Final testing and training results of ANN model (from Ref. [35]).
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThoughts, emotions, behaviors, and body sensations are interrelated, and a change in one of these structures can affect the others. Today, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is in the position of a psychotherapy school with a wide application area, which includes a group psychotherapy approach based on this view. CBT is an effective treatment approach for many mental disorders/problems such as depression, anxiety disorders, alcohol-substance use disorders, marital problems, eating disorders, and severe mental disorders. Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive effect of CBT on functionality and quality of life. Since its emergence, CBT has made significant advances in clinical practice and research. This book will cover the historical development, basic principles, and application areas of CBT. It is aimed that the book chapters are prepared in the light of current literature findings will be an essential reference source for the readers.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-897-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-896-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-898-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"849acf69df0db62876816078930b4481",bookSignature:"Prof. Cicek Hocaoglu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11890.jpg",keywords:"Exposure, Homework Assignments, Formulation, Treatment Rationale, Depression, Anxiety Disorders, Eating Disorders, Personality Disorders, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Psychotherapy, Dysthymia",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Cicek Hocaoglu received postgraduate training in psychiatry at the Medical School of Karadeniz Technical University. She is currently a Professor and Head of the Department of Psychiatry at the Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Medical School. She has published over 100 national/international scientific articles, book chapters, and papers presented. Her interests include consultation-liaison psychiatry, suicide, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and psychopharmacology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"28322",title:"Prof.",name:"Cicek",middleName:null,surname:"Hocaoglu",slug:"cicek-hocaoglu",fullName:"Cicek Hocaoglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28322/images/system/28322.jpg",biography:"Cicek Hocaoglu obtained her medical degree from Uludag University Faculty of Medicine, Bursa, Turkey. She received postgraduate training in psychiatry at the Medical School of Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey. She is currently Professor and Head of the Department of Psychiatry at the Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Medical School, Rize, Turkey. She has many published national/international scientific articles, book chapters, and papers presented in congresses. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Such high-frequency circuits are leading to the development of a large variety of microwave models for passive and active devices and circuit components [1]. Modeling and computer-aided design (CAD) methods have an essential role in microwave designs and simulations [2]. The older approaches were mainly based on slow trial-and-error processes and an emphasis on performance at any price, but today seems to be a new era in high-frequency circuit design and modeling, since development in this ground has enabled microwave engineers to design larger, more efficient, and more complicated circuits than before [1, 3]. This complexity requires new materials and technologies that require not only new models but also new algorithms in computer-aided design [4] for RF/microwave circuits, antennas, and systems to keep up with the advancement of technology with emphasis on time-to-market and low-cost approaches [1, 3]. In addition to accurate parametric-modeling techniques to describe the behavior of the microwave device, a reliable description that explains the changes of its behavior against geometrical or physical parameters is also needed [5].
Also, since circuit models at high frequencies often lack fidelity, detailed electromagnetic (EM) simulation techniques are needed to improve design accuracy. Although EM simulation techniques are heavily used yet, they are computationally expensive, so there is a demand for design methodologies to be not only accurate but also fast. Another concerning problem today is optimization. To meet this purpose, computer-based algorithms that work with iterative circuit evaluation are needed; this process also needs a highly repetitive computational process. Another concerning issue according to Ref. [6] is the possibility of employing knowledge-based tools for initial design, that is, one of the steps toward designing and modeling process. It is hard to satisfy all these problems with the traditional CAD technologies [1, 3]. In conclusion, obviously there is a serious need for a powerful accurate and fast processing and modeling tool.
Neural networks (NNs), or artificial neural networks, are information-processing systems that can imitate the ability of human brain to learn from observation and generalize by abstraction to create complex models [7]. Neural network gives a great approximation of system regardless of linear or nonlinear correlation between the input data and can be used as knowledge-based tool (to be employed for initial design in RF/microwave applications) [1]. The ability of NN to be trained resulted in their use in many diverse fields such as pattern recognition, system identification, control, telecommunications, biomedical instrumentation, and many other grounds. Recently, many researchers in communication area are focusing on using neural network in their modeling and simulation, and NN has been recognized as a useful alternative to conventional approaches in microwave modeling [1, 3]. Neural network models are simple and fast, and they can enhance the accuracy of existing models. The basis of neural network is on the universal approximation theorem, which says that a neural network with at least one hidden layer can give an approximation of nonlinear multidimensional function to any intended accuracy [8]. This property makes neural network a favorite modeling tool for microwave engineers. Neural network approach is generic, that is, the same modeling technique that can be reused for passive/active devices/circuits. Another advantage of NN is the ease of updating neural models regarding changes in technology [2]. Neural network is now used in various microwave modeling and simulation applications, such as vertical interconnect accesses (Vias) and interconnects [9], parasitic modeling [10], coplanar waveguide (CWG) components [11], antenna applications, nonlinear microwave circuit optimization [12], power amplifier modeling, nonlinear device modeling, wave-guide filter, enhanced elemental method (EM) computation, and so on [2].
Artificial neural networks are classified into two main categories: static neural networks and dynamic neural networks. In this chapter, the first neural network structures will be presented, and then a general overview of static and dynamic neural networks and different types of them and their applications in microwave modeling will be discussed. The last part is devoted to another method called vector fitting (VF) that is a numerical technique used for system identification and macromodeling [13].
The idea behind neural network is similar to the function of human brain. A typical neural network structure has two types of basic components: the processing elements and interconnection between them. The processing elements are known as neurons, and the interconnections are called links. Each link is recognized with a corresponding weight parameter. Every neuron receives stimuli from neighbor neurons connected to it [3]. Input neurons receive stimuli from the outside of the network and the neurons that produce the output result are called output neurons, and neurons that not only send but also receive stimuli are called hidden neurons [1]. There are different ways to connect neurons to each other, so there are different neural network structures. A neural network structure defines how information is processed inside a neuron, and how the neurons are connected. In this chapter, we discuss the models that are more common in microwave simulations and modeling.
Generally, artificial neural networks have an input data vector, an output data vector, a vector including all the weight parameters, and a function that mathematically presents the neural network [14].
Assume
A general scheme of a neural network with four input neurons, two output neuron, and one hidden layer. Also, the links between the neurons are the weights.
Given a set of input and output data, a neural network can be constructed and trained. The network tries to estimate a function, so that it is able to give the closest result to the intended output. Commonly, a large percentage of input and corresponding output data are used as training data and the network will be trained by means of them. The act of training means identifying the weights, so that they reach the optimum values. The remaining percentage of data is used as validation and testing. Validation set is used to determine an approximation of generalized error and is a factor for determining when to stop the process to prohibit over-learning and under-learning [7]. Testing data obviously is used for checking the accuracy and correctness of the network after training is completed.
In each level of information processing, the output of each neuron is received by the next neuron, from input neurons to output neurons. An overview of information processing in layers is shown in Figure 2. The inputs of a neuron are first multiplied by the corresponding weight parameters individually, then the results are added to produce a weighted sum of
Information processing inside a neuron.
Let
There are different types of training in neural network [1], here we explain each of them shortly:
Sample-by-sample (or online) training: each time a training sample is presented, the weights (
Batch-mode (or offline) training: after each epoch weights are updated based on training error from all the samples in training data set.
Supervised training: using
Un-supervised training: using just
Activation function, also known as transfer function, is one of the most important units in a neural network structure, that is, a scalar-to-scalar function transforms a set of input signals into an output signal. Common types of activation functions are arctangent as shown in Figure 3, hyperbolic tangent shown in Figure 4, and sigmoid functions which are shown in Figure 5 [15].
Mathematical graph of arctangent function
Mathematical graph of hyperbolic tangent function
Mathematical diagram of sigmoid function
Sigmoid function:
Arctangent function:
Hyperbolic tangent function:
In the past few years, artificial neural networks have gained attention as a valuable computer-aided design tool for modeling high-frequency circuits. They can mainly be categorized as techniques for modeling frequency-domain response of components and time-domain response of them. For frequency-domain modeling, static neural networks are employed. Their main architectures are multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial-basis function (RBF), which will be discussed in this section.
Multilayer perceptron structure is the most frequently used structure in many areas including microwave modeling and optimization problems. This technique belongs to a subcategory of neural network called feed-forward neural network, which is able to approximate continuous and integrable functions [1], and their connectivity consists of layer groups that are only linked to adjacent layers, meaning that there is not a cycle or a recursive path [16].
In MLP structure, neurons are classified into different layers. A typical MLP neural network consists of one input layer, one or more hidden layers, and one output layer, as shown in Figure 6. Consider
MLP structure with one input layer, several hidden layers, and one output layer.
Here, consider
One of the most commonly used activation functions in MLP structure is sigmoid function [1], which is shown in Figure 5.
In summary, if we suppose
For
For
And
Radial-basis function neural network, like MLP, is a subset of feed-forward neural network. It is used in a wide range of applications related to microwave transistors and high-speed integrated circuits, and modeling of intermodulation distortion behavior of MESFETs and HEMTs [1, 17].
A radial-basis function is a real-valued function whose value depends only on the distance from the origin, so that
The main approach in this structure is based on approximation of a curve that best fits to the training data set in high-dimensional space by determining
where
In RBF structure, there is just one hidden layer, and the function of input and output layers stays the same like MLP structure. RBF uses the radial basis as activation function [7]. Figure 7 shows a typical RBF neural network.
Structure of RBF neural network.
Radial-basis activation functions include Gaussian and multiquadratic functions.
Gaussian function:
Multiquadratic function:
The Gaussian and multiquadratic functions are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.
The Gaussian function.
The multiquadratic function.
For time-domain modeling of components and systems, time-domain artificial neural network structures are usually employed in the literature. The main time-domain architectures are dynamic neural networks (DNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs), which will be discussed in this section.
Most neural network structures used by engineers are feed-forward neural networks that are suitable for time-independent static input-output mapping [18]. In feed-forward neural networks, the flow of information is straight forward from the first neuron of the first layer to the last neuron of the output layer, and the procedure is not recursive, so the output of neurons does not have any effect on the input of the last neurons, although the stability of a neural network is the result of the absence of feedback in the network. In spite of static NNs, a dynamic neural network uses feedback between neurons in the same layer, or even neurons in different layers, also it provides more computational advantages [19]. Feedback-based neural networks are good approaches for modeling, identification, and control of systems, since most of systems in real world such as airplanes, rockets, and so forth are nonlinear dynamical systems [18, 20].
Recurrent neural network is a discrete time-domain neural network that allows time-domain behaviors of a dynamic system to be modeled [1]. Its structure is suitable for modeling tasks such as dynamic system control and finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions in electromagnetic modeling [21]. The output of the neural network is a function of its present inputs and a history of its inputs and outputs [22]. The delayed outputs are fed back to the inputs and the feed-forward network along with the feedback delay constructs the recurrent neural network structure. In this architecture, we suppose the inputs and outputs to be a function of time, representing this functionality with parameter
Suppose the external single input of the neural network to be
Recurrent neural network.
Suppose a three-layer discrete-time MLP neural network as above, with activation function
in which,
where
Dynamic neural network is a continuous time-domain neural network that is one of the best formulations for modeling nonlinear microwave circuits [9]. DNN is highly efficient in theory and practice. It is suitable for a wide range of needs in nonlinear microwave simulations, for example, it is suitable for both time- and frequency-domain applications, multitone simulations, and so on [12]. In comparison with other neural network methods, DNN provides a faster and more accurate network modeling that is significantly required in today’s efficient CAD algorithms in high-level and large-scale nonlinear microwave designs. DNN also can be developed directly from input-output data without a need to depend on internal details of the circuit [12]. In DNN, the outputs are a function of inputs and their derivatives, and also a function of derivatives of outputs. Figure 11 shows the architecture of dynamic neural network and the process occurring at each level.
Dynamic neural network.
In Figure 11,
The DNN model can represent a nonlinear circuit when trained and tested with an appropriate data set, measured or obtained from the original circuit.
State-space dynamic neural network (SSDNN) is a technique for modeling nonlinear transient behaviors especially in high-speed IC and nonlinear circuits. The SSDNN-modeling technique is based on DNN structure and is a combination of DNN and state-space concept, which expands continuous DNN into a more general and flexible approach for nonlinear transient modeling and design with good accuracy [23].
Let
where
Structure of SSDNN model.
Adjoint state-space dynamic neural network (ASDNN) method, like SSDNN method, is used for modeling the transient behavior of nonlinear electronic and photonic components. It is an extension of SSDNN technique that is capable of adding the derivative information of the output to the training patterns of nonlinear components simultaneously, so that the training process can be done more efficient requiring less data without sacrificing model accuracy and efficiency [23, 24]. It has been shown in Ref. [24] that testing error from the model trained by ASSDNN method is much less than that obtained from SSDNN. Here is the formulation of ASSDNN using notation similar to SSDNN mentioned already, and an overview of structure of ASSDNN is shown in Figure 13.
Structure of ASSDNN-based model.
There are other methods which are not based on neural networks for modeling microwave components such as Krylov method [25], finite element [26], mode-matching method [27], vector-fitting method, and so forth [28]. In the preceding section, we present vector-fitting method. This technique has been used in many microwave simulations and modeling researches [29–31].
Vector fitting (VF) is a robust numerical technique for rational approximation of transfer functions and
Basically, vector fitting is a pole relocation method where the poles are improved in an iterative manner. This is achieved by repeatedly solving a linear problem until convergence is achieved [13]. The VF formulation avoids the ill-conditioning problems encountered with some alternative approaches, as the formulation is given in the form of simple fractions instead of polynomials. Unstable poles are flipped into the left-half plane to enforce stable poles. This makes VF applicable to high-order systems and wide frequency bands [33].
Mathematical representation of vector-fitting method is presented briefly in this section.
Let {
in which
in which
in which
It can be proven that the poles of
Also for initialization there are different approaches. Basically, initial poles should be complex with weak attenuation and can be obtained by a simple calculation such as Prony method [13] or simply can be spaced within the desired range of frequency, for example, between 50 Hz and 1 MHz [17], and the advantage here is even if the starting poles were selected poorly, the result does not change significantly [32]. By solving Eq. (19), new set of poles are identified. After identifying all the poles, residues are calculated by solving Eq. (16) which is again a linear problem. As a conclusion, VF method samples the given function with an appropriate sample rate, and in this way a summation of partial fractions can be found, that is, the discrete-function approximation of the original transfer function.
This part of the chapter briefly discusses about the application of computer-aided design (CAD) techniques in modeling and simulation of RF and microwave-passive components. Neural network-based modeling approaches have been widely used for modeling variety of RF and microwave-passive components such as coupled-line filters, coplanar waveguides, Vias and multilayer interconnects, and some other passive components.
Here, we provide a brief review of procedure used in neural network-based modeling of RF and microwave-passive components.
For modeling microwave components in frequency domain [1], first input and output parameters of the components should be selected in a wide range of frequencies. In most ANN models, it is desired to represent the parameters in terms of scattering parameters (
After training and verification of the EM-ANN model, based on the usage they can be used either in stand-alone mode or in integrated mode along with microwave circuit simulators. In integrated mode, there is a linear model subroutine that connects models to the simulator. This subroutine returns
In this example, we demonstrate the use of ANN techniques to develop a model for a family of coupled-line filters [35]. Here,
Model type | Neural network structure | Average training error (%) | Average testing error (%) |
---|---|---|---|
ANN model using 120 sets of training data | 6-40-4 | 0.897 | 0.989 |
ANN model using 40 sets of training data | 6-35-4 | 1.073 | 4.357 |
Final testing and training results of ANN model (from Ref. [35]).
The use of coplanar waveguides (CPWs) in RF and microwave-integrated circuits has brought many advantages. Accurate modeling of these components is necessary for accurate simulation of circuits. One of the fields that experts recently have been working on is toward the development of accurate and efficient methods for EM simulation of CPW discontinuities, but the challenge of using these tools for iterative CAD and circuit optimization [37] is the time-consuming nature of EM simulation. To overcome this problem, EM-ANN models have been suggested [38]. The models include CPW transmission line, short- and open-circuit stubs, step-in width discontinuities, and T-junctions. These EM-ANN models are linked to microwave circuit simulators and allow for the accurate and very fast EM circuit optimization in the framework of circuit simulator [1]. A general schematic of a coplanar waveguide is shown in Figure 14. In this figure,
Simple coplanar waveguide.
Progress in technology caused merging large number of microwave circuits and creating multilayer complexities that leads to investing much effort on optimizing and lowering the cost and weight of these circuits. Besides, accuracy and efficiency are important factors that should be satisfied in designs to have desirable simulation results. EM-ANN-based methodology despite other solutions that have been suggested was enormously successful in modeling Vias elements in microstrip circuits and multilayer Vias connectors [39]. Some other suggestions had limitations such as heavily computational expenses or limited range of frequency. As an example, microstrip transmission line model is one of the implemented ANN-based models in this case. In this model, input parameters are frequency which is in the range, log
Simple schematic of microstrip transmission line.
Output parameter is
Training data average error | 1.161 | 0.377 |
Training data SD | 1.157 | 0.376 |
Validation data average error | 0.774 | 0.293 |
Validation data SD | 0.875 | 0.223 |
Average and standard deviation (SD), for absolute error training (from Ref. [1]).
In this chapter, a review of some tools commonly used in RF/microwave simulation and modeling has been presented. In the last few decades, high-frequency effects have become an important factor in RF/microwave area. These effects can be found in all levels of design from tiny chips to packaging structures. In order to capture these effects, it is common to use physics-based models or electrical models which lead to large equations and large computational efforts for solving and simulating them, which is extremely time-consuming and expensive. Artificial neural networks recently have become popular among computer-aided design tools. The main topic in this chapter was a discussion on neural network which was mentioned as a powerful tool in modeling and simulation areas, also two main types of neural network structures including static and dynamic neural networks and their different types has been presented. In static neural network section, we talked about multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial-basis function (RBF) structure, and in time-domain part we discussed recurrent neural network (RNN), dynamic neural network (DNN), state-space dynamic neural network (SSDNN), and adjoint state-space dynamic neural network (ASSDNN) methods. Other than neural network, as mentioned already, there are several numerical methods that are being used in the procedure of simulation and modeling microwave components such as Krylov method, finite-difference time-domain (FDTD), finite-element time-domain (FEDT), and vector fitting (VF). Here, we presented vector-fitting method that is widely used for modeling microwave and electromagnetic components with good performance. VF despite other system identification methods avoids ill-conditioning calculation, and because of this, it works more efficiently. Also, this method is very robust; it performs well even for high-order fitting and does not disturb by poorly selected starting poles. VF technique is very easy to implement in a computer program, since it is constructed upon matrices from simple fractions, and the problems in this case are easy to solve.
As a conclusion, the ANN-based methodologies and other mentioned methods are capable of applying to RF/microwave modeling and components simulation and are shown to have both speed and accuracy advantage for modeling nonlinear functions, despite many other conventional techniques.
Airborne pressure waves are ubiquitous in all human environments and have played vital roles in the survival, evolution, and development of the human species. Under certain conditions, airborne pressure waves can be perceived as “sound” by the human auditory system. Under other conditions, they may be perceived as a whole-body or partial-body vibration. Some airborne pressure waves are not consciously perceived at all. As human societies developed and became more technological, airborne pressure waves emanating from human-made devices became ubiquitous and “noise” became a more serious issue. By the late nineteenth century, noise and health studies began to flourish. In the early twentieth century, the telephone and growing industrialization led to more in-depth studies of the human hearing function. In 2011, a WHO document on the burden of diseases reflected the seriousness of the ongoing “noise problem” [1].
\nThe only airborne pressure waves considered of consequence for human health were those that could be
Acoustical spectrum showing the classical three segments (infrasound, audible, and ultrasound) with the frequency and wavelength indicated at the cutoff of each segment.
Figure 2 shows the frequency response curve for the dBA metric, clearly following the human auditory response to airborne acoustic pressure waves.
\nFrequency response curve for the deciBel-A metric (dBA) commonly used in noise-related legislation [
While the dBA metric proved to be key for the protection of hearing and speech intelligibility, it was insufficient for the assessment of airborne pressure waves occurring outside of the 800–7000 Hz range. Figure 3 emphasizes the 800–7000 Hz range within the dBA metric, and Figure 4 shows its application at 10 Hz. The dBA metric is, therefore, unsuited for evaluating airborne pressure waves occurring at frequencies below 800 Hz. Health effects that may be developing due to exposures at these lower frequencies cannot be properly studied if the dBA metric is being used to characterize acoustical environments.
\nFrequency response curve for the dBA metric applied to the range of highest human auditory acuity. Within this frequency range, the dBA measurement will accurately reflect the airborne acoustical energy present in the environment.
Frequency response curve for the dBA metric applied to infrasonic frequency ranges, showing a 70 dB difference when evaluated at 10 Hz. Within these lower frequency ranges, the dBA metric will significantly underestimate the airborne acoustical energy present in the environment.
There is a shortage of studies that properly evaluate the biological response to infrasonic (≤20 Hz) or lower frequency (≤200 Hz) airborne pressure waves. Three important reasons for this have been provided above: the rudimentary segmentation of the entire acoustical spectrum into merely three “blocks” (compare to segmentation of the electromagnetic spectrum), the unsuitability of the dBA metric to quantify airborne acoustical pressure waves at these lower frequencies, and the ingrained notion that “what you can’t hear can’t hurt you.” These major hindrances have been crystallized into mainstream science [3] and have served to significantly impede scientific inquiry and human health protection.
\nThe goal of this chapter is to consolidate what is known on the biological response to airborne pressure waves occurring within the infrasonic and lower frequency ranges. A biomedical engineering approach is taken, whereby biological organisms are viewed as structures of composite materials, with significant viscoelastic components and organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architectures. When airborne pressure waves impact these types of structures, the biological response will depend on the type of biomaterial under study, it will exhibit anisotropic properties, and it will vary nonlinearly with exposure time. Depending on the physical properties of the airborne pressure waves (including time profiles) and on the biostructure under study, mechanical perturbations are relayed into cells and tissues through a variety of different pathways that, to date, still remain unclear.
\nViscoelasticity is an attribute given to bodies that exhibit both viscous and elastic behaviors beyond the classical Hooke’s elastic model [4]. Viscoelastic materials have three distinct properties not contemplated by Hookean models: creep, stress relaxation, and hysteresis. Most biological materials have viscoelastic behaviors.
\nIn a Hookean (or purely elastic) material, total deformation depends on total load, and no further deformation occurs even if load is maintained. In viscoelastic materials, however, when sufficient stress is applied and maintained, they may continue to deform, even though stress load remains unaltered. This property is called
In a purely elastic material, the strain within the material is constant throughout the application of the load; it does not vary with time, but only with the amount of applied stress. In viscoelastic materials, when stress is applied and maintained, strain can decrease with time. This property is called
Consider repetitive or cyclical loads on materials. In purely elastic materials, periodic loads will not alter the stress-strain curve. The pathway taken by the material to deform is exactly the same pathway it takes to return to its original, equilibrium position. In viscoelastic materials, however, the return to equilibrium may be different than the pathway used to get to the point of deformation (The word pathway is here loosely used, and is meant to encompass all spatial, temporal and energetic components of these types of movements.) This property is called
Many structures in the natural world are organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architecture—elements providing discontinuous compression are held together through elements of continuous tension [5]. Figure 5 shows several examples of tensegrity structures.
\nTensegrity structures. A. Model showing elements of continuous tension and discontinuous compression. B. Needle tower, by Kenneth Snelson, in the Hirshhorn sculpture garden (USA) [
Depending on the properties of the airborne pressure waves and biomaterial under study, the propagation of mechanical perturbations throughout these types of structures can reach long distances, without loss of structural integrity.
\nCells and tissues are organized in accordance with the principles of tensegrity architecture [8, 9]. This means that in addition to biochemical signaling, cells also communicate with their surroundings through mechanical signals. Mechanosensitive receptors exist on cell surfaces, and mechanosensitive junctions interconnect cells, thus forming tissues. Depending on the physical properties of the airborne pressure waves and biomaterials under study, external airborne mechanical perturbations can elicit a mechanical response, which, in a larger, macroscopic view, can lead to clinically pathological situations.
\nThe fascia is a sheet of connective tissue that uninterruptedly extends from head to toe, suspended from the skeleton, and that provides the integrated supporting framework for maintaining anatomical and structural form [10, 11]. That external mechanical perturbations elicit responses at large distances away from the point of entry is a well-known concept among scientists and health professionals who study fasciae. When presented with external airborne pressure waves, fasciae can respond by changing their structural properties:
Connective tissue structures are ubiquitous forming all external surfaces of vessels, nerves, organs, and muscles, and at the cellular level, the extra-cellular matrix that surrounds and communicates with each individual cell. In addition to maintaining structural integrity, the fasciae are the first line of defense against external perturbations, playing important physiological roles in mobilizing the immune system.
\nStudying the effects of infrasonic or lower-frequency airborne pressure waves on biological structures is a very complex undertaking, whether it be on cell cultures, on animal models, or on human populations. Laboratorial studies, occupational field studies, and residential field studies all have their own strengths and weaknesses. When the latter go unrecognized, however, experimental design flaws can ensue. In this section, the attributes of these different experimental setups are discussed, and their weaknesses and strengths are explored. Together with the preceding section, this serves as a preamble to Section 4, where the results of experimental studies are described in detail.
\nLaboratories where infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves can be applied in a controlled manner are in short supply worldwide, and those that do exist are mostly associated with military installations. Laboratories emitting airborne pressure waves with infrasonic and lower frequency components cannot be randomly placed within residential environments; issues with neighbor disturbance and public health would curtail its use. Moreover, the equipment used to generate the airborne pressure waves is, typically, very large and very expensive, and few sectors of society (other than military or space exploration industries) would have the need for an extensive use of these types of installations.
\nIn these laboratory settings, continuous or pulsed-trains of single-tone airborne pressure waves can be applied, as well as, broadband exposures that can be accurately characterized. The fact that exposure times and acoustic parameters can be precisely controlled is one of the strengths of laboratorial studies, allowing for continuous time exposures, or occupationally simulated exposure schedules. Immediate (hours or days) versus long-term (weeks or months) effects can also be explored.
\nThere are numerous types of biological outcomes that can be studied under laboratorial conditions. Light-, electron- and atomic-force microscopy can be used to study cellular and tissue structural properties, as well as their chemical composition and content of bio-reactive elements. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques can provide information on messenger RNA (mRNA) expression, allowing for the identification of key pathways. With pharmacological intervention or gene knock-out specimens, specific signaling molecules and pathways involved in the elicited responses can be pinpointed. Additionally, control populations for comparison are fairly easy to achieve—they are simply not subjected to the laboratorial exposures.
\nOccupational environments are exceptional field laboratories, as both short-term (several months) and long-term (years) effects can be investigated in more realistic acoustic environments. Typically, different workstations have different acoustical features that can greatly depend on different machinery regimens. For occupational field laboratories, acoustical characterizations of the workplace(s) must be comprehensively undertaken and time exposures to each type of environment should be scored.
\nExposure times at work must be differentiated from exposure times away from work, i.e., when the work shift ends, workers leave the field laboratory, but additional exposures to infrasonic or lower frequency airborne pressure waves may be incurred (e.g., recreational, transportation). These must be documented. Significant confounding factors may be introduced unless each subject’s residential area is scrutinized and prior-exposure histories probed for fetal, childhood, and adolescent exposures.
\nPossible biological outcomes within occupational field studies are more limited when compared to laboratory exposures. Noninvasive testing can be imprecise, and the minimally invasive testing (such as a blood chemistry analysis, X-ray, or MRI) may also not be sufficiently precise to yield relevant data. It is also the case that scientific knowledge on relevant biological outcomes that can be noninvasively evaluated in exposed humans is still absent or, at best, very incomplete.
\nSurvivorship bias is a well-known confounding factor in human population studies. In occupational environments, workers with more time on-the-job are those who have survived throughout the years of professional activity, while workers with less time in professional activity may exhibit more severe biological outcomes. This phenomenon is often misinterpreted leading to inconclusive or erroneous conclusions.
\nControl populations for exposures to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves have been a very difficult proposition, given the ubiquitous nature of this stressor. One of the solutions to this profound problem is the scoring of subjects into different groups as per their exposure. Within this context, control groups are composed of individuals who have the least amount of cumulative (prior and present) exposure, and not of individuals with zero exposure.
\nDifferent professions can provide different field laboratories, both in terms of acoustic environment and time exposure schedules. For example, long-haul truck drivers are typically exposed for more than 8 hours daily and, oftentimes, sleep in the truck while it is idling, or while refrigeration systems are continuously operating. Workers onboard ships, submarines, offshore oilrigs, aircraft, and spacecraft (for example) can be exposed to significant amounts of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves for weeks or months at a time. The wealth of information waiting to be gleaned from these types of field laboratories is breathtaking.
\nField laboratories in urban, suburban, and rural residential settings are generally designed to investigate environmental health effects due to human-made infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves. Typically, these sources are associated with industrial complexes or infrastructure that, in turn, are usually linked with important economic interests. In general, the amount and type of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves contaminating a home will depend on the machine operation and/or the use of the infrastructure. For example, in most urban and suburban areas, airports must close down between the hours of midnight and 5 am. Some factories do not have night shifts and therefore also have daily shutdown periods. Large refrigeration units, hydroelectric dams, and large volume highways, however, must be kept running 24/7 and can also be viewed as continuous sources of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves. Wind turbines are the latest addition to these type of sources although they are almost exclusively within rural areas.
\nComprehensive characterization of the acoustic environments in the different residential areas must be undertaken (e.g., master bedroom, children’s bedrooms, living-lounge areas), since room-resonance phenomena can significantly modify the acoustic environment that is originally being induced and driven by external, incoming airborne pressure waves. Additionally, wind can also influence the spectrum, intensity and type of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves that exist within a room. This differentiation is readily achieved with proper acoustic evaluations.
\nResidential exposure times are much more difficult to control, as they can differ from room to room and on an hourly basis. Moreover, subjects may also be sleeping within the “contaminated” environments, which can severely aggravate biological outcomes. If exposure is concomitantly occurring during sleep and waking hours (e.g., homemakers, workers from home, farmers), then biological outcomes may be further aggravated. Leaving the home can be equated with a biological recovery period (i.e., nonexposure period).
\nShort-, medium- and long-term effects can be studied in residential settings when the implementation of a new infrastructure or industrial complex is known to be coming to the area. Biological outcomes should strive to be either noninvasive or minimally invasive, and prior-exposure histories are fundamental for achieving useful statistical data.
\nNumerous studies conducted over the decades have shed light on the biological response to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves and associated symptomatic complaints. Due to space limitations, this discussion will only deal with some of the vascular and collagenous abnormalities, cardiomyocyte changes, and the hippocampus responses, as induced by different types of exposures. For reasons explained in the section “Introduction,” all studies using the dBA metric have been eliminated from consideration (with one exception in an occupational setting). Selected studies mostly focus on the cellular and tissue changes observed in laboratory, occupational, and residential settings, using light and electron microscopy. The sequence in which the studies are presented does not follow the classical anatomical order.
\nIn the mid-1960s, within a military setting, the immediate exposure to 10–60 Hz, at 118–140 dB, for 2 minutes, induced disturbances of the visual field as reported by all five human subjects [12]. In 1985, laboratorial animal studies exposed rats to tonal 8 Hz at 100–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 5, 10, 15, or 25 days, and examined the blood and lymph networks of the palpebral (eyelid) and bulbar (eye globe) conjunctiva.
In a similar study, animals were exposed to 8 Hz at 100 dB, or to 16 Hz at 100 dB, 3 hours daily, for 1 month. Clinical and morphological evaluations were conducted at days 3, 7, 15, 30, and also post-exposure at days 30, 60, and 90.
Within an occupational setting (reinforced concrete factory), vessel changes in the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, and in the retina, were investigated among 214 workers (age range: 20–58 years), with 1–30 years of employment. Workers were divided into two groups:
The exposed group was divided into subgroups as per years of professional activity. Table 1 describes each subgroup and the vessel abnormalities found. No such abnormalities were found in the control population [14].
\nOccupational exposure time | \n1–2 yrs | \n3–10 yrs | \n11–20 yrs | \n20–30 yrs | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of workers | \n21 | \n84 | \n36 | \n19 | \n
Palpebral and bulbar arteries (%) | \n||||
0 | \n82 | \n8 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n17 | \n91 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n80 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
Retinal arteries (%) | \n||||
0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n91 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n90 | \n100 | \n100 | \n|
Retinal veins (%) | \n||||
0 | \n87 | \n11 | \n0 | \n|
0 | \n13 | \n88 | \n100 | \n|
0 | \n75 | \n97 | \n100 | \n
Percentage of abnormal vessel changes seen in the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva and retina among occupationally exposed workers [14].
Within a different occupational setting (aircraft industry), ocular changes were studied in 23 male workers (average age: 42, range: 32–58 years). Lesions were observed in the blood-retinal barrier in 19 workers (lesion types: 13 inactive, 2 active, 4 mixed). Choroidal circulation was altered in 14 workers (late perfusion with chronic features). Changes in retinal circulation were observed in four workers (type: 1 occlusive, 1 exudative, 2 mixed). Three workers presented with optic neuropathy (1 papillitis, 2 optic atrophy), and one exhibited sensorial retinal macular detachment [15]. The immediate effects of tonal exposures with 8 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, 14 and 21 days, also revealed a breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier in the rat eye [16].
\nThese studies strongly suggest that under the impact of infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves, a vascular response is mounted by ocular structures and could be related to decreased visual acuity in workers. Data in Table 1 seem to indicate that, as exposure time progressed, vessels that were initially enlarged ceased to exist, apparently being replaced with narrower and twisted vessels. Enlarged vessels usually suggest the need for an increased blood supply. However, given the sustained mechanical insult, making the vessels narrower and twisting them throughout the structures may, in fact, reflect a more efficient blood delivery system.
\nThis concept is further reinforced by the observation of narrow and twisted blood vessels in the gastric mucosa of rats, exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustic environments characterized as 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB. Continuous exposure was applied, and evaluations occurred at 1, 3, 5, 9, and 13 weeks. In
Vascular changes were also identified in the liver structures of animals exposed to 2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz, at 90–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 5–40 days. Exposures to 2 or 4 Hz induced less damage than exposures to 8 and 16 Hz.
Hemorrhagic events in the lung were documented as early as 1969, within the Soviet and US space exploration studies, in dogs exposed to occupationally simulated (spaceflight) wide-band frequency range at 105–155 dB, for 1.5 or 2 hours. Hemorrhages up to 3 mm in diameter were observed beneath the pleura. As exposure time and decibel level increased, the number of hemorrhages increased but never exceeded 3 mm in diameter. Microscopic analyses of the hemorrhagic sections disclosed ruptured capillaries and larger blood vessels [22]. In a laboratory setting, rats received tonal exposures to 2, 4, 8, or 16 Hz at 90–140 dB, 3 hours daily, for 40 days. Analysis time points were conducted after 3 hours, at 5, 10, 15, 24, and 40 days of exposure, as well as during post-exposure times.
The highly invasive bronchoscopic evaluation with biopsy was performed among a group of volunteer subjects, with occupational or residential exposures to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves, as detailed in Table 2.
\nProfession/type of exposure | \nGender | \nAge | \nSmoking | \n
---|---|---|---|
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n48 | \nMild | \n
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n52 | \nNo | \n
Aircraft technician | \nMale | \n59 | \nMild | \n
Combat pilot | \nMale | \n61 | \nNo | \n
Helicopter pilot | \nMale | \n59 | \nModerate | \n
Aircraft pilot | \nMale | \n54 | \nNo | \n
Merchant marine | \nMale | \n37 | \nNo | \n
Military helicopter nurse | \nFemale | \n56 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n36 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n39 | \nNo | \n
Flight attendant | \nFemale | \n40 | \nNo | \n
Homemaker | \nFemale | \n54 | \nMild | \n
Homemaker | \nFemale | \n59 | \nNo | \n
Description of subjects who received bronchoscopic evaluations with biopsy [24].
Bronchoscopic observations in all patients revealed small submucosal, vascular-like lesions (“pink” lesions), located distally in both tracheal and bronchial trees, and uniformly distributed bilaterally near the spurs. Biopsies were performed on the abnormal mucosa (pink lesions) and on the apparently normal mucosa (outside of the pink lesions). In the non-pink areas, some vessel wall thickening was visible. In the pink areas, the basal membrane disclosed abnormal neovascularization, with thickened blood vessel walls and scarce lumen. No gender differences were identified [24].
\nCollagen, composed of triple-helix tropocollagen chains, is the most abundant protein in the human body, a key component of the fasciae, and is produced by fibroblast cells. It has long since been considered as the “steel” of the human body [25], but its energy storage capacity has been shown to be 10 orders higher than in spring steel [26]. Different types of collagen have different mechanical properties. Type IV collagen (increased in the exposed gastric mucosa [17]—see above), is organized into X-shaped structures and is commonly found in the basal membrane of arterial walls, hence its increased expression during angiogenesis.
\nIn
In the lungs of dogs studied within the scope of space exploration (see above [22]), focal enlargement of the alveoli involved the stretching of connective tissue structures of alveoli walls. In the biopsy images of the bronchoscopic study (see above [24]), non-pink areas disclosed a thickened basement membrane with abnormal amounts of collagen, while the pink areas disclosed an even thicker membrane with very large amounts of collagen. The abnormal neovascularization was embedded within collagen bundles. Retraction of structures neighboring the collagen fibers was not observed. A marked reinforcement of the cytoskeleton and intercellular junctions was seen in the pink areas, as compared to non-pink areas. The five individuals that disclosed images of collagen fiber degeneration and disruption also tested positive for antinuclear antibodies.
\nUnder an occupationally simulated acoustic environment, characterized as 20–200 Hz at 70–90 dB (aircraft industry), and occupationally simulated exposure schedules (8 hours daily, 5 days weekly, weekends in silence), focal interstitial fibrosis was found in the lung parenchyma of rats after a cumulative 4000-hour exposure. Additionally, thickened alveoli walls and dilated alveoli were observed [27]. Tracheal epithelium in similarly exposed rats disclosed significant subepithelial fibrosis [28, 29], and with longer occupationally simulated exposures, the subepithelial layer became composed of hyperplastic collagen bundles, some with a degenerative pattern. Cellular edema was also observed [28, 30].
\nWithin an occupational setting (aircraft industry) and investigating long-term outcomes, high-resolution CT scans of the lungs and respiratory function tests were provided to 21 nonsmoker male workers, who were divided into two groups: with (n = 7, average age: 42) and without (n = 15, average age: 36) complaints of airflow limitations. There was a significant relationship between the presence of symptoms and images of lung fibrosis through the CT scan. No differences existed among the groups when comparing the percentage of predicted values of lung function [31].
\nFasciae abnormalities have been most prominently studied in the pericardia of exposed workers, subsequent to autopsy findings in an aircraft industry worker that disclosed a grossly thickened pericardium [32]. Pericardial morphological changes were studied among 12 male workers: three aircraft technicians, four fixed-wing aircraft pilots, four helicopter pilots, and one long-haul truck driver. Pericardial samples were removed with informed consent of the patient and Ethics Committee approval, at the beginning of cardiac surgery (prescribed for other reasons by the National Healthcare Service). In all cases, there were no visual adherences, or inflammatory aspects and pericardia were grossly thickened. The classical, three pericardial layers were identified: serosa, fibrosa, and epipericardium. However, in all cases, the fibrosa had split in two and, in between, a new layer of loose tissue was observed, consisting of vessels, nerves, arteries, and lymphatics surrounded by adipose tissue. Both fibrosa layers were composed almost entirely by wavy, interwoven collagen bundles, surrounded by numerous cytoplasmic extensions (whose mother cell was difficult to identify), and interspersed with some elastic fibers. The new, loose tissue layer sandwiched in between the split fibrosa contained blood and lymphatic vessels, adipose tissue, and nerves. Both the loose tissue layer and the fibrosa layers contained macrophages and vascular hyperplasia, also seen in lymphatic vessels [33, 34, 35, 36]. Pericardial and cardiac valve thickening has also been confirmed through echocardiography studies in occupational settings (aircraft [37] and commercial-airline industries [38]), with thickness increasing with increasing exposure time. In residential settings, pericardial and valve thickening [39] and increased arterial stiffness [40] were observed in populations chronically exposed to military-training exercises [39], and transportation systems [40].
\nIn 1983, electron microscopy techniques were used to study animal myocardia exposed to single and multiple infrasonic exposures of 4–16 Hz at 90–150 dB, 3 hours daily, for 45 days, and post-exposure time points were included. No changes were observed with single exposures at 4–6 Hz and at less than 100 dB, when compared to non-exposed controls.
Cardiac injury was studied in rat cardiomyocytes exposed to tonal 5 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, or 14 days.
For three continuous months, rats were exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustical environments characterized as 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB. Ventricular cardiac muscle and interstitial fibrosis were quantified and compared to non-exposed controls. Exposed rats disclosed a 97.5% increase in fibrosis in the left ventricle, an 81.5% increase in the interventricular septum, and an 83.7% increase in the right ventricle. No significant differences were found in the mean values of cardiac muscle in the left and right ventricles, when compared to non-exposed controls. However, the fibrosis-to-muscle ratio was significantly higher in the exposed rats, indicating significant ventricular myocardial fibrosis [44].
\nIn another study, rats were exposed to a non-tonal, occupationally simulated (textile mill) environment rich in infrasonic and lower frequency components, under an occupationally simulated schedule (8 hours daily, 5 days weekly, weekends in silence), for 1, 3, 5, and 7 months. Ventricular coronary artery caliber, artery wall thickness, and size of arterial perivascular tissue were quantified in a total of 130 arteries (61 exposed and 69 controls). No changes were observed in arterial lumen caliber, and in arterial wall thickness, when compared to non-exposed controls. Perivascular tissue was more prominent in the exposed samples and seemed to exhibit fibrotic development. Lumen-to-wall ratio showed no differences, while wall-to-perivascular-tissue ratio showed a significant increase, as compared to non-exposed controls [45].
\nIn animals exposed to 2–20 Hz peaking at 114 dB, for 28 continuous days, ventricular arteries were studied as to the dimensions of lumen, wall, and perivascular space. An additional group of animals received the same exposure but were treated with dexamethasone (a corticosteroid). Blind evaluation of 31 arteries disclosed increased perivascular spaces in the exposed groups, reflected in the significantly reduced wall-to-perivascular-space ratio, as compared to non-exposed controls. No changes were observed in the lumen-to-wall ratio. With dexamethasone treatment and exposure, no differences were observed in the wall-to-perivascular-space ratio, as compared to controls, suggesting an underlying inflammatory mechanism [46].
\nGap junctions are a fundamental component of intercellular communication, allowing inorganic ions and small water-soluble molecules to pass directly from one cell’s cytoplasm to another. Gap junctions are formed by protein complexes (connexons) each composed of six subunits made of the protein connexin. Cardiac connexin43 (Cx43) is a component of gap junctions, and its reduction in combination with increased collagen deposition and interstitial fibrosis has been associated with ventricular arrhythmias [47]. Within this context, rats were exposed to non-tonal, occupationally simulated (aircraft industry) acoustical environments characterized by 6.3–25 Hz at 70–90 dB and 40–500 Hz at 90–100 dB, for three continuous months. Immunohistochemical quantification of Cx43 was conducted on the left ventricle, interventricular septum, and right ventricle. Significantly decreased Cx43-to-muscle ratios were found in the exposed rats, as compared to non-exposed controls, suggesting the possibility of arrhythmogenic consequences [48].
\nPrior studies have shown that the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory impairment, such as that seen in rodents after infrasound exposure [49]. The hippocampus—located between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem—was classically considered as part of the limbic system. The hippocampus proper is divided into four regions (CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4), each with different input and output pathways. The Dentate Gyrus (DG) is an additional hippocampus structure and that contributes to the formation of new episodic memories, and spontaneous exploration of novel environments. In the central nervous system (CNS), neuroglia consists of the non-neuronal cells (oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and microglia) and is often referred to as the connective tissue of the brain. Glial cells surround neurons to hold them in place, supply them with oxygen and nutrients, insulate them from one another, destroy pathogens, and remove dead neurons.
\nGlial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is an intermediate filament protein expressed by numerous cells within the CNS, and although its exact function remains unknown, it appears to be involved in maintaining the mechanical strength of astrocytes. The expression of GFAP was studied in the brains of mice exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 7, 14 21, or 28 days. GFAP expression was increased in the hippocampus, cortex, and hypothalamus in a time-dependent manner [50].
\nCorticotrophin releasing hormone (CHR) is a peptide hormone involved in the stimulation of the pituitary synthesis of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) as part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis’ response to stress. Corticotrophin releasing hormone-receptor 1 (CHR-R1) has wide expression in the CNS. It plays important roles in fear learning and consolidation in the amygdala, in stress-related modulation of memory function in the hippocampus, and in arousal regulation in the brainstem. Prior studies showed that infrasound exposures caused an upregulation of CRH and CRH-R1 in neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus [51]. Recent studies have also shown that CRH is expressed in activated microglial cells [52]. Within this context, rats and
The transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 4 (TRPV4) protein acts as a calcium channel that is also mechanosensitive. It plays important roles in the systemic regulation of osmotic pressure by the brain, in skeletal growth and structural integrity, in airway and lung function, retinal and inner ear function, and in pain. Animals were exposed to 8 or 16 Hz at 90, 100 or 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 14 days. Rat learning and memory abilities were most severely impaired with 16 Hz at 130 dB at days 7 and 14, with prominent loss of hippocampal CA1 neurons, as compared to non-exposed controls. Significant astrocyte and microglial activation was seen in the hippocampus after days 1 and 7, and before neuronal apoptosis became evident.
Neonatal rat hippocampal astrocyte cultures were exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB for 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 240 minutes. Extra-cellular glutamate levels increased with increasing exposure time, and at 90 min, there was a 100% increase over baseline. The astroglial expression of Cx43 (connexin43—see above) was increased, as compared to non-exposed controls, as was the synthesis of Cx43 mRNA. Through additional evaluations using pharmacological and knock-out interventions, the authors concluded that infrasonic exposures induced astrocytes to release glutamate, and that Cx43 gap junctions were required for the exposure-induced glutamate release [54].
\nThe endocannabinoid system includes lipid-based retrograde neurotransmitters, expressed throughout the CNS, and involved in fertility, pregnancy, pre-and postnatal development, appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory. Animals were exposed to 16 Hz at 130 dB, 2 hours daily, for 14 days. Cannabinoid (CB) receptors 1 and 2 in the CA1 hippocampal region of the exposed rats were downregulated in a time-dependent manner, as compared to non-exposed controls. Apoptotic cells in the CA1 only became obvious after day 5, and cell death coincided with the decreased expression of CB receptors. Through pharmacological intervention, activation of CB receptors significantly reduced the number of apoptotic cells, ameliorated the behavior performance of exposed rats, and reduced the infrasound-elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines. These data suggest that CB receptors could potentially serve as promising targets for future treatments against infrasound-induced injury [55].
\nFibroblasts synthesize extracellular matrix (glycosaminoglycans, reticular, and elastic fibers) and collagen, and, in addition to their structural role, fibroblasts are also important for mounting the immune response to tissue damage. Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) signal through fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR). The fibroblast growth factor 2/fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGF2/FGFR1) signaling pathway was investigated in animals and in cultured astrocytes, exposed to 16 Hz at 150 dB, 2 hours daily, for 1, 3, or 7 days. In both experimental models, astrocyte activation increased with exposure time and astrocyte-expressed FGFR1 was downregulated as compared to non-exposed controls. Pharmacological intervention using FGF2 exerted an inhibitory effect on infrasound-induced astrocyte activation, inhibited the elevation of proinflammatory cytokines, upregulated the expression of FGFR1, and alleviated neuron loss in CA1 hippocampus region. Inhibition of the FGF2/FGFR1 pathway aggravated astrocyte-mediated inflammation after infrasonic exposure. The authors concluded that astrocyte-mediated inflammation was involved in infrasound-induced neuronal damage and that the FGF2/FGFR1 pathway played a key role [56].
\nIn a laboratory setting, rats were exposed to tonal 8 Hz at 140 dB, 2 hours daily, for 3 days. A post-exposure, 1-week time point was also established. Significant damage of hippocampus morphology was observed in exposed rats, and recovery was seen after 1 week of post-exposure. Neuronal apoptosis was significantly increased after 24- and 48-hour exposures, as compared to non-exposed controls, and then decreased after 1 week post-exposure. Expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) peaked at 24 hours and was decreased at 48 hours [57].
\nExposure to infrasonic and lower frequency airborne pressure waves can cause cellular and tissue damage depending on frequency, dB-level, and exposure time, while the viscoelastic properties inherent to biological tissues impart a nonlinear response to this type of acoustic stressor. The complex mechanosensitive and biochemical cellular signaling pathways mediating this cellular damage have not yet been pinpointed, although fasciae structures and connective tissues (including the neuroglia) seem to be the most sensitive under longer term exposures. Immediate exposures appear to induce inflammatory processes that do not seem to be maintained with longer exposures.
\nWidespread vascular involvement (not limited to the biological structures addressed herein) was observed in palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva and retina, gastric mucosa, liver structures, lungs, pleura and tracheae, alveoli, pericardia, and coronary arteries. This vascular response may (unsuspectingly) be the underlying cause of many symptomatic complaints. Cognitive deficits oftentimes documented within residential field laboratories may not merely be due to sleep deprivation, but also to hippocampal neuronal damage. Fasciae morphogenesis speaks to the demand on the whole-body structural integrity elicited by this type of external mechanical insult, while collagenous growths and hemorrhagic events of a focal nature may reflect concomitant resonance phenomena.
\nRecovery periods are not linear, and 2-hour daily exposures imply a 22-hour nonexposure period. This presents a problem for continuous exposures, such as those encountered in some professional activities and most residential environments. The underlying objectives of most of the studies discussed herein are related to occupational exposures and do not consider continuous exposures at less than 90 dB, nor are pressure pulsed trains presented within the laboratorial acoustic environments. In residential environments, however, these attributes are often present. The simulation of residential exposures does not appear to have yet been integrated into laboratory settings and protocols.
\nThe whole-body response also elicits the immune system, affects organs of the reproductive system, changes receptor cells in the vestibular semicanals and auditory cochlea, and induces genotoxic effects, including teratogenesis. This is a pioneering field of science, still in its infancy and urgently requiring scientists from multidisciplinary areas of study because, ultimately, the health of human populations and their offspring must be protected.
\nNone.
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It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3328,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3386,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7817,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. 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\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Prof.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Tanzania",institution:{name:"Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}},{id:"70530",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcio",middleName:"Campos",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"marcio-oliveira",fullName:"Márcio Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRm0AQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-08-01T12:34:46.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Feira de Santana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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