shepherd C. Incidence of secondary complications in spinal cord injury. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 1996;19(1):55-66\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Walter SJ, Sola GP, Sacks J, Lucero Y, Langbein E, Weaver F. Indications for a home standing program for individuals with spinal cord injury. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 1999;22(3):152-158\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Blackmer J. Orthostatic hypotension in spinal cord injured patients. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 1997;20(2):212-217\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Ahmadi Bani M, Arazpour M, Farahmand F, Mousavi ME, Hutchins SW. The efficiency of mechanical orthoses in affecting parameters associated with daily living in spinal cord injury patients: A literature review. Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology. 2015;10(3):183-190\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Nene A, Hermens H, Zilvold G. Paraplegic locomotion: A review. Spinal Cord. 1996;34(9):507-524\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Cheng Y-Y, Hsieh W-L, Kao C-L, Chan R-C. Principles of rehabilitation for common chronic neurologic diseases in the elderly. Journal of Clinical Gerontology and Geriatrics. 2012;3(1):5-13\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Lovely RG, Gregor R, Roy R, Edgerton V. Effects of training on the recovery of full-weight-bearing stepping in the adult spinal cat. Experimental Neurology. 1986;92(2):421-435\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Edgerton V, De Leon R, Tillakaratne N, Recktenwald M, Hodgson J, Roy R. Use-dependent plasticity in spinal stepping and standing. Advances in Neurology. 1997;72:233-247\n'},{id:"B10",body:'De Leon R, Hodgson J, Roy R, Edgerton V. Locomotor capacity attributable to step training versus spontaneous recovery after spinalization in adult cats. Journal of Neurophysiology. 1998;79(3):1329-1340\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Wirz M, Colombo G, Dietz V. Long term effects of locomotor training in spinal humans. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2001;71(1):93-96\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Dietz V. Neuronal plasticity after a human spinal cord injury: Positive and negative effects. Experimental Neurology. 2012;235(1):110-115\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Dietz V. Body weight supported gait training: From laboratory to clinical setting. Brain Research Bulletin. 2009;78(1):I-VI\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Dietz V, Müller R, Colombo G. Locomotor activity in spinal man: Significance of afferent input from joint and load receptors. Brain. 2002;125(12):2626-2634\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Lam T, Eng J, Wolfe D, Hsieh J, Whittaker M. A systematic review of the efficacy of gait rehabilitation strategies for spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2007;13(1):32-57\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Barbeau H, Fung J. The role of rehabilitation in the recovery of walking in the neurological population. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2001;14(6):735-740\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Ferris D, Sawicki G, Domingo A. Powered lower limb orthoses for gait rehabilitation. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2005;11(2):34-49\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Colombo G, Schreier R, Mayr A, Plewa H, Rupp R. Novel tilt table with integrated robotic stepping mechanism: Design principles and clinical application. In: Proc. IEEE 9th Int. Conf. Rehabilitation Robotics. 2005, p. 227-230\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Chi L, Masani K, Miyatani M, Thrasher TA, Johnston KW, Mardimae A, et al. Cardiovascular response to functional electrical stimulation and dynamic tilt table therapy to improve orthostatic tolerance. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2008;18(6):900-907\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Czell D, Schreier R, Rupp R, Eberhard S, Colombo G, Dietz V. Influence of passive leg movements on blood circulation on the tilt table in healthy adults. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation. 2004;1(1):4\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Li W, Huang Y, Xu J, Jiping H. Brain activity during walking in patient with spinal cord injury. 2011 International Symposium on Bioelectronics and Bioinformatics (ISBB). 2011, p. 96-99\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Laubacher M, Perret C, Hunt KJ. Work-rate-guided exercise testing in patients with incomplete spinal cord injury using a robotics-assisted tilt-table. Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology. 2015;10(5):433-438\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Yoshida T, Masani K, Sayenko DG, Miyatani M, Fisher JA, Popovic MR. Cardiovascular response of individuals with spinal cord injury to dynamic functional electrical stimulation under orthostatic stress. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 2013;21(1):37-46\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Herrero A, Menendez H, Gil L, Martin J, Martin T, Garcia-Lopez D, et al. Effects of whole-body vibration on blood flow and neuromuscular activity in spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2011;49(4):554\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Liu DS, Chang WH, Wong AM, Chen S-C, Lin K-P, Lai C-H. Development of a biofeedback tilt-table for investigating orthostatic syncope in patients with spinal cord injury. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing. 2007;45(12):1223-1228\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Evans N, Hartigan C, Kandilakis C, Pharo E, Clesson I. Acute cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses during exoskeleton-assisted walking overground among persons with chronic spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2015;21(2):122-132\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Thrasher TA, Keller T, Lawrence M, Popovic MR. Effects of isometric FES and dynamic FES on cardiovascular parameters on an active tilt-table stepper. In: Proc. 10th Int. Funct. Electr. Stimulat. Soc. Conf. 2005, p. 409-411\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Hornby TG, Zemon DH, Campbell D. Robotic-assisted, body-weight–supported treadmill training in individuals following motor incomplete spinal cord injury. Physical Therapy. 2005;85(1):52-66\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Hornby TG, Reinkensmeyer DJ, Chen D. Manually-assisted versus robotic-assisted body weight-supported treadmill training in spinal cord injury: What is the role of each? PM&R. 2010;2(3):214-221\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Arazpour M, Bani MA, Hutchins SW. Reciprocal gait orthoses and powered gait orthoses for walking by spinal cord injury patients. Prosthetics and Orthotics International. 2013;37(1):14-21\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Ahmadi Bani M, Arazpour M, Farahmand F, Mousavi ME, Hutchins SW. The efficiency of mechanical orthoses in affecting parameters associated with daily living in spinal cord injury patients: A literature review. Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology. 2014;(0):1-8\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Samadian M, Arazpour M, Bani MA, Pouyan A, Bahramizadeh M, Hutchins S. The influence of orthotic gait training with an isocentric reciprocating gait orthosis on the walking ability of paraplegic patients: A pilot study. Spinal Cord. 2015\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Harvey LA, Davis GM, Smith MB, Engel S. Energy expenditure during gait using the walkabout and isocentric reciprocal gait orthoses in persons with paraplegia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 1998;79(8):945-949\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Harvey LA, Smith MB, Davis GM, Engel S. Functional outcomes attained by T9-12 paraplegic patients with the walkabout and the isocentric reciprocal gait orthoses. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 1997;78(7):706-711\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Harvey LA, Newton-John T, Davis GM, Smith MB, Engel S. A comparison of the attitude of paraplegic individuals to the walkabout orthosis and the isocentric reciprocal gait orthosis. Spinal Cord. 1997;35(9):580-584\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Onogi K, Kondo I, Saitoh E, Kato M, Oyobe T. Comparison of the effects of sliding-type and hinge-type joints of knee-ankle-foot orthoses on temporal gait parameters in patients with paraplegia. Japanese Journal of Comprehensive Rehabilitation Science. 2010;1:1-6\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Robinett CS, Vondran MA. Functional ambulation velocity and distance requirements in rural and urban communities: A clinical report. Physical Therapy. 1988;68(9):1371-1373\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Sykes L, Edwards J, Powell ES, Ross ERS. The reciprocating gait orthosis: Long-term usage patterns. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 1995;76(8):779-783\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Hong C, San Luis E, Chung S. Follow-up study on the use of leg braces issued to spinal cord injury patients. Spinal Cord. 1990;28(3):172-177\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Thoumie P, Perrouin-Verbe B, Le Claire G, Bedoiseau M, Busnel M, Cormerais A, et al. Restoration of functional gait in paraplegic patients with the RGO-II hybrid orthosis. A multicentre controlled study. I. Clinical evaluation. Spinal Cord. 1995;33(11):647-653\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Franceschini M, Baratta S, Zampolini M, Loria D, Lotta S. Reciprocating gait orthoses: A multicenter study of their use by spinal cord injured patients. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 1997;78(6):582-586\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Suzuki K, Mito G, Kawamoto H, Hasegawa Y, Sankai Y. Intention-based walking support for paraplegia patients with robot suit HAL. Advanced Robotics. 2007;21(12):1441-1469\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Middleton JW, Sinclair PJ, Smith RM, Davis GM. Postural control during stance in paraplegia: Effects of medially linked versus unlinked knee-ankle-foot orthoses. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 1999;80(12):1558-1565\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Tsukahara A, Hasegawa Y, Sankai Y. Gait support for complete spinal cord injury patient by synchronized leg-swing with HAL. 2011 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Zeilig G, Weingarden H, Zwecker M, Dudkiewicz I, Bloch A, Esquenazi A. Safety and tolerance of the ReWalk™ exoskeleton suit for ambulation by people with complete spinal cord injury: A pilot study. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 2012;35(2):96-101\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Esquenazi A, Talaty M, Packel A, Saulino M. The ReWalk powered exoskeleton to restore ambulatory function to individuals with thoracic-level motor-complete spinal cord injury. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2012;91(11):911-921\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Tanabe S, Saitoh E, Hirano S, Katoh M, Takemitsu T, Uno A, et al. Design of the wearable power-assist locomotor (WPAL) for paraplegic gait reconstruction. Disability and Rehabilitation. Assistive Technology. 2013;8(1):84-91\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Marsolais E, Kobetic R, Polando G, Ferguson K, Tashman S, Gaudio R, et al. The Case Western Reserve University hybrid gait orthosis. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 1999;23(2):100-108\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Solomonow M, et al. FES powered locomotion of paraplegics fitted with the LSU reciprocating gait orthoses (RGO). In: Proc. Annual Int. Con6 IEEE Eng. Medicine and Biology Soc. 1988;10:1672\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Kim CM, Eng JJ, Whittaker MW. Effects of a simple functional electric system and/or a hinged ankle-foot orthosis on walking in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2004;85(10):1718-1723\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Louie DR, Eng JJ, Lam T. Gait speed using powered robotic exoskeletons after spinal cord injury: A systematic review and correlational study. Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation. 2015;12(1):1\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Hartigan C, Kandilakis C, Dalley S, Clausen M, Wilson E, Morrison S, et al. Mobility outcomes following five training sessions with a powered exoskeleton. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2015;21(2):93-99\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Kolakowsky-Hayner SA, Crew J, Moran S, Shah A. Safety and feasibility of using the EksoTM bionic exoskeleton to aid ambulation after spinal cord injury. Journal of Spine. 2013;2013\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Neuhaus PD, Noorden JH, Craig TJ, Torres T, Kirschbaum J, Pratt JE. Design and evaluation of mina: A robotic orthosis for paraplegics. Paper presented at the IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics: ICORR 2011, Zurich, CH. (2011, Jun 29–Jul 1)\n'},{id:"B55",body:'Tanabe S, Hirano S, Saitoh E. Wearable power-assist Locomotor (WPAL) for supporting upright walking in persons with paraplegia. NeuroRehabilitation. 2013;33(1):99-106\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Kozlowski A, Bryce T, Dijkers M. Time and effort required by persons with spinal cord injury to learn to use a powered exoskeleton for assisted walking. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2015;21(2):110-121\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Fineberg DB, Asselin P, Harel NY, Agranova-Breyter I, Kornfeld SD, Bauman WA, et al. Vertical ground reaction force-based analysis of powered exoskeleton-assisted walking in persons with motor-complete paraplegia. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine. 2013;36(4):313-321\n'},{id:"B58",body:'Benson I, Hart K, Tussler D, van Middendorp JJ. Lower-limb exoskeletons for individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: Findings from a feasibility study. Clin Rehabil. 2016 Jan;30(1):73-84\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Yang A, Asselin P, Knezevic S, Kornfeld S, Spungen A. Assessment of in-hospital walking velocity and level of assistance in a powered exoskeleton in persons with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation. 2015;21(2):100-109\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Arazpour M, Bani M, Hutchins S, Jones R. The physiological cost index of walking with mechanical and powered gait orthosis in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2013;51(5):356-359\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Arazpour M, Bani M, Hutchins S, Curran S, Javanshir M. The influence of ankle joint mobility when using an orthosis on stability in patients with spinal cord injury: A pilot study. Spinal Cord. 2013;51(10):750\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour",address:"m.arazpour@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Orthotics and Prosthetics, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran
Department of Orthotics and Prosthetics, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6069",type:"book",title:"Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury Medicine",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury Medicine",slug:"essentials-of-spinal-cord-injury-medicine",publishedDate:"June 13th 2018",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6069.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-249-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-248-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-275-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"994"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"58087",type:"chapter",title:"Understanding Molecular Pathology along Injured Spinal Cord Axis: Moving Frontiers toward Effective Neuroprotection and Regeneration",slug:"understanding-molecular-pathology-along-injured-spinal-cord-axis-moving-frontiers-toward-effective-n",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Dasa Cizkova, Adriana-Natalia Murgoci, Lenka Kresakova, Katarina\nVdoviakova, Milan Cizek, Tomas Smolek, Veronika Cubinkova, Jusal\nQuanico, Isabelle Fournier and Michel Salzet",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"59261",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Salzet",fullName:"Michel Salzet",slug:"michel-salzet"},{id:"61272",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Fournier",fullName:"Isabelle Fournier",slug:"isabelle-fournier"},{id:"206337",title:"Prof.",name:"Dasa",middleName:null,surname:"Cizkova",fullName:"Dasa Cizkova",slug:"dasa-cizkova"},{id:"219858",title:"Dr.",name:"Jusal",middleName:null,surname:"Quanico",fullName:"Jusal Quanico",slug:"jusal-quanico"},{id:"219879",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana-Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Murgoci",fullName:"Adriana-Natalia Murgoci",slug:"adriana-natalia-murgoci"},{id:"220066",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",middleName:null,surname:"Kresakova",fullName:"Lenka Kresakova",slug:"lenka-kresakova"},{id:"220067",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarína",middleName:null,surname:"Vdoviaková",fullName:"Katarína Vdoviaková",slug:"katarina-vdoviakova"},{id:"220166",title:"Dr.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Cizek",fullName:"Milan Cizek",slug:"milan-cizek"},{id:"220167",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Smolek",fullName:"Tomas Smolek",slug:"tomas-smolek"},{id:"220168",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronika",middleName:null,surname:"Cubinkova",fullName:"Veronika Cubinkova",slug:"veronika-cubinkova"}]},{id:"59170",type:"chapter",title:"Pharmacological and Nonpharmacological Therapeutic Strategies Based on the Pathophysiology of Acute and Chronic Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"pharmacological-and-nonpharmacological-therapeutic-strategies-based-on-the-pathophysiology-of-acute-",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Elisa Garcia, Roxana Rodríguez-Barrera, Jose Mondragón-Caso,\nHoracio Carvajal and Antonio Ibarra",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"72488",title:"Dr.",name:"José Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Ibarra Arias",fullName:"José Juan Antonio Ibarra Arias",slug:"jose-juan-antonio-ibarra-arias"},{id:"207140",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"García-Vences",fullName:"Elisa García-Vences",slug:"elisa-garcia-vences"},{id:"207141",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Barrera",fullName:"Roxana Rodriguez-Barrera",slug:"roxana-rodriguez-barrera"},{id:"217342",title:"Mr.",name:"Horacio",middleName:null,surname:"Carvajal",fullName:"Horacio Carvajal",slug:"horacio-carvajal"},{id:"217343",title:"Mr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragón-Caso",fullName:"José Mondragón-Caso",slug:"jose-mondragon-caso"}]},{id:"57701",type:"chapter",title:"Spastic Paraplegias Due to Non-Traumatic Spinal Cord Disorders",slug:"spastic-paraplegias-due-to-non-traumatic-spinal-cord-disorders",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Haruo Shimazaki",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"40227",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Haruo",middleName:null,surname:"Shimazaki",fullName:"Haruo Shimazaki",slug:"haruo-shimazaki"}]},{id:"61364",type:"chapter",title:"Penetrating Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"penetrating-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1291,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Moti M. Kramer, Asaf Acker and Nissim Ohana",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"206008",title:"Dr.",name:"Asaf",middleName:null,surname:"Acker",fullName:"Asaf Acker",slug:"asaf-acker"},{id:"220281",title:"Dr.",name:"Moti M",middleName:null,surname:"Kramer",fullName:"Moti M Kramer",slug:"moti-m-kramer"},{id:"220282",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitri",middleName:null,surname:"Sheinis",fullName:"Dimitri Sheinis",slug:"dimitri-sheinis"},{id:"220283",title:"Dr.",name:"Nissim",middleName:null,surname:"Ohana",fullName:"Nissim Ohana",slug:"nissim-ohana"}]},{id:"58534",type:"chapter",title:"Infectious Complications after Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"infectious-complications-after-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1209,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Farhad Abbasi and Soolmaz Korooni",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"76934",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhad",middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",fullName:"Farhad Abbasi",slug:"farhad-abbasi"},{id:"213872",title:"Dr.",name:"Soolmaz",middleName:null,surname:"Korooni",fullName:"Soolmaz Korooni",slug:"soolmaz-korooni"}]},{id:"57372",type:"chapter",title:"Role of Gait Training in Recovery of Standing and Walking in Subjects with Spinal Cord Injury",slug:"role-of-gait-training-in-recovery-of-standing-and-walking-in-subjects-with-spinal-cord-injury",totalDownloads:1169,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mokhtar Arazpour, Guive Sharifi, Mohammad Ebrahim Mousavi\nand Maryam Maleki",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour"},{id:"206315",title:"Dr.",name:"Guive",middleName:null,surname:"Sharifi",fullName:"Guive Sharifi",slug:"guive-sharifi"},{id:"213561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Ebrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Mousavi",fullName:"Mohammad Ebrahim Mousavi",slug:"mohammad-ebrahim-mousavi"}]},{id:"59470",type:"chapter",title:"Cellular Transplantation-Based Therapeutic Strategies for Spinal Cord Injuries: Preclinical and Clinical Updates",slug:"cellular-transplantation-based-therapeutic-strategies-for-spinal-cord-injuries-preclinical-and-clini",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ishaq N. Khan, Wafaa S. Ramadan, Ghada A. Abdel-Hamid, Saleh Al\nKarim and Habiba Aurangzeb",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"207369",title:"Prof.",name:"Wafaa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramadan",fullName:"Wafaa Ramadan",slug:"wafaa-ramadan"},{id:"207371",title:"Prof.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"AlKarim",fullName:"Saleh AlKarim",slug:"saleh-alkarim"},{id:"208103",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishaq",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Ishaq Khan",slug:"ishaq-khan"},{id:"208104",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"A. Abdel-Hamid",fullName:"Ghada A. Abdel-Hamid",slug:"ghada-a.-abdel-hamid"},{id:"219600",title:"Dr.",name:"Habiba",middleName:null,surname:"Aurangzeb",fullName:"Habiba Aurangzeb",slug:"habiba-aurangzeb"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"758",title:"Osteoporosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b52e42df6cd850721e557bedd3a4a77b",slug:"osteoporosis",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/758.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"29534",title:"Bone Mineral Quality",slug:"bone-mineral-quality",signatures:"Delphine Farlay and Georges Boivin",authors:[{id:"76470",title:"Dr.",name:"Delphine",middleName:null,surname:"Farlay",fullName:"Delphine Farlay",slug:"delphine-farlay"},{id:"86702",title:"Dr.",name:"Georges",middleName:null,surname:"Boivin",fullName:"Georges Boivin",slug:"georges-boivin"}]},{id:"29535",title:"Genetics and Osteoporosis",slug:"genetics-and-osteoporosis",signatures:"Margarita Valdés-Flores, Leonora Casas-Avila, Valeria Ponce de León-Suárez and Edith Falcón-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"76697",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Valdés-Flores",fullName:"Margarita Valdés-Flores",slug:"margarita-valdes-flores"},{id:"123726",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonora",middleName:null,surname:"Casas-Avila",fullName:"Leonora Casas-Avila",slug:"leonora-casas-avila"},{id:"123732",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Falcón-Ramírez",fullName:"Edith Falcón-Ramírez",slug:"edith-falcon-ramirez"},{id:"123741",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce De León Suárez",fullName:"Valeria Ponce De León Suárez",slug:"valeria-ponce-de-leon-suarez"}]},{id:"29536",title:"Biomechanics of Osteoporosis: The Importance of Bone Resorption and Remodeling Processes",slug:"biomechanics-of-osteoporosis-the-importance-of-bone-resorption-and-remodeling-processes",signatures:"Gholamreza Rouhi",authors:[{id:"2360",title:"Dr.",name:"Gholamreza",middleName:null,surname:"Rouhi",fullName:"Gholamreza Rouhi",slug:"gholamreza-rouhi"}]},{id:"29537",title:"Self-Reported Prevalence of Osteoporosis in Australia",slug:"self-reported-prevalence-of-osteoporosis-in-australia",signatures:"Tiffany K. Gill, Anne W. Taylor, Julie Black and Catherine L. Hill",authors:[{id:"83848",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiffany",middleName:"Kaye",surname:"Gill",fullName:"Tiffany Gill",slug:"tiffany-gill"},{id:"83849",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Taylor",fullName:"Anne Taylor",slug:"anne-taylor"},{id:"86995",title:"Mrs",name:"Julie",middleName:"Ann",surname:"Black",fullName:"Julie Black",slug:"julie-black"},{id:"86996",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Hill",fullName:"Catherine Hill",slug:"catherine-hill"}]},{id:"29538",title:"Prevalence of Back Pain in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis and Associations with Multiple Spinal Factors",slug:"prevalence-of-back-pain-in-postmenopausal-osteoporosis-and-associations-with-multiple-spinal-factors",signatures:"Naohisa Miyakoshi, Michio Hongo and Yoichi Shimada",authors:[{id:"84172",title:"Dr.",name:"Naohisa",middleName:null,surname:"Miyakoshi",fullName:"Naohisa Miyakoshi",slug:"naohisa-miyakoshi"},{id:"111551",title:"Dr.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hongo",fullName:"Michio Hongo",slug:"michio-hongo"},{id:"111552",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Shimada",fullName:"Yoichi Shimada",slug:"yoichi-shimada"}]},{id:"29539",title:"The Diagnosis and Workup of Patients for Osteoporosis or Osteopenia (Low Bone Mass)",slug:"the-diagnosis-and-workup-of-patients-for-osteoporosis-or-osteopenia-low-bone-mass-",signatures:"Frank Bonura",authors:[{id:"88299",title:"Dr",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Bonura",fullName:"Frank Bonura",slug:"frank-bonura"}]},{id:"29540",title:"Evolutionary Pathways of Diagnosis in Osteoporosis",slug:"evolutionary-pathways-of-diagnosis-in-osteoporosis",signatures:"Antonio Bazarra-Fernández",authors:[{id:"77689",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Bazarra-Fernandez",fullName:"Antonio Bazarra-Fernandez",slug:"antonio-bazarra-fernandez"}]},{id:"29541",title:"Approach to the Screening and Diagnosis of Osteoporosis",slug:"approach-to-the-screening-and-diagnosis-of-osteoporosis",signatures:"Choi H.J.",authors:[{id:"85702",title:"Prof.",name:"Hee Jeong",middleName:null,surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hee Jeong Choi",slug:"hee-jeong-choi"}]},{id:"29542",title:"Early Detection Techniques for Osteoporosis",slug:"early-detection-techniques-for-osteoporosis",signatures:"Kanika Singh and Kyung Chun Kim",authors:[{id:"79379",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyung Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Kyung Chun Kim",slug:"kyung-chun-kim"},{id:"86022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanika",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Kanika Singh",slug:"kanika-singh"}]},{id:"29543",title:"Sophisticated Imaging Technology in the Assessment of Osteoporosis Risk",slug:"sophisticated-imaging-technology-in-the-assessment-of-osteoporosis-risk",signatures:"Huayue Chen, Tatsuro Hayashi, Xiangrong Zhou, Hiroshi Fujita, Minoru Onozuka and Kin-ya Kubo",authors:[{id:"76312",title:"Dr.",name:"Huayue",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Huayue Chen",slug:"huayue-chen"}]},{id:"29544",title:"What We Learn from Bone Complications in Congenital Diseases? Thalassemia, an Example",slug:"what-we-learn-from-bone-complications-in-congenital-diseases-thalassemia-an-example",signatures:"Zohreh Hamidi",authors:[{id:"82470",title:"Dr.",name:"Zohreh",middleName:null,surname:"Hamidi",fullName:"Zohreh Hamidi",slug:"zohreh-hamidi"}]},{id:"29545",title:"What's BMD and What We Do in a BMD Centre?",slug:"what-s-bmd-and-what-we-do-in-a-bmd-centre-",signatures:"Zohreh Hamidi",authors:[{id:"82470",title:"Dr.",name:"Zohreh",middleName:null,surname:"Hamidi",fullName:"Zohreh Hamidi",slug:"zohreh-hamidi"}]},{id:"29546",title:"Patchy Osteoporosis in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome",slug:"patchy-osteoporosis-in-complex-regional-pain-syndrome",signatures:"Geun-Young Park, Sun Im and Seong Hoon Lim",authors:[{id:"76786",title:"Dr.",name:"Geun-Young",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Geun-Young Park",slug:"geun-young-park"},{id:"115818",title:"Dr.",name:"Sun",middleName:null,surname:"Im",fullName:"Sun Im",slug:"sun-im"},{id:"115819",title:"Dr.",name:"Seong Hoon",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",fullName:"Seong Hoon Lim",slug:"seong-hoon-lim"}]},{id:"29547",title:"Osteoporosis in Microgravity Environments",slug:"osteoporosis-in-microgravity-environments",signatures:"Bradley K. Weiner, Scott E. Parazynski and Ennio Tasciotti",authors:[{id:"75500",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Weiner",fullName:"Bradley Weiner",slug:"bradley-weiner"}]},{id:"29548",title:"Neurological Osteoporosis in Disabilities",slug:"neurological-osteoporosis-in-disabilities",signatures:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",authors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis"}]},{id:"29549",title:"Post-Transplantation Bone Disease",slug:"post-transplantation-bone-disease",signatures:"Federico G. Hawkins, Sonsoles Guadalix, Raquel Sanchez and Guillermo Martínez",authors:[{id:"78861",title:"Prof.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Hawkins Carranza",fullName:"Federico Hawkins Carranza",slug:"federico-hawkins-carranza"}]},{id:"29550",title:"The Skeleton Abnormalities in Patients with Neurofibromatosis Type 1: Important Consequences of Abnormal Gene Function",slug:"the-skeleton-abnormalities-in-patients-with-neurofibromatosis-type-1-important-consequences-of-abnor",signatures:"Marek W. Karwacki and Wojciech Wozniak",authors:[{id:"86757",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:"W.",surname:"Karwacki",fullName:"Marek Karwacki",slug:"marek-karwacki"}]},{id:"29551",title:"Studies of Osteoporosis in Cancer Patients in Slovakia – Experience from Single Institute",slug:"studies-of-osteoporosis-in-cancer-patients-in-slovakia-experience-from-single-institute",signatures:"Beata Spanikova and Stanislav Spanik",authors:[{id:"79511",title:"Dr",name:"Stanislav",middleName:null,surname:"Spanik",fullName:"Stanislav Spanik",slug:"stanislav-spanik"},{id:"123883",title:"Dr.",name:"Beata",middleName:null,surname:"Spanikova",fullName:"Beata Spanikova",slug:"beata-spanikova"}]},{id:"29552",title:"Osteoporosis in Pediatric Patients and Its Clinical Management",slug:"osteoporosis-in-pediatric-patients-and-its-clinical-management",signatures:"Emilio González Jiménez",authors:[{id:"77001",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"González-Jiménez",fullName:"Emilio González-Jiménez",slug:"emilio-gonzalez-jimenez"}]},{id:"29553",title:"Physical Activity Interactions with Bone Accrual in Children and Adolescents",slug:"physical-activity-interactions-with-bone-accrual-in-children-and-adolescents",signatures:"Izabella A. Ludwa and Panagiota Klentrou",authors:[{id:"82220",title:"Dr",name:"Panagiota",middleName:null,surname:"Klentrou",fullName:"Panagiota Klentrou",slug:"panagiota-klentrou"},{id:"87457",title:"MSc.",name:"Izabella",middleName:"Atena",surname:"Ludwa",fullName:"Izabella Ludwa",slug:"izabella-ludwa"}]},{id:"29554",title:"Osteoporosis, Nutrition and Adolescence",slug:"osteoporosis-nutrition-and-adolescence",signatures:"Isabel Seiquer, Marta Mesías and M. Pilar Navarro",authors:[{id:"79053",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Seiquer",fullName:"Isabel Seiquer",slug:"isabel-seiquer"},{id:"85396",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Mesías",fullName:"Marta Mesías",slug:"marta-mesias"},{id:"85399",title:"Dr.",name:"María Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",fullName:"María Pilar Navarro",slug:"maria-pilar-navarro"}]},{id:"29555",title:"Rehabilitation in Osteoporosis",slug:"rehabilitation-in-osteoporosis",signatures:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",authors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis"}]},{id:"29556",title:"Physical Exercise for Prevention of Falls and Fractures",slug:"physical-exercise-for-prevention-of-falls-and-fractures",signatures:"Lucas Teixeira, Joelma Magalhães, Stella Peccin, Rebeca Teixeira, Kelson Silva, Tiago Teixeira, Jander Souza and Virgínia Trevisani",authors:[{id:"63890",title:"MSc.",name:"Kelson",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Kelson Silva",slug:"kelson-silva"},{id:"75687",title:"PhD.",name:"Lucas",middleName:"Emmanuel",surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Lucas Teixeira",slug:"lucas-teixeira"},{id:"80042",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Trevisani",fullName:"Virginia Trevisani",slug:"virginia-trevisani"},{id:"80044",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago",middleName:"Jose De Paiva",surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Tiago Teixeira",slug:"tiago-teixeira"},{id:"80045",title:"MSc.",name:"Joelma",middleName:null,surname:"Magalhães",fullName:"Joelma Magalhães",slug:"joelma-magalhaes"},{id:"80049",title:"Ms.",name:"Rebeca",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",fullName:"Rebeca Teixeira",slug:"rebeca-teixeira"},{id:"122997",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella",middleName:null,surname:"Peccin",fullName:"Stella Peccin",slug:"stella-peccin"},{id:"127780",title:"Mr.",name:"Jander",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Jander Souza",slug:"jander-souza"}]},{id:"29557",title:"The Effect of Exercise on Bone Mineral Density, Bone Markers and Postural Stability in Subjects with Osteoporosis",slug:"the-effect-of-exercise-on-bone-mineral-density-bone-markers-and-postural-stability-in-subjects-with-",signatures:"M. Janura, Z. Krhutová, Z. Svoboda and P. Novosad",authors:[{id:"79364",title:"Prof.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Janura",fullName:"Miroslav Janura",slug:"miroslav-janura"},{id:"87209",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdenek",middleName:null,surname:"Svoboda",fullName:"Zdenek Svoboda",slug:"zdenek-svoboda"},{id:"87215",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Krhutová",fullName:"Zdeňka Krhutová",slug:"zdenka-krhutova"},{id:"87230",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Novosad",fullName:"Pavel Novosad",slug:"pavel-novosad"}]},{id:"29558",title:"Impaired Ability to Perform the Sit-to-Stand Task in Osteoporotic Women",slug:"impaired-ability-to-perform-the-sit-to-stand-task-in-osteoporotic-women",signatures:"Deborah Colucci Trevisan, Francisco José Albuquerque de Paula, Júlia Guimarães Reis, Gustavo de Carvalho da Costa and Daniela Cristina Carvalho de Abreu",authors:[{id:"79420",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:"Cristina Carvalho De",surname:"Abreu",fullName:"Daniela Abreu",slug:"daniela-abreu"},{id:"79477",title:"MSc.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Trevisan",fullName:"Deborah Trevisan",slug:"deborah-trevisan"},{id:"79479",title:"MSc.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Reis",fullName:"Julia Reis",slug:"julia-reis"},{id:"79480",title:"MSc.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",fullName:"Gustavo Costa",slug:"gustavo-costa"},{id:"79481",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco José",middleName:null,surname:"Paula",fullName:"Francisco José Paula",slug:"francisco-jose-paula"}]},{id:"29559",title:"Osteoporosis and Arterial Stiffness: Effects of Exercise Training",slug:"osteoporosis-and-arterial-stiffness-effects-of-exercise-training",signatures:"Takanobu Okamoto",authors:[{id:"78665",title:"Dr.",name:"Takanobu",middleName:null,surname:"Okamoto",fullName:"Takanobu Okamoto",slug:"takanobu-okamoto"}]},{id:"29560",title:"Osteoporotic Pain",slug:"osteoporotic-pain",signatures:"Sumihisa Orita, Seiji Ohtori, Gen Inoue and Kazuhisa Takahashi",authors:[{id:"78952",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumihisa",middleName:null,surname:"Orita",fullName:"Sumihisa Orita",slug:"sumihisa-orita"},{id:"96524",title:"Dr.",name:"Seiji",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtori",fullName:"Seiji Ohtori",slug:"seiji-ohtori"},{id:"96525",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuhisa",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",fullName:"Kazuhisa Takahashi",slug:"kazuhisa-takahashi"},{id:"126366",title:"Dr.",name:"Gen",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",fullName:"Gen Inoue",slug:"gen-inoue"}]},{id:"29561",title:"Pharmacological Treatment of Osteoporosis",slug:"pharmacological-treatment-of-osteoporosis",signatures:"Jorge Malouf-Sierra and Roberto Güerri-Fernández",authors:[{id:"83037",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Malouf Sierra",fullName:"Jorge Malouf Sierra",slug:"jorge-malouf-sierra"},{id:"118982",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Güerri-Fernández",fullName:"Robert Güerri-Fernández",slug:"robert-guerri-fernandez"}]},{id:"29562",title:"The Role of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) and Tibolone in the Prevention and Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis",slug:"the-role-of-hormone-replacement-therapy-hrt-and-tibolone-in-the-prevention-and-treatment-of-postmeno",signatures:"Marta Lamarca",authors:[{id:"81148",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Lamarca",fullName:"Marta Lamarca",slug:"marta-lamarca"}]},{id:"29563",title:"Osteonecrosis of the Jaw Involving Bisphosphonate Treatment for Osteoporosis",slug:"osteonecrosis-of-the-jaw-involving-bisphosphonate-treatment-for-osteoporosis",signatures:"Maria Panaś, Małgorzata Zaleska and Tomasz Kaczmarzyk",authors:[{id:"85541",title:"Dr",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Panaś",fullName:"Maria Panaś",slug:"maria-panas"},{id:"122594",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Zaleska",fullName:"Małgorzata Zaleska",slug:"malgorzata-zaleska"},{id:"122595",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczmarzyk",fullName:"Tomasz Kaczmarzyk",slug:"tomasz-kaczmarzyk"}]},{id:"29564",title:"Balloon Kyphoplasty for Osteoporosis: Technical Notes",slug:"balloon-kyphoplasty-for-osteoporosis-technical-notes",signatures:"Antoine Nachanakian, Antonios El Helou, Sami Salem and Moussa Alaywan",authors:[{id:"116842",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoine",middleName:null,surname:"Nachanakian",fullName:"Antoine Nachanakian",slug:"antoine-nachanakian"},{id:"117443",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonios",middleName:"Georges",surname:"El Helou",fullName:"Antonios El Helou",slug:"antonios-el-helou"},{id:"117444",title:"Dr.",name:"Sami",middleName:null,surname:"Salem",fullName:"Sami Salem",slug:"sami-salem"},{id:"117445",title:"Dr.",name:"Moussa",middleName:null,surname:"Alaywan",fullName:"Moussa Alaywan",slug:"moussa-alaywan"}]},{id:"29565",title:"Minimally Invasive Treatment of Vertebral Body Fractures",slug:"minimally-invasive-treatment-of-vertebral-body-fractures",signatures:"Pasquale De Negri and Tiziana Tirri",authors:[{id:"75553",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"De Negri",fullName:"Pasquale De Negri",slug:"pasquale-de-negri"},{id:"85148",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiziana",middleName:null,surname:"Tirri",fullName:"Tiziana Tirri",slug:"tiziana-tirri"}]},{id:"29566",title:"Osteoporosis: A Look at the Future",slug:"osteoporosis-a-look-at-the-future",signatures:"Iliyan Kolev, Lyudmila Ivanova, Leni Markova, Anelia Dimitrova, Cyril Popov and Margarita D. Apostolova",authors:[{id:"75527",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:"Dimitrova",surname:"Apostolova",fullName:"Margarita Apostolova",slug:"margarita-apostolova"},{id:"86282",title:"MSc.",name:"Iliyan",middleName:null,surname:"Kolev",fullName:"Iliyan Kolev",slug:"iliyan-kolev"},{id:"86283",title:"MSc.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",fullName:"Lyudmila Ivanova",slug:"lyudmila-ivanova"},{id:"86284",title:"Mrs.",name:"Leni",middleName:null,surname:"Markova",fullName:"Leni Markova",slug:"leni-markova"},{id:"86286",title:"Prof.",name:"Anelia",middleName:"Aleksandrova",surname:"Dimitrova",fullName:"Anelia Dimitrova",slug:"anelia-dimitrova"},{id:"86289",title:"Prof.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Popov",fullName:"Cyril Popov",slug:"cyril-popov"}]},{id:"29567",title:"Simulating Bone Atrophy and Its Effects on the Structure and Stability of the Trabecular Bone",slug:"simulating-bone-atrophy-and-its-effects-on-the-structure-and-stability-of-the-trabecular-bone",signatures:"Christoph Räth, Irina Sidorenko, Roberto Monetti, Jan Bauer, Thomas Baum, Maiko Matsuura, Philippe Zysset and Felix Eckstein",authors:[{id:"56283",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Räth",fullName:"Christoph Räth",slug:"christoph-rath"}]},{id:"29568",title:"Role of Phytoestrogen Ferutinin in Preventing/Recovering Bone Loss: Results from Experimental Ovariectomized Rat Models",slug:"role-of-phytoestrogen-ferutinin-in-preventing-recovering-bone-loss-results-from-experimental-ovariec",signatures:"Carla Palumbo, Francesco Cavani, Laura Bertoni and Marzia Ferretti",authors:[{id:"75816",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",middleName:null,surname:"Palumbo",fullName:"Carla Palumbo",slug:"carla-palumbo"},{id:"84964",title:"Prof.",name:"Marzia",middleName:null,surname:"Ferretti",fullName:"Marzia Ferretti",slug:"marzia-ferretti"},{id:"84968",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Cavani",fullName:"Francesco Cavani",slug:"francesco-cavani"},{id:"84970",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Bertoni",fullName:"Laura Bertoni",slug:"laura-bertoni"}]},{id:"29569",title:"The Phytoestrogens, Calcitonin and Thyroid Hormones: Effects on Bone Tissue",slug:"the-phytoestrogens-calcitonin-and-thyroid-hormones-effects-on-bone-tissue",signatures:"Branko Filipović and Branka Šošić-Jurjević",authors:[{id:"44958",title:"Dr.",name:"Branko",middleName:null,surname:"Filipovic",fullName:"Branko Filipovic",slug:"branko-filipovic"},{id:"85513",title:"Dr.",name:"Branka",middleName:null,surname:"Sosic-Jurjevic",fullName:"Branka Sosic-Jurjevic",slug:"branka-sosic-jurjevic"}]},{id:"29570",title:"Nutrition for Enhancing Bone Volume in Mice",slug:"nutrition-for-enhancing-bone-volume-in-mice",signatures:"Junji Ohtani, Fujita Tadashi, R.A. Marquez Hernandez, Toshitsugu Kawata, Masato Kaku, Masahide Motokawa and Kazuo Tanne",authors:[{id:"81412",title:"Dr.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtani",fullName:"Junji Ohtani",slug:"junji-ohtani"}]},{id:"29571",title:"Osteoporosis and Bone Regeneration",slug:"osteoporosis-and-bone-regeneration",signatures:"Shinji Kuroda, Kanako Noritake and Shohei Kasugai",authors:[{id:"61656",title:"Prof.",name:"Shohei",middleName:null,surname:"Kasugai",fullName:"Shohei Kasugai",slug:"shohei-kasugai"},{id:"84104",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Kuroda",fullName:"Shinji Kuroda",slug:"shinji-kuroda"},{id:"90335",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanako",middleName:null,surname:"Noritake",fullName:"Kanako Noritake",slug:"kanako-noritake"}]},{id:"29572",title:"Lactoferrin – A Potential Anabolic Intervention in Osteoporosis",slug:"lactoferrin-a-potential-anabolic-intervention-in-osteoporosis",signatures:"Dorit Naot, Kate Palmano and Jillian Cornish",authors:[{id:"78754",title:"Prof.",name:"Jillian",middleName:null,surname:"Cornish",fullName:"Jillian Cornish",slug:"jillian-cornish"},{id:"84689",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorit",middleName:null,surname:"Naot",fullName:"Dorit Naot",slug:"dorit-naot"},{id:"84704",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Palmano",fullName:"Kate Palmano",slug:"kate-palmano"}]},{id:"29573",title:"How Dentistry Can Help Fight Osteoporosis",slug:"how-dentistry-can-help-fight-osteoporosis",signatures:"Plauto Christopher Aranha Watanabe, Marlivia Gonçalves de Carvalho Watanabe and Rodrigo Tiossi",authors:[{id:"76171",title:"Prof.",name:"Plauto C. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",fullName:"Plauto C. A. Watanabe",slug:"plauto-c.-a.-watanabe"}]},{id:"29574",title:"Effect of Bisphosphonates on Root Growth and on Chlorophyll Formation in Arabidopsis thaliana Seedlings",slug:"effect-of-bisphosphonates-on-root-growth-and-on-chlorophyll-formation-in-arabidopsis-thaliana-seedli",signatures:"Ana I. Manzano, F. Javier Medina, Francisco J. Pérez-Zuñiga, Maria A. Günther Sillero and Antonio Sillero",authors:[{id:"81573",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Sillero",fullName:"Antonio Sillero",slug:"antonio-sillero"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6069",title:"Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0a49e24ebfbb9ed7d02f7daab9b30f6",slug:"essentials-of-spinal-cord-injury-medicine",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6069.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa7b870ad29ce1dfcf6faeafdc060309",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",bookSignature:"Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7046.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6814",title:"Current Topics in Intensive Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbe8e72807443305f7cae60bfe79b9e",slug:"current-topics-in-intensive-care-medicine",bookSignature:"R?za Hakan Erbay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6814.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169248",title:"Dr.",name:"Rıza Hakan",surname:"Erbay",slug:"riza-hakan-erbay",fullName:"Rıza Hakan Erbay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7043",title:"Clinical Management of Shock",subtitle:"The Science and Art of Physiological Restoration",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f79000187ae93618e2213631e00047c",slug:"clinical-management-of-shock-the-science-and-art-of-physiological-restoration",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Mamta Swaroop",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10296",title:"Special Considerations in Human Airway Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c11e3ca09bf246ec270063a7198fd33c",slug:"special-considerations-in-human-airway-management",bookSignature:"Nabil A. Shallik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10296.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202782",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil A.",surname:"Shallik",slug:"nabil-a.-shallik",fullName:"Nabil A. Shallik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"5203",title:"Recovery of Motor Function Following Spinal Cord Injury",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1d0a0fb7465d107de2089e21227ad8",slug:"recovery-of-motor-function-following-spinal-cord-injury",bookSignature:"Heidi Fuller and Monte Gates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5203.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87307",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidi",surname:"Fuller",slug:"heidi-fuller",fullName:"Heidi Fuller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6069",title:"Essentials of Spinal Cord Injury Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0a49e24ebfbb9ed7d02f7daab9b30f6",slug:"essentials-of-spinal-cord-injury-medicine",bookSignature:"Yannis Dionyssiotis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6069.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76883",title:"PhD.",name:"Yannis",surname:"Dionyssiotis",slug:"yannis-dionyssiotis",fullName:"Yannis Dionyssiotis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10188",title:"Prosthetics and Orthotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77fd1757d9fb545ad40d0dfa6e865d0b",slug:"prosthetics-and-orthotics",bookSignature:"Mokhtar Arazpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179731",title:"Dr.",name:"Mokhtar",surname:"Arazpour",slug:"mokhtar-arazpour",fullName:"Mokhtar Arazpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80848",title:"High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery toward Infectious Diseases: Options and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102936",slug:"high-throughput-screening-for-drug-discovery-toward-infectious-diseases-options-and-challenges",body:'
1. Introduction
Antibiotic resistance among evolving microbes has been a matter of concern for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies around the globe. These emerging pathogens with multiple drug resistance capabilities necessitate the discovery and development of both novel targets and anti-infective drugs. The key to success in anti-infective drug discovery depends on the identification of the target (a novel target for existing or novel strain of microbe) and a substantially active lead molecule against the designated target. Among the two key steps, the former requires genome sequence analysis (genomics) and protein expression analysis (proteomics) to identify target genes/proteins for a broad variety of microbial pathways and the latter requires chemical library screening against the defined target [1]. The chemical library may be generated through various routes such as combinatorial chemistry, bioassay-guided isolation of natural products, food and drug administration (FDA)-approved drugs for repurposing, virtually designed chemical library based on structure-based drug design (SBDD) or quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR), or other chemicals for fragment-based drug design (FBDD). However, with the latest advancement in technology, lead identification can be performed using high-throughput screening (HTS). HTS is a highly efficient automated method of screening chemical libraries to identify the so-called “hits,” which are further modified to drug “leads” for lead optimization through medicinal chemistry approaches [2]. Generally, HTS involves biological or biochemical assay screening [3], whereas computer-based chemical library screening for “hits” identification is termed virtual high-throughput screening (vHTS). However, both the methods are used simultaneously or in parallel enabling the scientists to think computationally, act chemically, and observe biologically [4, 5]; therefore, in the present chapter, vHTS has been coupled with HTS for ease of understanding the correlation between all the stages of the drug discovery process (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Drug discovery process.
2. HTS in drug discovery for infectious diseases
Infectious diseases arise in any person due to certain microbes which enter the body and multiply to give clinical symptoms of the disease. While some infections are contagious and spread from one person to another person, others may spread in the community through infectious vectors (insect/animal bites) or contaminated air, water, and food [6]. These microbes undergo mechanisms of resistance to antibiotics either under the direct influence of antibiotics or through adaptive processes unrelated to the chemical structures of antibiotics [7, 8]. The increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant microbial strains makes it evident to discover and develop newer efficacious drugs. However, developing a new drug is a tedious and complex process with uncertain outcomes; therefore, the process needs to be rational in approach. HTS offers a highly rationalized automation approach to explore large chemical space in a time-efficient manner. However, it requires complex and costly technological platforms which are generally available in pharmaceutical companies [4]. Nevertheless, it is not expensive because HTS screens a huge number of chemical compounds as compared to manual methods for target-to-lead discovery. An overall success rate of HTS to find leads is considered ⁓50%. However, vHTS is considered to have a higher success rate, but every method has its strengths and weaknesses, and therefore both the methods, HTS and vHTS, should be coupled for lead discovery. Few examples, among successful HTS drug discoveries in anti-infective agents, are (i) G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) inhibitor, Maraviroc (anti-HIV), (ii) reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor, etravirine (anti-HIV), [9] and (iii) hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1a/b or 3 RNA replication inhibitor, Daclatasvir [10].
2.1 Need of HTS in drug discovery for infectious diseases
Bacterial enzymes play a significant role in developing antibiotic resistance through several key mechanisms and genetically derived mutations happening in: (i) drug-modifying enzymes (such as transferases and hydrolases), (ii) drug-metabolizing enzymes (such as pyrazinamidase, catalase-peroxidase, and monooxygenase), (iii) antibiotic’s target enzymes (such as RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and Topoisomerase II), and (iv) antibiotic’s cellular target-modifying enzymes (rRNAmethyltransferases and phosphoethanolaminetransferase). The structural changes in these enzymes not only lead to resistance among microbes but also open the ‘omics gates to identify newer targets that originated after modifications in enzymes [8, 9, 10]. The rapid spread of resistance among microbes makes it imperative to rapidly identify new classes of antibiotics. Traditionally, growth inhibition assays are used for antimicrobial drug discovery which is a slow process [11, 12]. However, to match the pace of microbial resistance to antibiotics, a robotic automation screening process with efficient, accurate, and robust scientific methodology is required. HTS offers an economic advantage of screening huge chemical spaces accurately within defined timelines. Therefore, time, cost, and quality are termed as the “magic triangle of HTS” [13]. The credit of rapid HTS goes to: (i) high-density arrays, micro-reaction wells, and (ii) biological response detection methods.
High-density array micro-reaction well plates ranging from 96-well plates to miniaturized 3456-well plates are available with typical working volumes ranging from 1 to 10 μl of total volume. However, efforts are being made for further miniaturization of plates [13] to develop mega-dense arrays (>10,000 wells/plate) [14]. Although there are few difficulties associated with ultra-high-density plates, nevertheless, it is possible to perform 100,000 assays per day using ultra-high-throughput screening (uHTS) [15].
Biological response detection techniques such as fluorescence, luminescence, and atomic absorption spectroscopy have been established, which makes the process robust in the identification of active compounds. These direct and indirect detection methods have been developed based on: (i) direct measurement of absorbance and (ii) indirect measurement through enzymatic or chemical reactions coupled with pH indicators and chelators. These methods establish a quantitative relationship between biological response and target metabolite concentration [16]. Apart from the pharmacological aspect, HTS is equally beneficial in the evaluation of toxicological aspects of the chemical entities such as (i) genotoxicity, (ii) carcinogenicity, and (iii) immunotoxicity [15].
Plants have an abundance of potentially diverse chemical entities in the form of complex mixtures which are required to be evaluated in HTS for the discovery of new drugs against microbes. However, pure chemical entities from these complex mixtures need to be isolated and structurally characterized before proceeding for target-specific evaluation. Bioassay (in vitro)-guided HTS of these plant extracts aids in the identification and isolation of bioactive compounds (Figure 1) [17].
Similarly, vHTS is a bioethical approach consisting of a wide variety of in silico simulation approaches to explore chemical libraries and identify which chemical entity has the potential to display in vitro and/or in vivo drug-like properties in HTS. However, there are chances of false-negative and false-positive results [4].
3. Methods involved in HTS for drug discovery toward infectious diseases
3.1 Classification of HTS
HTS methods for anti-infective drug discovery may be biological (cell-based or whole organism), biochemical (enzymes/receptors), and virtual (computer-based). Hence, the HTS methods may be classified as summarized in Figure 2. The HTS assay approach for the identification of “lead” molecule may vary depending on the target; however, the assay protocol must be (i) sensitive to low potency molecules, (ii) reproducible in biological response, (iii) accurate in terms of positive and negative control, and (iv) economically feasible. Therefore, these parameters should be optimized before proceeding with the assay of compounds in large numbers [18].
Figure 2.
Classification of HTS for anti-infective drug discovery.
vHTS is an efficient approach to identify hits and lead compounds for an identified microbial target which are further optimized using medicinal chemistry approaches. The applications of vHTS can be further explored to virtually evaluate ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) properties of the identified lead chemical entities based on “Lipinski’s rule.” The shortlisted potential hit/lead molecules may then be evaluated in vitro, thus giving a meaningful rationale between computer simulations and practical experimentation. Where vHTS is a generalized term for different screening filters, it is categorized under two broad classes of virtual screening methods. These methods are (i) structure-based drug design (SBDD) and ligand-based drug design (LBDD) [19].
3.1.1.1 Structure-based drug design
Advances in HT ‘omics technologies and instrumental methods of analysis such as X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) have solved a large number of three-dimensional (3D) structures of target proteins involved in communicable and noncommunicable diseases. These structures with specific identification numbers and resolution are available for scientific research and education purposes in protein data bank (PDB) [20]. Therefore, understanding the biologically functional interacting pocket (druggable target site) within 3D structures of the target proteins is essential to proceed with SBDD. However, if this structural information is not completely reliable or any sequence of the structural information is missing, then homology modeling is performed to generate a homologous model of the target protein [21]. SBDD is further classified under two headings; (i) docking and scoring and (ii) de novo drug design.
Docking and scoring is an excellent approach to predict the binding affinity and pharmacodynamic status of small chemical entities (ligands) in the active site of the target macromolecule. Scoring is an energy function which estimates the free binding energy of protein-ligand interactions such as electrostatic and van der Waals forces. Docking may be performed using two theoretical strategies namely: (i) lock and key theory, and (ii) induced-fit theory. Earlier docking programs were run using the lock and key assumptions where both the target protein and the ligand were treated as rigid structures with docking affinity dependent on the shape of the interacting structures. Hence, it is termed as a rigid docking program. However, the target proteins and ligands are never in their rigid conformational state; instead, they are flexible (induced-fit docking) and undertake complementary conformational changes. Therefore, optimizing the binding pocket enables it to accommodate ligands of various shapes and sizes. This approach reduces the dropping out chances of potential false negatives [22, 23].
De novo design is a method of drug design that involves six different strategies: (i) identifying site point within the target site and connecting them using chemical fragments, (ii) determination of desirable fragment location, (iii) positioning fragment within the target site and linking them with linkers or scaffolds, (iv) construction of ligand sequentially within the site using fragments, (v) whole molecule conformation and interaction studies similar to docking, and (vi) random connection methods [24].
3.1.1.2 Ligand-based drug design
LBDD approach is applicable when nothing is known about the 3D structure of the target site and completely relies on the knowledge of previously established lead/drug molecules with known pharmacological/toxicological profiles and 2D/3D physicochemical descriptors. Therefore, LBDD is classified into two broad categories: (i) quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) [25] and (ii) pharmacophore modeling [26]. However, scaffold hopping [27] and pseudo-receptor modeling [28] are also the strategies used in LBDD.
QSAR is a method for developing mathematical models to significantly correlate the pharmacological profile with the chemical structures within the data set using regression analysis. However, with technological advancement, the QSAR method has undergone dimensional transformations (2D and 3D). The process involves a collection of chemical data sets (in-house or external) to develop mathematical QSAR models. These models are then used to identify active compounds which are sequentially evaluated and synthesized on various platforms, including docking, in vitro, and in vivo studies [25].
Scaffold hopping is also known as “lead hopping” as it starts with known active compounds which are modified using 1–4° chemical replacement in the known lead structure to generate a novel chemotype which is further evaluated using various platforms, including docking, in vitro, and in vivo studies [27]. In contrast, pseudo-receptor design is a method closely related to homology modeling of SBDD where presumed bioactive conformations of overlaid molecules are used to generate the target’s pseudo-binding site map for further SBDD. Hence, this method is a bridge between LBDD and SBDD [28].
Pharmacophore fingerprinting is a method to identify a common “pharmacophore feature” among a set of active drug or lead molecules that may be used in SBDD and/or LBDD. The pharmacophore feature is an essential chemical portion of lead/drug molecules which is required for biological functions and may include hydrogen bond donors/acceptors, aromatic rings, hydrophilic/hydrophobic attachments, or any possible combinations. These features are enumerated in terms of three-point and four-point sets of varied pharmacophores to measure the distance in terms of bonds. Pharmacophore fingerprints thus generated are utilized for developing novel lead molecules in combination with SBDD (Figure 3) [26].
Figure 3.
Ligand and structure-based drug designing process.
Various unexplored targets and pathways lie within the components of cellular complexity which offers an excellent platform to identify antimicrobial lead molecules through the cell (or organism)-based HTS. Thus, multiple targets can be screened using cell-based assays in all the stages of drug discovery. In simple words, these assays are used when the desired cellular target is either unknown or the phenotype cannot be separated from the cellular context. Nevertheless, these assays provide additional information which cannot be obtained from biochemical assays or vHTS, such as membrane permeability, pharmacodynamic (agonist, partial agonist, inverse agonist, and antagonist) status, cell proliferation (or viability), cytotoxicity, heterogeneity, protein expression, transcriptional readouts, and phenotypic biomarker readouts. Thus, cell-based assays may be classified depending on the methodologies used such as: (i) cell viability assays using (a.) dyes like Alamar blue, tetrazolium compounds (MTT assay, XTT assay, and MTS assay) which get converted to generate fluorescence or color indicating cell death or viability; (b.) luciferin-luciferase assay where ATP content is measured using luciferin-luciferase to generate bioluminescence; (c.) intercalation with membrane-permeant DNA dyes; (ii) reporter gene assay; (iii) secondary messenger assay; (iv) protein-fragment complementation assay; (v) protein–protein interaction assay; (vi) label-free methods; and (vii) phenotype biomarker assays. For anti-infective drug discovery, cell viability assays with different cell lines are utilized to screen and identify molecules that can kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens. These assays are further utilized to evaluate the safety issues of the organs such as the liver because the liver is the primary center for drug metabolism [29].
3.1.2.2 Biochemical assays
Biochemical assays involve screening of chemical libraries for in vitro inhibition of purified target protein (enzyme, receptor, and ion channels) in competition format where the known substrate bound to protein is replaced by the ligand or compound under study. The biological response is detected using optical methods such as fluorescence, luminescence, or absorbance [29].
3.2 Biological response detection methods in HTS
The detection of biological response in the cell-based and/or biochemical assay may be performed using different analytical technologies such as, fluorescence-based assays [FRET, HTRF, dissociation-enhanced lanthanide fluorescent immunoassay (DELFIA), time-resolved FRET (TR-FRET), fluorescence polarization (FP), fluorescent lifetime (FLT)], luminescence-based assays [bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), amplified luminescent proximity homogeneous assay (ALPHA), electrochemiluminescence assay (ECL)], atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), high-throughput electrophysiology (HT electrophysiology), protein complementation assay (PCA), Scintillation proximity assay (SPA), and enzyme fragment complementation (EFC) [18], which are further modified with different variations. However, the detailed discussion on the usage of these variations in the design of HTS assays is beyond the scope of this chapter.
4. Applications and outcomes of HTS in anti-infective drug discovery
HTS is being applied in a myriad of ways starting from the biology of infectious diseases to finding the lead molecules for anti-infective drug discovery. Few applications of HTS in infectious biology are the identification of pathogenic molecular mechanisms, evolutionary analysis of pathogens, and determination of the determinants required for survival and pathogenesis of the mutant strains of the microbial population [30]. Although, HTS is an early-stage drug development program, however, the anti-infective drug discovery efforts with HTS from the year 2000 to date have led to the approval of 38 new antibacterial drugs and 67 drug candidates are in the clinical development stage for both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nevertheless, 19 different compounds with novel pharmacophore are in different stages of clinical development (6 compounds in Phase I, 9 compounds in Phase II, 4 compounds in Phase III) [31].
5. Reverse pharmacology in drug discovery for infectious diseases
HTS bioassay-guided identification and isolation of bioactive compounds from natural biodiversity is termed as “Reverse Pharmacognosy.” Similarly, isolating a chemical entity and developing a pharmaceutical product from the clinically proven herbal remedy is termed “Reverse Pharmacology.” Quinine and Artemisinin are the two well-known antimalarial lead molecules identified and isolated through this approach [32] which were optimized using HTS and chemistry approaches to various antimalarial drugs with a better pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile.
6. Challenges in drug discovery for infectious diseases
The major challenge in drug discovery for infectious diseases is the mutation in superbugs which make them evolve rapidly. Despite the availability of structural information of 62,206 bacterially derived proteins in PDB, mutational changes in these structures necessitate continuous research in ‘omics studies. Moreover, the virus-derived proteins are only 9603 in number [20] leading to a reduced success rate of structure-based design of antiviral drugs. Nevertheless, many QSAR projects fail at the model building stage due to a lack of interdisciplinary application during the execution of the project. Similarly, a considerable challenge at the stage of in vitro/in vivo screening is the penetration of molecules into the bacterial cell, especially in Gram-negative species. However, these challenges may be countered with a diversified chemical space which is again a challenge for combinatorial chemistry-based chemical libraries. Therefore, biodiversity needs to be explored for identifying novel pharmacophores and associated anti-infective drugs.
7. Future perspectives
Highly diversified chemical space is a must for identifying novel pharmacophores which can be obtained through engineering biodiversity. Phytochemical hybridization [33] and phytochemical engineering [34] offer a great advantage to generate diverse semisynthetic chemical libraries which may be fruitful in identifying novel anti-infective pharmacophores. Further, nanotechnology is an emerging technology through which nanoprobes may be utilized to analyze microbes. Hence, HTS incorporated with nanotechnology may improve the efficiency of HTS [16]. Similarly, microfluidic technology may enable the use of a single platform to combine genome sequencing, mining, and uHTS. Thus, this technology may open up unique opportunities for anti-infective drug discovery at the level of single cell [35]. Further, given the urgency of the coronavirus (CoV) outbreak, HTS methodology using two types of mild CoV, HCoV-OC43 and MHV, was developed as a valuable tool for the rapid identification of promising drugs against CoV without the drawbacks of level three biological confinements. The luciferase reporter gene is introduced into HCoV-OC43 and MHV to indicate viral activity, and hence the antiviral efficiency of screened drugs can be quantified by luciferase activity. Compounds with antiviral activity against both HCoV-OC43 and MHV are further evaluated in SARS-CoV-2 after structural optimizations. This system allows large-scale compounds to be screened to search for broad spectrum drugs against CoV in a high-throughput manner, providing potential alternatives for clinical management of SARS-CoV-2 [36].
8. Conclusions
The goal of this chapter was to elucidate various options and platforms of the drug discovery process in correlation with anti-infective drugs. Where most of the discovery aspects starting from microbial resistance to target-to-lead identification through HTS strategies such as structure-based, ligand-based drug design, in vitro cell-based/biochemical assays, and biological response detection techniques are covered, the detailed explanation on each subtopic may be referred using the reference section. However, the challenges in anti-infective drug discovery remain a matter of concern for future research and development using different techniques to generate chemical space such as phytochemical hybridization and incorporation of nanotechnology in HTS for ultra-efficient screening and detection of biological response.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to: the Director-General, Department of Health & Family Welfare, Government of Sikkim, India; the Principal, Government Pharmacy College, Sikkim, India; and the Vice-Chancellor, King George’s Medical University (KGMU), Lucknow, India, for the support and encouragement for this work.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"HTS, vHTS, bioassay, anti-infective, drug discovery",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80848.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80848.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80848",totalDownloads:38,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 17th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 28th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 15th 2022",datePublished:"May 25th 2022",dateFinished:"March 15th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant microbial strains makes it evident to discover and develop newer efficacious anti-infective drugs. High-throughput screening (HTS) is a robust technology that plays a crucial role in identifying novel anti-infective lead compounds. This chapter briefly explains the role of virtual HTS (vHTS) and HTS technologies in lead identification using various categories of chemical libraries through structure-based drug design, ligand-based drug design, in vitro cell-based assay, and biochemical assay approaches involved in the process of drug design and discovery. The chapter also gives an insightful survey of the technologies such as fluorescence, luminescence, and atomic absorbance used for the detection of biological responses in the HTS bioassays. Applications of HTS, reverse pharmacology, current challenges, and future perspectives of HTS in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry are discussed in the context of anti-infective drug design, discovery, and development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80848",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80848",signatures:"Ankur Gupta, Swatantra Kumar, Vimal K. Maurya, Bipin Puri and Shailendra K. Saxena",book:{id:"10234",type:"book",title:"High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery",slug:"high-throughput-screening-for-drug-discovery",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10234.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-948-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-947-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-949-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",email:"shailen3@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. HTS in drug discovery for infectious diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Need of HTS in drug discovery for infectious diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Methods involved in HTS for drug discovery toward infectious diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Classification of HTS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.1 Virtual high-throughput screening (computer simulation-guided selection)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"3.1.1.1 Structure-based drug design",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"3.1.1.2 Ligand-based drug design",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.2 High-throughput screening (bioassay-guided selection)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"3.1.2.1 Cell-based assays",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"3.1.2.2 Biochemical assays",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Biological response detection methods in HTS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Applications and outcomes of HTS in anti-infective drug discovery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Reverse pharmacology in drug discovery for infectious diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Challenges in drug discovery for infectious diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Doostparast Torshizi A, Wang K. Next-generation sequencing in drug development: Target identification and genetically stratified clinical trials. Drug Discovery Today. 2018;23(10):1776-1783. DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.05.015'},{id:"B2",body:'Payne DJ, Gwynn MN, Holmes DJ, Pompliano DL. Drugs for bad bugs: Confronting the challenges of antibacterial discovery. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 2007;6(1):29-40. DOI: 10.1038/nrd2201'},{id:"B3",body:'Aldewachi H, Al-Zidan RN, Conner MT, Salman MM. High-throughput screening platforms in the discovery of novel drugs for neurodegenerative diseases. Bioengineering (Basel). 2021;8(2):30. DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering8020030'},{id:"B4",body:'Bellera CL, Sbaraglini ML, Talevi A. Modern approaches for the discovery of anti-infectious drugs for the treatment of neglected diseases. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 2018;18(5):369-381. DOI: 10.2174/1568026618666180509151146'},{id:"B5",body:'Johnson EO, Hung DT. A point of inflection and reflection on systems chemical biology. ACS Chemical Biology. 2019;14(12):2497-2511. DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.9b00714'},{id:"B6",body:'National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/pdf/ncezid_brochure_2012.pdf [Accessed: June 21, 2021].'},{id:"B7",body:'Holmes AH, Moore LS, Sundsfjord A, et al. Understanding the mechanisms and drivers of antimicrobial resistance. Lancet. 2016;387(10014):176-187. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00473-0'},{id:"B8",body:'Egorov AM, Ulyashova MM, Rubtsova MY. Bacterial enzymes and antibiotic resistance. ActaNaturae. 2018;10(4):33-48'},{id:"B9",body:'Macarron R, Banks MN, Bojanic D, et al. Impact of high-throughput screening in biomedical research. Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery. 2011;10(3):188-195. DOI: 10.1038/nrd3368'},{id:"B10",body:'Available from: https://www.drugs.com/history/daklinza.html [Accessed: June 21 2021]'},{id:"B11",body:'Projan SJ, Shlaes DM. Antibacterial drug discovery: is it all downhill from here? Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2004;4(Suppl. 10):18-22. DOI: 10.1111/j.1465-0691.2004.1006.x'},{id:"B12",body:'Silver LL. A retrospective on the failures and successes of antibacterial drug discovery. IDrugs. 2005;8(8):651-655'},{id:"B13",body:'Mayr LM, Fuerst P. The future of high-throughput screening. Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 2008;13(6):443-448. DOI: 10.1177/1087057108319644'},{id:"B14",body:'Wingren C, Borrebaeck CA. Progress in miniaturization of protein arrays-a step closer to high-density nanoarrays. Drug Discovery Today. 2007;12(19-20):813-819. DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2007.08.003'},{id:"B15",body:'Szymański P, Markowicz M, Mikiciuk-Olasik E. Adaptation of high-throughput screening in drug discovery-toxicological screening tests. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2012;13(1):427-452. DOI: 10.3390/ijms13010427'},{id:"B16",body:'Zeng W, Guo L, Xu S, Chen J, Zhou J. High-throughput screening technology in industrial biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology. 2020;38(8):888-906. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.01.001'},{id:"B17",body:'Zhang HJ, Li WF, Fong HH, Soejarto DD. Discovery of bioactive compounds by the uic-icbg drug discovery program in the 18 years since 1998. Molecules. 2016;21(11):1448. DOI: 10.3390/molecules21111448'},{id:"B18",body:'Inglese J, Johnson RL, Simeonov A, et al. High-throughput screening assays for the identification of chemical probes. Nature Chemical Biology. 2007;3(8):466-479. DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.2007.17'},{id:"B19",body:'Aparoy P, Reddy KK, Reddanna P. Structure and ligand-based drug design strategies in the development of novel 5- LOX inhibitors. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 2012;19(22):3763-3778. DOI: 10.2174/092986712801661112'},{id:"B20",body:'Available from: Protein data bank. https://www.rcsb.org/ [Accessed: June 21, 2021].'},{id:"B21",body:'Muhammed MT, Aki-Yalcin E. Homology modeling in drug discovery: Overview, current applications, and future perspectives. Chemical Biology & Drug Design. 2019;93(1):12-20. DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13388'},{id:"B22",body:'Gazgalis D, Zaka M, Abbasi BH, Logothetis DE, Mezei M, Cui M. Protein binding pocket optimization for virtual high-throughput screening (vHTS) drug discovery. ACS Omega. 2020;5(24):14297-14307. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c00522'},{id:"B23",body:'Badrinarayan P, Sastry GN. Virtual high throughput screening in new lead identification. Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening. 2011;14(10):840-860. DOI: 10.2174/138620711797537102'},{id:"B24",body:'Murcko MA. In: Lipkowitz KB, Boyd DB, editors. Reviews in Computational Chemistry. Vol. 11. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2007. pp. 1-67'},{id:"B25",body:'Neves BJ, Braga RC, Melo-Filho CC, Moreira-Filho JT, Muratov EN, Andrade CH. QSAR-based virtual screening: Advances and applications in drug discovery. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2018;9:1275. DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01275'},{id:"B26",body:'Qing X, Lee XY, De Raeymaecker J, et al. Pharmacophoremodeling: advances, limitations, and current utility in drug discovery. Journal of Receptor, Ligand and Channel Research. 2014;7:81-92. DOI: 10.2147/JRLCR.S46843'},{id:"B27",body:'Sun H, Tawa G, Wallqvist A. Classification of scaffold-hopping approaches. Drug Discovery Today. 2012;17(7-8):310-324. DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2011.10.024'},{id:"B28",body:'Fayne D. Ligand-based molecular design using pseudoreceptors. In: Schneider G, editor. Chapter 9 De Novo Molecular Design. Germany: Wiley; 2013. pp. 227-244. DOI: 10.1002/9783527677016.ch9'},{id:"B29",body:'Blay V, Tolani B, Ho SP, Arkin MR. High-throughput screening: Today’s biochemical and cell-based approaches. Drug Discovery Today. 2020;S1359-6446(20):30305-30306. DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.07.024'},{id:"B30",body:'McAdam PR, Richardson EJ, Fitzgerald JR. High-throughput sequencing for the study of bacterial pathogen biology. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2014;19(100):106-113. DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2014.06.002'},{id:"B31",body:'Butler MS, Paterson DL. Antibiotics in the clinical pipeline in October 2019. The Journal of Antibiotics (Tokyo). 2020;73(6):329-364. DOI: 10.1038/s41429-020-0291-8'},{id:"B32",body:'Willcox ML, Graz B, Falquet J, Diakite C, Giani S, Diallo D. A reverse pharmacology approach for developing an anti-malarial phytomedicine. Malaria Journal. 2011;10(Suppl. 1):S8. DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S8'},{id:"B33",body:'Swain SS, Paidesetty SK, Padhy RN. Phytochemical conjugation as a potential semisynthetic approach toward reactive and reuse of obsolete sulfonamides against pathogenic bacteria. Drug Development Research. 2021;82(2):149-166. DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21746'},{id:"B34",body:'Muhammad A, Feng X, Rasool A, Sun W, Li C. Production of plant natural products through engineered Yarrowialipolytica. Biotechnology Advances. 2020;43:107555. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107555'},{id:"B35",body:'Terekhov SS, Osterman IA, Smirnov IV. High-throughput screening of biodiversity for antibiotic discovery. ActaNaturae. 2018;10(3):23-29'},{id:"B36",body:'Liu J, Li K, Cheng L, Shao J, Yang S, Zhang W, et al. A high-throughput drug screening strategy against coronaviruses. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2021;103:300-304. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.033'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ankur Gupta",address:null,affiliation:'
Government Pharmacy College, India
These authors contributed equally to this work as first author.
Centre for Advanced Research (CFAR), Faculty of Medicine, King George’s Medical University (KGMU), India
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",address:"shailen@kgmcindia.edu",affiliation:'
Centre for Advanced Research (CFAR), Faculty of Medicine, King George’s Medical University (KGMU), India
These authors contributed equally to this work as first author.
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10234",type:"book",title:"High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"High-Throughput Screening for Drug Discovery",slug:"high-throughput-screening-for-drug-discovery",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10234.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-948-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-947-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-949-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"140053",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Bueno Vives",email:"mikkegood@gmail.com",fullName:"Miguel Bueno Vives",slug:"miguel-bueno-vives",position:"Quality",biography:"Born in San Luis Potosi, Mexico.\nStudied BSc at ITESM in Monterrey\nSemester abroad at Iowa State University\nStudied MSc at ITESM Monterrey\nSummer abroad at Kanazawa University\n\nWork experience in the automotive, aerospace and electronics manufacturing enviroments.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140053/images/860_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"36405",title:"Reconfigurable Tooling by Using a Reconfigurable Material",slug:"reconfigurable-tooling-by-using-a-reconfigurable-material",abstract:null,signatures:"Jorge Cortes, Ignacio Varela-Jimenez and Miguel Bueno-Vives",authors:[{id:"91931",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Cortes",fullName:"Jorge Cortes",slug:"jorge-cortes",email:"jcortes@itesm.mx"},{id:"92468",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Varela",fullName:"Ignacio Varela",slug:"ignacio-varela",email:"ignacio.varela@itesm.mx"},{id:"140053",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Bueno Vives",fullName:"Miguel Bueno Vives",slug:"miguel-bueno-vives",email:"mikkegood@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"1802",title:"Manufacturing System",slug:"manufacturing-system",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"16202",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Songmene",slug:"victor-songmene",fullName:"Victor Songmene",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnique Montréal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"91931",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Cortes",slug:"jorge-cortes",fullName:"Jorge Cortes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Bachelor and Master in Sciences in Metallurgy from National Politechnical Institute in Mexico. And Doctor in Engineering from Hiroshima University, Japan. He has worked as advisor in several industrial manufacturing plants and recently works as Research Professor in Monterrey Tech Mexico..",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Universitario en Sistemas Administrativos de Monterrey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"92468",title:"MSc.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Varela",slug:"ignacio-varela",fullName:"Ignacio Varela",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"104184",title:"MSc.",name:"Eeva",surname:"Järvenpää",slug:"eeva-jarvenpaa",fullName:"Eeva Järvenpää",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tampere University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Finland"}}},{id:"104675",title:"Prof.",name:"Barthélemy",surname:"Ateme-Nguema",slug:"barthelemy-ateme-nguema",fullName:"Barthélemy Ateme-Nguema",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104675/images/2204_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"107782",title:"Dr.",name:"Asli",surname:"Aksoy",slug:"asli-aksoy",fullName:"Asli Aksoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uludağ University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"109136",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Faieza",surname:"Abdul Aziz",slug:"faieza-abdul-aziz",fullName:"Faieza Abdul Aziz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109136/images/2797_n.jpg",biography:"Engr. Dr. Faieza Abdul Aziz is a senior lecturer at Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She graduated in B. Eng. (Hons.) Mechanical Engineering in 1995 from University of Bradford, UK. She has several years working experience as a Product Engineer before she pursues her Master degree in Mechanical Engineering. She obtained her PhD in Systems Engineering from Cardiff University, UK in 2006. She is involved in teaching Manufacturing Engineering modules for undergraduate as well as postgraduate degree. She also teach off-campus program for Master in Manufacturing System Engineering. She has been involved in collaboration research with many researchers and organizations since 2006 and published in diverse areas of Mechanical, Manufacturing and Industrial Engineering. She has published 4 books, 4 book chapters and over 80 technical papers. She is a member of the editorial board of numerous international organizations. Her research interests include Manufacturing System, Virtual Reality and Human Computer Interaction.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Putra Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"111624",title:"Prof.",name:"Nursel",surname:"Öztürk",slug:"nursel-ozturk",fullName:"Nursel Öztürk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uludağ University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"112752",title:"Prof.",name:"Thiên-My",surname:"Dao",slug:"thien-my-dao",fullName:"Thiên-My Dao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École de Technologie Supérieure",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"120058",title:"Mrs.",name:"Félicia",surname:"Etsinda-Mpiga",slug:"felicia-etsinda-mpiga",fullName:"Félicia Etsinda-Mpiga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École de Technologie Supérieure",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"QXFtwyQP') OR 809=(SELECT 809 FROM PG_SLEEP(15))--"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:43},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:126},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3385,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1875,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3842,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3008,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1109,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1010,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3918,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1654,editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7686,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3444,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:"coding-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Sudev Naduvath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11348",title:"Mutagenesis and Mitochondrial-Associated Pathologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"001972b3c5b49367314b13025a449232",slug:"mutagenesis-and-mitochondrial-associated-pathologies",bookSignature:"Michael Fasullo and Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"258231",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Fasullo",slug:"michael-fasullo",fullName:"Michael Fasullo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c1c5447cf3b9d6c7688276ac30e80de6",slug:"epoxy-based-composites",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, Ramesh Arthanari and M.R.Meera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10906",title:"Fungal Reproduction and Growth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f84de0280d54f3b52e3e4585cff24ac1",slug:"fungal-reproduction-and-growth",bookSignature:"Sadia Sultan and Gurmeet Kaur Surindar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10906.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"176737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"sadia-sultan",fullName:"Sadia Sultan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6a2562646c0fd664aca8335bc3b3e69",slug:"effective-elimination-of-structural-racism",bookSignature:"Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d66af42fb17d0a6556bb9ef28e273c7",slug:"animal-reproduction",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt and Mustafa Numan Bucak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10940",title:"Plant Hormones",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5aae8a345f8047ed528914ff3491f643",slug:"plant-hormones-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10207",title:"Sexual Abuse",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1ec1d5a7093490df314d7887e0b3809",slug:"sexual-abuse-an-interdisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Ersi Kalfoğlu and Sotirios Kalfoglou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editors:[{id:"68678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ersi",middleName:null,surname:"Kalfoglou",slug:"ersi-kalfoglou",fullName:"Ersi Kalfoglou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",parent:null,numberOfBooks:2674,numberOfSeries:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:57778,numberOfWosCitations:107752,numberOfCrossrefCitations:63933,numberOfDimensionsCitations:138496,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1 waitfor delay '0:0:15' -- ",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11123",title:"Epoxy-Based Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c1c5447cf3b9d6c7688276ac30e80de6",slug:"epoxy-based-composites",bookSignature:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai, Ramesh Arthanari and M.R.Meera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247421",title:"Dr.",name:"Samson Jerold Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Chelladurai",slug:"samson-jerold-samuel-chelladurai",fullName:"Samson Jerold Samuel Chelladurai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:"coding-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Sudev Naduvath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10861",title:"Furan Derivatives",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fdfc39cecd82f91b0effac994f75c877",slug:"furan-derivatives-recent-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Anish Khan, Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, M. Ramesh, Salman Ahmad Khan and Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10861.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293058",title:"Dr.",name:"Anish",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"anish-khan",fullName:"Anish Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10400",title:"The Application of Ant Colony Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4fdfd07ee1ab99fb7c740d6d0c144c6",slug:"the-application-of-ant-colony-optimization",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10870",title:"Ultrasound Imaging",subtitle:"Current Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f0bc3733ab226d67fa73759ef0e12ad",slug:"ultrasound-imaging-current-topics",bookSignature:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10870.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68312",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Okechukwu Erondu",slug:"felix-okechukwu-erondu",fullName:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10683",title:"Technological Innovations and Advances in Hydropower Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ce7ad8768bd2cad155470fe1fd883f4",slug:"technological-innovations-and-advances-in-hydropower-engineering",bookSignature:"Yizi Shang, Ling Shang and Xiaofei Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2674,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9218,totalCrossrefCites:160,totalDimensionsCites:389,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:9190,totalCrossrefCites:128,totalDimensionsCites:369,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16014,totalCrossrefCites:168,totalDimensionsCites:364,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"41411",doi:"10.5772/53659",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20534,totalCrossrefCites:92,totalDimensionsCites:299,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"17237",doi:"10.5772/24553",title:"Hydrogels: Methods of Preparation, Characterisation and Applications",slug:"hydrogels-methods-of-preparation-characterisation-and-applications",totalDownloads:65759,totalCrossrefCites:86,totalDimensionsCites:276,abstract:null,book:{id:"248",slug:"progress-in-molecular-and-environmental-bioengineering-from-analysis-and-modeling-to-technology-applications",title:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering - From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications"},signatures:"Syed K. H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7128,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:24504,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10337,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12084,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1 waitfor delay '0:0:15' -- ",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81958",title:"New Approaches to Innovation Management in the Context of Digital Transformation",slug:"new-approaches-to-innovation-management-in-the-context-of-digital-transformation",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104769",abstract:"The previous decade is rightfully called the era of digital transformation. The purpose of the study is to assess the impact of global trends on innovation activity, as well as to identify new factors influencing innovation models. A conceptual approach to the analysis of the evolution of innovation models based on the transformation of information and communication technologies for innovation based on the bibliographic analysis and integration of existing concepts and theories of innovation, digitalization and sustainable development is created. With the help of the factor method, the analysis of the main innovation models is carried out and a promising innovation model is determined. It is found out that digital technologies are the technological basis of the modern model of the innovation ecosystem. The result of the research is the author’s classification of modern factors of innovation activity that determine the directions and types of implemented innovations, as well as the role of innovation in society. The peculiarity of the study is that it has a conceptual nature, does not use the collection of empirical data, but is based on the integration of previously developed concepts and theories.",book:{id:"11198",title:"Digital Transformation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11198.jpg"},signatures:"Zhanna Mingaleva and Vladimir Postnikov"},{id:"81959",title:"A Review of Optical Interferometry Techniques for Quantitative Determination of Optically Active Materials in a Solution",slug:"a-review-of-optical-interferometry-techniques-for-quantitative-determination-of-optically-active-mat",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104937",abstract:"Human diet is primarily comprised of optically active ingredients like glucose, sucrose, fructose, amino acids, lactic acid, cholesterol etc. Quality control is one of the most important processes in food industries to test, measure and verify the product for quality control standards. Optical techniques are mostly adopted in these industries for standardization of purity and concentration of optically active ingredients in their products. Quantitative measurements of optically active materials (OAMs) in a solution by interferometry have attracted the intention in present days due to their wide working range, high sensitivity and lower limit of detection. OAMs cause rotation of the angle of polarization when a plane-polarized light passes through them. The angle of rotation is distinct for different materials at different concentrations. For interferometric quantitative determination, the OAMs are generically placed in an arm of the interferometer and their effect on the interference fringe patterns are monitored as a function of their concentrations. Furthermore, the refractive indices of OAMs varies with their concentrations which directly affect the resultant interference pattern. Owing to the vast range of interferometric arrangements and processing techniques, this review assesses the different approaches adopted in detection of concentration of OAMs in a solution by interferometry.",book:{id:"11156",title:"Optical Interferometry - A Multidisciplinary Technique in Science and Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11156.jpg"},signatures:"Rahim Ullah, Raja Yasir Mehmood Khan and Muhammad Faisal"},{id:"81957",title:"Network Reconfiguration and Reactive Power Compensation Dispatch in Smart Distribution Systems",slug:"network-reconfiguration-and-reactive-power-compensation-dispatch-in-smart-distribution-systems",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102820",abstract:"A significant challenge is to design strategies to minimize electrical losses in smart distribution systems while observing voltage and feeder loading constraints. Unfortunately, few studies have solved the problem of simultaneously coordinating already installed capacitors banks with network reconfiguration problems. This book chapter presents two methodologies for solving the reconfiguration and reactive power compensation dispatch. Both methodologies are formulated as two-stage solve reconfiguration and reactive power compensation problems with the characteristic of having acceptable computational efficiency and loss reduction close to the optimal solution. In the first stage, network reconfiguration is carried out to discriminate radial configurations that do not satisfy voltage and overload restrictions. In the second stage, a reactive power compensation dispatch is applied to each feasible network configuration by connecting capacitor blocks successively until all available reactive capacity has been used or until a specified loss tolerance has been reached. Finally, switching each capacitor block is carried out using voltage linear sensitivities related to shunt reactive compensation to make a relatively low computational work during the process.",book:{id:"11178",title:"Smart Grids Technology and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11178.jpg"},signatures:"Ulises Tovar Ramírez, José Horacio Tovar Ramírez and Guillermo Gutiérrez Alcaraz"},{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",abstract:"Essential oils have received increasing interest due to the high potential of their novel properties, i.e. antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities. Essential oils are obtained from various parts of aromatic cultures, i.e. roots, leaves, seeds, bark, fruits, flowers, stems, etc. by various oil production methods, i.e. field distillation unit (FDU), steam distillation, water and steam distillation & several advanced (supercritical fluid extraction). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the characterization of the essential oils. This study reports on the method of determination of physiochemical properties with the test parameters, i.e. odor, color, optical rotation, solubility, refractive index, specific gravity, acid value, ester value, and ester value after acetylation. There is also discussion about instruments such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry due to one of the best tools for identifying and quantifying the constituents of essential oils as its simplicity, rapidity, accuracy, and efficiency.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav"},{id:"81208",title:"Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence (TADF) Compounds as Photocatalyst in Organic Synthesis: A Metal-Free Greener Approach",slug:"thermally-activated-delayed-fluorescence-tadf-compounds-as-photocatalyst-in-organic-synthesis-a-meta",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103960",abstract:"Thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) molecules undergo efficient intersystem crossing (ISC) and reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) processes, making them as third-generation emitters in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), photodynamic therapy (PDT) and time-resolved luminescence imaging. Apart from these applications, recently, TADF molecules have been used extensively as photocatalysts in light-mediated synthesis. In general, highly expensive complexes of Rh, Ir, Ru and organic dyes (Eosin Y, Rose Bengal, 9-mesityl-10-methylacridinium perchlorate [Acr-Mes]+ClO4−) are commonly used in the photocatalysis process. Organic-TADF based molecules help to avoid these costly metal catalysts and frequently used organic dyes, making the reaction economical and greener. This chapter will briefly summarize the photocatalytic properties of organic-TADF compounds in organic synthesis.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Suresh Rajamanickam and Bhisma K. Patel"},{id:"80930",title:"Lightweight Cryptographic Techniques in 5G Software-Defined Internet of Things Networking",slug:"lightweight-cryptographic-techniques-in-5g-software-defined-internet-of-things-networking",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102984",abstract:"Lightweight cryptography (LWC) is an area of cryptographic techniques with low computational complexity and resource requirements. There must be a reason for using it in Internet of Things (IoT) network with a strict resource constraints environment. The key features of a 5G network are low latency, high throughput, heterogeneous network architecture, and massive connectivity. A new area of network architecture called SDN-IoT comes into the picture to control and manage IoT devices in a network with low latency and high throughput. SDN helps to reprogram the network according to the application’s requirements. Also, higher mobile applications lead to higher data growth. SDN helps to secure, manage, and control the huge data in the network. SDN-IoT architecture divides the network into three layers: The infrastructure layer, the control layer, and the service or application layer. In this chapter, we are focusing on the LWC algorithms from different perspectives so that they will fit into different layers of SDN-IoT network. We will discuss all the pros and cons of implementing LWC algorithms in hardware and software environments and also, the different layers of the SDN-IoT network. We also discuss SDN security architecture and different performance metrics for LWC algorithms.",book:{id:"11190",title:"Cryptography - Modern Theory and Practices",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11190.jpg"},signatures:"Sumita Majhi and Pinaki Mitra"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:728},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:51,paginationItems:[{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8430",title:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8430.jpg",slug:"neurodevelopment-and-neurodevelopmental-disorder",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",hash:"696c96d038de473216e48b199613c111",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. Adigwe, Henry O. Egharevba and Martins O. Emeje",slug:"starch-a-veritable-natural-polymer-for-economic-revolution",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80673",title:"Teucrium ramosissimum Derived-Natural Products and Its Potent Effect in Alleviating the Pathological Kidney Damage in LPS-Induced Mice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102788",signatures:"Fatma Guesmi and Ahmed Landoulsi",slug:"teucrium-ramosissimum-derived-natural-products-and-its-potent-effect-in-alleviating-the-pathological",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80600",title:"Essential Oil as Green Preservative Obtained by Ecofriendly Extraction Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103035",signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",slug:"essential-oil-as-green-preservative-obtained-by-ecofriendly-extraction-techniques",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Nashwa",surname:"Morsy"}],book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79875",title:"Comparative Study of the Physiochemical Composition and Techno-Functional Properties of Two Extracted Acorn Starches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101562",signatures:"Youkabed Zarroug, Mouna Boulares, Dorra Sfayhi and Bechir Slimi",slug:"comparative-study-of-the-physiochemical-composition-and-techno-functional-properties-of-two-extracte",totalDownloads:51,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80395",title:"History, Evolution and Future of Starch Industry in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102712",signatures:"Obi Peter Adigwe, Judith Eloyi John and Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"history-evolution-and-future-of-starch-industry-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80168",title:"Benzimidazole: Pharmacological Profile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102091",signatures:"Mahender Thatikayala, Anil Kumar Garige and Hemalatha Gadegoni",slug:"benzimidazole-pharmacological-profile",totalDownloads:75,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80122",title:"Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Potentials of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102037",signatures:"Ishrat Nazir and Sajad Ahmad Gangoo",slug:"pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-potentials-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80130",title:"Exploring the Versatility of Benzimidazole Scaffolds as Medicinal Agents: A Brief Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101942",signatures:"Gopakumar Kavya and Akhil Sivan",slug:"exploring-the-versatility-of-benzimidazole-scaffolds-as-medicinal-agents-a-brief-update",totalDownloads:57,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80018",title:"Potato Starch as Affected by Varieties, Storage Treatments and Conditions of Tubers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101831",signatures:"Saleem Siddiqui, Naseer Ahmed and Neeraj Phogat",slug:"potato-starch-as-affected-by-varieties-storage-treatments-and-conditions-of-tubers",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80023",title:"Binary Interactions and Starch Bioavailability: Critical in Limiting Glycemic Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101833",signatures:"Veda Krishnan, Monika Awana, Debarati Mondal, Piyush Verma, Archana Singh and Shelly Praveen",slug:"binary-interactions-and-starch-bioavailability-critical-in-limiting-glycemic-response",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79964",title:"The Anticancer Profile of Benzimidazolium Salts and their Metal Complexes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101729",signatures:"Imran Ahmad Khan, Noor ul Amin Mohsin, Sana Aslam and Matloob Ahmad",slug:"the-anticancer-profile-of-benzimidazolium-salts-and-their-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79835",title:"Advances of Benzimidazole Derivatives as Anticancer Agents: Bench to Bedside",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101702",signatures:"Kashif Haider and Mohammad Shahar Yar",slug:"advances-of-benzimidazole-derivatives-as-anticancer-agents-bench-to-bedside",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9883",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9883.jpg",slug:"biosensors-current-and-novel-strategies-for-biosensing",publishedDate:"May 5th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez and Ana Leticia Iglesias",hash:"028f3e5dbf9c32590183ac4b4f0a2825",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Current and Novel Strategies for Biosensing",editors:[{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/140053",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"140053"},fullPath:"/profiles/140053",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()