\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10969",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Perspectives on Electric Vehicles",title:"New Perspectives on Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Modern transportation systems have adverse effects on the climate, emitting greenhouse gases and polluting the air. As such, new modes of non-polluting transportation, including electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids, are a major focus of current research and development. This book explores the future of transportation. It is divided into four sections: “Electric Vehicles Infrastructures,” “Architectures of the Electric Vehicles,” “Technologies of the Electric Vehicles,” and “Propulsion Systems.” The chapter authors share their research experience regarding the main barriers in electric vehicle implementation, their thoughts on electric vehicle modelling and control, and network communication challenges.",isbn:"978-1-83969-615-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-614-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-616-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95662",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-perspectives-on-electric-vehicles",numberOfPages:224,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac30eed50ea83d4284f11d72791aa15a",bookSignature:"Marian Găiceanu",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10969.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1414,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 2nd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 30th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 17th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"829",title:"Automobile Engineering",slug:"vehicle-engineering-automobile-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"80494",title:"Introductory Chapter: Towards 2050 NZE Pathway - Electric Transportation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102324",slug:"introductory-chapter-towards-2050-nze-pathway-electric-transportation",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Marian Gaiceanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80494",authors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"77511",title:"Strategies for Electric Vehicle Infrastructure of Cities: Benefits and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98862",slug:"strategies-for-electric-vehicle-infrastructure-of-cities-benefits-and-challenges",totalDownloads:113,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The emerging technology, electric vehicles (EVs), has gained more attention due to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, climate change, and air pollution in the cities. The rising demand for EVs brings new benefits and challenges to the city life of citizens. Balancing the demand in the electrical energy distribution grid, charging scheduling, dynamic pricing, and different types of charging stations change the priorities of city life. In order to manage the new requirements and perform the permanent transition from gasoline-powered vehicles to EVs, a strategic plan must be prepared by the city authorities. Currently, a number of cities in different countries have published their strategic plans for the sense of perspective about reaching a 30% sales share for EVs by 2030. These plans focus on the solutions to maximize the benefits of EVs and the awareness of the citizens. In the present study, fundamental components of a strategic plan for both EVs and necessary infrastructure are outlined with different aspects.",signatures:"Murat Furat, İsra Karabiber and Senem Kocaoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77511",authors:[{id:"355074",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Furat",slug:"murat-furat",fullName:"Murat Furat"},{id:"355138",title:"BSc.",name:"Senem",surname:"Kocaoğlu",slug:"senem-kocaoglu",fullName:"Senem Kocaoğlu"},{id:"419585",title:"MSc.",name:"İsra",surname:"Karabiber",slug:"isra-karabiber",fullName:"İsra Karabiber"}],corrections:null},{id:"79213",title:"Fast-Charging Infrastructure Planning Model for Urban Electric Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100011",slug:"fast-charging-infrastructure-planning-model-for-urban-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electric vehicles have become a trend as a replacement to gasoline-powered vehicles and will be a sustainable substitution to conventional vehicles. As the number of electric vehicles in cities increases, the charging demand has surged. The optimal location of the charging station plays an important role in the electric vehicle transit system. This chapter discusses the planning of electric vehicle charging infrastructure for urban. The purpose of this work develops an electric vehicle fast-charging facility planning model by considering battery degradation and vehicle heterogeneity in driving range, and considering various influencing factors such as traffic conditions, user charging costs, daily travel, charging behavior, and distribution network constraints. This work identifies optimal fast-charging stations to minimize the total cost of the transit system for deploying fast-charging networks. Besides, this chapter also analyzes some optimization modeling approach for the fast charging location planning, and point out future research directions.",signatures:"Tran Van Hung",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79213",authors:[{id:"352722",title:"Dr.",name:"Tran",surname:"Van Hung",slug:"tran-van-hung",fullName:"Tran Van Hung"}],corrections:null},{id:"77936",title:"A Review of Hybrid Electric Architectures in Construction, Handling and Agriculture Machines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99132",slug:"a-review-of-hybrid-electric-architectures-in-construction-handling-and-agriculture-machines",totalDownloads:175,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent regulations on pollutant emissions have pushed working machines manufacturers towards research and development efforts to meet the strict limits imposed. For a long time, the use of gas aftertreatment systems have been the most widely accepted solution to reduce the amount of pollutants produced per unit of work done. However, lower emissions limits lead to larger systems and consequently higher difficulties in vehicle integration. Thus, alternative solutions have been studied in the last years to solve the emissions problem using wisely the on-board space. Hybrid electric technologies represent a valuable alternative in this direction. In this work, a review of the current state of the art in the adoption of hybrid and electric technologies on working vehicles is proposed. Due to the high amount of application fields and concepts for special applications, the analysis focused on the three major fields which however includes most of the working machines: Construction, Handling and Agriculture. This work highlights how the requirements of each specific field, strongly affects the design of an optimal hybrid electric architectures.",signatures:"Francesco Mocera and Aurelio Somà",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77936",authors:[{id:"200187",title:"Prof.",name:"Aurelio",surname:"Somà",slug:"aurelio-soma",fullName:"Aurelio Somà"},{id:"355487",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Mocera",slug:"francesco-mocera",fullName:"Francesco Mocera"}],corrections:null},{id:"77998",title:"High Power Very Low Voltage Electric Motor for Electric Vehicle",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99134",slug:"high-power-very-low-voltage-electric-motor-for-electric-vehicle",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electric vehicles are often designed in the same way as their conventional counterparts based on the internal combustion engine, they are heavy machines for comfort and safety reasons, and increasingly powerful. Under these conditions, in order to simplify the motor electrical supply system by reducing the current levels, the voltage chosen for the battery is very high and can go up to 700 V. However, for many applications where the power is relatively low (< 30 kW per motor), it can be more beneficial to size the system at very low voltage (< 60 V). This approach allows to overcome many constraining safety requirements and also to use off-the-shelf components (motor controllers, connectors, etc.) that are more easily available on the market in this voltage range. There are also many regulatory provisions that may require to stay within this voltage limit. This article presents a variety of very low voltage motorisation solutions with a required power up to 100kW. They use two complementary approaches. The first is to implement an original permanent magnet synchronous machine technology with an optimised armature winding for low voltage operation. The second is based on power splitting where the electrical machine being designed to be driven by multiple controllers. Many examples of low-voltage motorised vehicles (sporty vehicle, tractor, re-motorised automobile, etc.) are illustrated in this article.",signatures:"Daniel Matt, Nadhem Boubaker, Mourad Aitakkache, Philippe Enrici, Jean-Jacques Huselstein and Thierry Martire",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77998",authors:[{id:"28315",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Matt",slug:"daniel-matt",fullName:"Daniel Matt"},{id:"334068",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadhem",surname:"Boubaker",slug:"nadhem-boubaker",fullName:"Nadhem Boubaker"},{id:"352431",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",surname:"Enrici",slug:"philippe-enrici",fullName:"Philippe Enrici"},{id:"355696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mourad",surname:"Aitakkache",slug:"mourad-aitakkache",fullName:"Mourad Aitakkache"},{id:"355697",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Jacques",surname:"Huselstein",slug:"jean-jacques-huselstein",fullName:"Jean-Jacques Huselstein"},{id:"355698",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",surname:"Martire",slug:"thierry-martire",fullName:"Thierry Martire"}],corrections:null},{id:"78531",title:"Improving Communication System for Vehicle-to-Everything Networks by Using 5G Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99394",slug:"improving-communication-system-for-vehicle-to-everything-networks-by-using-5g-technology",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Next-generations of wireless communication systems (5G scheme & beyond) are rapidly evolving in the contemporary life. These schemes could propose vital solutions for many existing challenges in various aspects of our lives, eventually to ensure stable communications. Such challenges are even greater when it comes to address ubiquitous coverage and steady interconnection performance in fast mobile vehicles (i.e., trains or airplanes) where certainly blind spots exist. As an early initiative, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has proposed a regulation for Long Term Evolution (LTE)-based Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) network in order to offer solid solutions for V2X interconnections. V2X term should comprise the following terminologies: vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-network (V2N) communications, vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P). Superior V2X communications have a promising potential to improve efficiency, road safety, security, the accessibility of infotainment services (any service of user-interface exists inside a vehicle). In this chapter, the aforementioned topics will be addressed. In addition, the chapter will open the door on investigating the role of wireless cooperative and automatic signal identification schemes in V2X networks, and shedding light on the machine learning techniques (i.e, Support Vector Machines (SVMs), Deep Neural Networks (DNNs)) when they meet with the next-generations of wireless networks.",signatures:"Tarik Adnan Almohamad, Muhammet Tahir Güneşer, Mohd Nazri Mahmud and Cihat Şeker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78531",authors:[{id:"240170",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammet Tahir",surname:"Güneşer",slug:"muhammet-tahir-guneser",fullName:"Muhammet Tahir Güneşer"},{id:"355903",title:"Dr.",name:"Cihat",surname:"Şeker",slug:"cihat-seker",fullName:"Cihat Şeker"},{id:"416628",title:"Dr.",name:"Tarik",surname:"Adnan Almohamad",slug:"tarik-adnan-almohamad",fullName:"Tarik Adnan Almohamad"},{id:"416689",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Nazri",surname:"Mahmud",slug:"mohd-nazri-mahmud",fullName:"Mohd Nazri Mahmud"}],corrections:null},{id:"77509",title:"Advanced Driving Assistance System for an Electric Vehicle Based on Deep Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98870",slug:"advanced-driving-assistance-system-for-an-electric-vehicle-based-on-deep-learning",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with a design of a new speed control method using artificial intelligence techniques applied to an autonomous electric vehicle. In this research, we develop an Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) which aims to enhance the driving manner and the safety, especially when traveling too fast. The proposed model is a complete end-to-end vehicle speed system controller that proceeds from a detected speed limit sign to the regulation of the motor’s speed. It recognizes the speed limit signs before extracting from them, a speed information that will be sent, as reference, to a NARMA-L2 based controller. The study is developped specially for electric vehicle using Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motor. The simulation results, implemented using Matlab-Simulink, show that the speed of the electric vehicle is controlled successfully with different speed references coming from the image processing unit.",signatures:"Abdelaziz Sahbani and Hela Mahersia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77509",authors:[{id:"22357",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",surname:"Sahbani",slug:"abdelaziz-sahbani",fullName:"Abdelaziz Sahbani"},{id:"420879",title:"Dr.",name:"Hela",surname:"Mahersia",slug:"hela-mahersia",fullName:"Hela Mahersia"}],corrections:null},{id:"78388",title:"Revisiting Olivine Phosphate and Blend Cathodes in Lithium Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99931",slug:"revisiting-olivine-phosphate-and-blend-cathodes-in-lithium-ion-batteries-for-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As electric vehicle market growing fast, lithium ion batteries demand is increasing rapidly. Sufficient battery materials supplies including cathode, anode, electrolyte, additives, et al. are required accordingly. Although layered cathode is welcome in high energy density batteries, it is challenging to balance the high energy density and safety beside cost. As consequence, olivine phosphate cathode is coming to the stage center again along with battery technology development. It is important and necessary to revisit the olivine phosphate cathode to understand and support the development of electric vehicles utilized lithium ion batteries. In addition, blend cathode is a good strategy to tailor and balance cathode property and performance. In this chapter, blend cathode using olivine phosphate cathode will be discussed as well as olivine phosphate cathode.",signatures:"Yujing Bi and Deyu Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78388",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78388",authors:[{id:"353922",title:"Dr.",name:"Yujing",surname:"BI",slug:"yujing-bi",fullName:"Yujing BI"},{id:"427192",title:"Prof.",name:"Deyu",surname:"Wang",slug:"deyu-wang",fullName:"Deyu Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"77569",title:"Design, Simulation and Analysis of the Propulsion and Control System for an Electric Vehicle",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98873",slug:"design-simulation-and-analysis-of-the-propulsion-and-control-system-for-an-electric-vehicle",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The problems of global warming, a decrease of the available natural resources and many other problems in the world that happen recently become the major cause for increasing the demand for a new type of vehicle. That vehicle can be an environmental friend and so that a new generation of vehicles has been invented and tried to solve and avoid many problems. In this chapter, the proposed system is called the Multi-Converter/Multi-Machine system (MCMMS) which consists of two Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM) that drive the two rear wheels of Pure Electric Vehicle (PEV). The SynRM speed and torque are controlled by using three different strategies of the PID controller. The PSO algorithm has been used as an optimization technique to find the optimal PID parameter to enhance the drive system performance of the PEV. In this system, the space vector pulse width modulation inverter for voltage source (VS-SVPWMI) has been employed to convert the DC battery voltage to three-phase AC voltage that feeds the SynRM motor in the PEV. The linear speed of the vehicle is controlled by an Electronic Differential Controller (EDC) which gives the reference speed for each driving wheel which depends on the driver reference speed and the steering angle. The specified driving route topology with three different road cases has been applied to acting and show the resistive forces that affected on the PEV during its moving on the road. In addition, to test the efficiency and stability of the PEV on the roads. Hence, this chapter has a full design, simulation and several comparison results for the propulsion electric vehicle system and it has tested implemented in the Matlab/Simulink environment version R2020a.",signatures:"Muhammet Tahir Guneser, Mohammed Ayad Alkhafaji and Cihat Seker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77569",authors:[{id:"240170",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammet Tahir",surname:"Güneşer",slug:"muhammet-tahir-guneser",fullName:"Muhammet Tahir Güneşer"},{id:"355903",title:"Dr.",name:"Cihat",surname:"Şeker",slug:"cihat-seker",fullName:"Cihat Şeker"},{id:"355902",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammed Ayad",surname:"Alkhafaji",slug:"mohammed-ayad-alkhafaji",fullName:"Mohammed Ayad Alkhafaji"}],corrections:null},{id:"77241",title:"Powerful Multilevel Simulation Tool for HiL Analysis of Urban Electric Vehicle’s Propulsion Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98532",slug:"powerful-multilevel-simulation-tool-for-hil-analysis-of-urban-electric-vehicle-s-propulsion-systems",totalDownloads:103,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The general focus of the proposed chapter is to describe a complex yet transparent solution for advanced simulation analysis of urban electric vehicles propulsion unit. As general rule, precise and realistic results are obtained only when performing real-time simulations, engaging dedicated software for such applications. Hence, simulation of an electric vehicle as a complete solution can become rather difficult. The authors targeted advanced analysis of the propulsion unit, including the motor, the battery, the power converter, and its control. These are designed using multilevel models in Matlab/Simulink, referring to different complexity levels of each assembly. Another feature of the models is their organization, based on Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR), this easing the process of inter-connecting models correctly. Nevertheless, the mechanical, aerodynamical and road profile details are included using Amesim Software. All the simulations are performed on a real-time target, using a National Instruments PXIe embedded controller. The latter runs NI VeriStand software, allowing real-time communication between Amesim and Simulink offering in the same time possibility to read/write analog/digital IOs for external communication. This feature in fact is used when passing from modeling to Hardware in the Loop (HIL) analysis, replacing the simulated assembly with the actual one.",signatures:"Raul Octavian Nemeș, Mircea Ruba, Sorina Maria Ciornei and Raluca Maria Raia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77241",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77241",authors:[{id:"190371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mircea",surname:"Ruba",slug:"mircea-ruba",fullName:"Mircea Ruba"},{id:"352834",title:"Mr.",name:"Raul Octavian",surname:"Nemeș",slug:"raul-octavian-nemes",fullName:"Raul Octavian Nemeș"},{id:"352835",title:"Ms.",name:"Sorina Maria",surname:"Ciornei",slug:"sorina-maria-ciornei",fullName:"Sorina Maria Ciornei"},{id:"352836",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Raluca Maria",surname:"Raia",slug:"raluca-maria-raia",fullName:"Raluca Maria Raia"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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Studies about camel diseases reported lower prevalence of mastitis before the twentieth century. The reason for not prioritizing camel mastitis was that higher contents of lactoferrin are recognized as antibacterial. However, later studies identified various aspects of mastitis. The studies on the microbial involvement find
The animals in older age are more prone to mammary gland infection due to dilated teats, previous repeated exposure to infection, and lower immune response [6]. The animals in old age are at double the risk with mastitis than animals of younger age. On the other hand, some of the studies did not find age as a risk factor for mastitis. The unhygienic conditions at farms along with other risk factors may result in infection to animals irrespective of age. Lactating animals are more prone to Staphylococcal infection because at lactation state spread of contagious pathogen increases if hygienic measures are not adopted. The periparturition period is most susceptible to disease because of lower immune response during this period. Some of the studies report higher prevalence of disease in late lactation with reasons of lower immune response [7]. Early lactation was also found susceptible in some of the studies with reasons of higher milk production which is positively correlated with spread of mastitis. Ticks work to spread the pathogen from one animal to other. They create a suitable environment to aid microbial pathogenesis. Most of the studies have reported higher prevalence of mastitis in cases where ticks were infecting.
\nThe higher parity was found more susceptible to infection. This was justifiable with carryover of infection from one parity to the next. Some of the researchers did not find the correlation of mastitis with parity number [8].
Biofilm-producing strains in subclinical and clinical mastitis are also one the rise. These are sessile microbial-derived community of cells that get attached to substrate or to the each other whereby they are embedded in self-produced extracellular polymeric substance of diverse constituents like DNA, protein, carbohydrate and so on [15]. Identification of these strains from
Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) cases have been reported by Centers for Disease Control (CDCs) in the USA to be as high as 240,000 [17], while Europe observed 386 outbreaks in 2014 (Anonymous, 2015). The outbreaks are characterized with diarrhea and violent vomiting soon after ingesting SFP food. Analysis realized the involvement of enterotoxins and super antigens; some of those were classical enterotoxins like SEA-SEE and others were newly identified [18]. The necessitation of identification of
Not only had the raw but processed milk also reflected 10.4% of
Economic damages that are outcomes of clinical and subclinical mastitis are entitled as reduced milk yield, spoiled milk, lower milk quality, unstable taste, reduced milk processing, lower shelf life, and decreased yield of milk products. The ancillary economic burden includes treatment costs, spread of disease, culling, veterinarian fee, and labor costs. For staphylococci, losses to dairy in the Dutch dairy system were noted to be €293 per cow clinical mastitis. Dairy cattle per cow clinical cases were anchored to estimated €277 for the first three month’s post-calving and €168 onward to the end of lactation. In US dairy circumstances, the estimated economic damages in dollars are estimated to be $1.8 billion/9 million dairy cows on an annual basis, exclusive of antibiotic residual in human diet, costs used to control milk’s nutritive quality, and degradation of milk.
\nThe susceptibility of
Penicillin and cephalosporin group of antibiotics are found to be generally resistant against
The increased resistance has been noted against all kinds of antimicrobials and no introduction of any new drugs has invited the use of newer drug combinations. Some of the drugs from the aminoglycoside group are although effective but reportedly linked to ototoxic and nephrotoxic effects due to their continued use. The drug combination requires antibiotics to target at different sites. Penicillin group in conjunction with aminoglycoside was reported as potent, effective, and safe. Combination of cephalosporin (cefaroxil) and penicillin (amoxicillin) showed synergistic effects against 80% of resistant isolates. Within the drug class, for example, β-lactam with ß-lactam combinations, efficient results were presented as well [28], and in vivo trials have also proved their effectiveness. Aminoglycosides are potent drugs that create fissures in the outer portion of bacterial cell wall by binding with 30S ribosomal subunit, thus misreading mRNA. Penicillin in combination with chloramphenicol has been reported synergistic in some of the studies while antagonistic results have also been reported. Antagonism reported in some studies claim penicillin to activate while chloramphenicol to deactivate murein hydrolase that in its function is responsible for lysis of bacteria. The general concept describes bactericidal and bacteriostatic to be antagonistic which is now true in other studies [29]. This trend might be because of diversification of genetic variation in modern pathogens.
\nPlants have various antimicrobial peptides like c-thionin and thionin Thi 2.1 tested against intracellular
The development of resistance demands some alternative ways to combat
The recent few years have presented nanoparticles (NPs) which have emerged as a cost-effective potential antibacterial against various pathogens. Nanoparticles (NPs) are small particles of 1–100 mm size and work by disruption of cell membrane, simultaneous activation of multiple mechanisms, and action as antibiotic carriers. They break physical barriers made of biofilms to reach bacterial cells embedded inside whereby antibiotics cannot reach alone. Oxidative stress, non-oxidative stress, and metal-ion release mechanisms are used by Ag, Mg, NO, ZnO, CuO, Cu2O, Fe2O3, FeO, and many others to kill bacteria. Multiple drug-resistant
Phages are alternative sources where no other therapeutic action against pathogens is workable. The staphylococcal species may effectively be lysed with phage K. Moreover, phage K can be used prophylactically against intra-mammary infections endorsed by
Cytokines are proteins with a definitive role in cell signaling. Some of the recombinant cytokines of bovine origin like IL-2, IFn-c, and TNF-alpha stimulate both kinds of immunity (innate and acquired) in mammary glands. However, their effect in combination with antibiotic therapy is additive against mastitis [37]. Beta-lactoglobulin protein is normally present in mammal’s whey while lactoferrin is present in milk, bronchial mucus, saliva, and tears. Both molecules have proven activity against
Mechanisms of persistence of
Controlling
Several studies have shown that different soluble and cytotoxic factors are involved which increase the
There is growing evidence that
In this new era, mastitis has been one of the imperative diseases in dairy cows, despite tremendous advances in improving overall udder health. Epidemiological studies have showed a lot of variations in biological cure rates (from 0 to 80%) following antibiotic treatment, but these do not show the significant loss of antibiotic activity of the major classes. Repeated infections often lead to the formation of biofilms in bacteria. In the case of microorganisms, biofilm formation is caused by subsequent physiological and significant genetic changes resulting in loss of sensitivity to antibiotics, thus leading to development of resistance to antibiotics of different classes. Ahmad and Muhammad [56] conducted a study on the preparation and evaluation of
Recently, Raza [47] evaluated the role of a bacterin toxoid prepared from a strong biofilm-producing
Authors declare no conflict of interest
Water is one of the natural resources and comes as a free gift like air. However, it is a basic ingredient of any living beings. According to the Atharva Veda, a life is believed to be first evolved and nourished in water. The
The current generation wants smartness in every aspect of life. Hence, the concept of smart city has approached. In a smart city, the following factors are very vital such as smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. Among them the more vital issue is the supply of clean and sufficient water. A substantial increase in population in cities is the main problem of their water stress because the cities are usually designed for a particular population, but in most cases the actual masses dwelling there are many times that of the designed value, whereas the resources remain the same. Therefore, all problems started with it including water too. With the explosion of human population, it is becoming very difficult for providing usable quality of water even with values. Therefore, many parts of the world are facing high to extreme water stresses. This stress is due to scarcity of underground water, mismanagement of existing water bodies, increase in river water pollution by allowing industrial and urban pollutants to flow into rivers, lack of water recycling, no clever usage, and wastage of water.
This is the common scene in most of the cities in the world. In addition to this, the water bodies are drying out. With this rate, many cities of India would come to day zero condition like Cape Town in South Africa. Therefore, there is a need of smart water management system.
Water is such a recurring type reserve that can be reused after proper treatment. However, water scarcity occurs due to mismanagement and overuse of the available resource. Therefore, it is often remarked that water can be better conserved by using it judiciously. In that manner, the irrigation sector needs revolution in water management as this sector needs the maximum share of water.
Most part of earth is covered by water bodies like oceans and seas. However, the water of these water bodies cannot be directly utilized in our daily needs like as drinking water and other purposes. Therefore, there is a persistent deficiency of water both for residential use and industrial use.
Rainwater harvesting is an expertise for collection and efficient storage of rainwater from different basement areas like rooftops of residential buildings, ground surface, rock catchments, etc. These techniques are very vast. They can be very artless techniques such as collection and storage using readily available, cheap utensils. They also can be some very intricate techniques such as building check dams. These methods are mostly used for water conservation. Usually, there are two basic ways of rainwater harvesting like surface runoff harvesting and rooftop rainwater harvesting. In the first method, rainwater flowing along the surface is collected in an underground tank. In the second method, rainwater is collected from roof catchment and stored in a tank. The harvested rainwater is the purest form of water source. So, it can be consumed directly. Rainwater collected from ground catchments may be poor in quality with respect to the bacteriological quality, whereas if rainwater is collected from well-maintained rooftop catchment systems and storage tanks, then that water is suitable for drinking. If water is collected from a dirty surface, then the collected water can be made utilizable by using a proper filtering system. Thereafter, it can be used for some the following purposes like drinking, culinary, bathing, laundry, toiletry purpose, watering gardens, compost making, birdbaths, recharging ponds and pools, washing vehicles, fire extinguishing, etc.
Rainwater collection technologies have a very long history. It is as early as Roman civilization. It means the period is earlier than 2000 BC. Rainwater harvesting in Asia has also been carried out since the ninth century. In rural areas of South and Southeast Asia, rainwater is collected and conserved by constructing brush dams. In Israel, rainwater is collected and used both for farming and residential use. In Istanbul of the country Turkey, the world’s largest tank is created for collection of rainwater. In India also rainwater collection and utilization are practiced since long back using conventional methods. Thailand is a pioneer in applying innovation in rainwater collection since many hundred centuries back. However, recently the most recognized utilization of the innovation is done in Africa [1].
Increase volume of water bodies
Many parts of the world have two kinds of seasons like rainy season and dry season. During dry season, there is very little or no rain. Due to this, the water bodies like pond, rivers, etc. are dried. By using these techniques, the water bodies can be recharged, and their volume can be increased [2].
Lessen flood and soil erosion
By storing rainwater, it reduces the surface runoff. This reduces the surface erosion. By capturing rainwater in reservoirs, the flood problem in large rainfalls is also diminished.
Prevent overuse of underground water
As population of a locality increases, its demand for water increases too. To meet this, underground water is used. Due to this reason, the level of underground water is decreasing rapidly. By using rainwater, the demand on groundwater is reduced.
Save money
Pumping up of underground water is very costly than that of rainwater harvest. So, the use of rainwater saves money.
Rainwater harvesting systems consist of three basic components such as the catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance system as shown in Figure 1 [3, 4, 5].
Catchment area
Components of a rainwater harvesting system (source:
It is the area that gets rainwater directly. From this rainwater is collected and stored. According to the types of the catchment area, it is again of two types as follows.
It is the most elementary method. Here, rooftop of any building serves as the catchment. Rainwater is accumulated using easily available and cheap pots kept at the side of the roof. The quantity and feature of this collected water are influenced by the location, size, and material of the roof. A bamboo-made roof gives the lowest quality of water. So, instead of using a bamboo-made roof, it must be made up with other materials like galvanized corrugated iron, aluminum, cement, etc. The catchments need to be cleaned frequently to wash from dirt, leaves, and birdie stools. Figure 2 shows a rooftop-type catchment area.
Rooftop catchment system (source: CTCN site).
Here, rainwater is collected from the common surface of any ground or land (Figure 3). This method of water collection is also very intricate. This method can be improved by improving surface runoff capacity. That is done using a number of techniques. Runoff capacity can be enhanced by using drain pipes and storing the collected runoff water. Ground catchment area is larger than that of the rooftop area. Therefore, techniques involved with this catchment have more chance for improvement. In this method, water is kept either in small storage reservoirs or in small dams. This technique is usually applied for irrigation purpose. To increase the amount of rainwater runoff within ground catchment areas, it is required to clear or alter foliage cover, increase the slope of ground by artificial means, and reduce soil permeability by proper means [6].
Ground catchment system (source: CTCN site).
The steeper the slopes of catchment areas, the quicker is the runoff and hence faster collection of rainwater. But, high-speed runoff may cause soil erosion. Therefore, its rate needs to be controlled using plastic sheets, asphalt, or tiles along with slope. This method further reduces evaporative losses as well. Since more than 60 years ago, flat sheets of galvanized iron with timber frames have been used in the State of Victoria, Australia, to prevent soil corrosion of ground catchment area. Conservation bench terraces may also be constructed along a slope perpendicular to runoff flow for this purpose. The soil of the catchment area must be made hard and smooth. Surplus runoff water is directed to a lower collector and stored there. In addition to this, soil treatment using sodium helps in reducing soil permeability [7].
b. Collection and storage equipment
The collected rainwater from the catchment area is required to be collected and stored in proper collection equipment. It can be a storage tank or a rainfall water container. Storage tanks for this purpose may be placed either above or under the ground. The tank needs to be fitted with tight cover for preventing algal growth and the breeding of mosquitos. Measure must be taken to reduce contamination of the stored water. Storage tanks can be cylinder-shaped containers made up of ferro-cement or mortar. The former container has a slightly armor-plated concrete base. On this base the cylindrical tank is mounted. Again two layers of light wire are enfolded over this tank surface as shown in Figure 4. This serves as a frame for the container. The latter type container is a large vessel made up of mortar. This vessel is also wounded with light wires (Figure 5). In some cases, the storage tanks are concrete tanks (Figure 6) or plastic jars (Figure 7). The storing capacity of rainwater is calculated considering different factors like the dry spell span, the volume of rainfall, and the consuming demand [8, 9].
Galvanized iron tank. (source:
Ferro-cement tanks.
Concrete tank (Source: Taanka Wikipedia). (source:
Plastic tanks (Source: Taanka Wikipedia).
c. Conveyance structures
These structures are the means to transfer the collected water from catchment surface to the storing vessels. This structure consists of a number of downpipes attached to the rooftop gutters (Figure 8). Water collected from the first rain may consist of dirt and debris. The conveyance structure is required to do the primary treatment to the collected rainwater for clearing those impurities. In one of the conveyance structures, water of first rain is directed to the storage vessels after carrying out the primary treatment in these pipes. This type of structure can check the quality of the water collection. It also has a provision of manual operation of the flap. In another method, the operation of the flap is automatic. Here, a funnel-shaped device is assimilated within the downpipe structure at a place. A gap is intentionally kept between the funnel structure and inner side-wall of the downpipe. Therefore, rainwater passing through funnel gets filtered, whereas the excess of rainwater is ejected out to the ground through the gaps. At the start of rain, a small quantity of rain passes to the storage tank due to the collection of dirt. After some time, this collected dirt is flushed away to the ground through the gaps. Then, funnel can send more volume of water through pipes to storage vessels as seen in Figure 9. Instead of metals, this system uses plastic, PVC, or other inert substance pipes to protect from acidic water [10, 11].
Conveyance system (source: Newsletter and Technical Publications, UNEP).
First flush diversion (source:
To make the collected rainwater usable, it must be contamination free, safe, and inexpensive. For that a properly constructed water filter must be used. The following filtering system may be used such as sand gravel filter, charcoal filter, and PVC—pipe filter and sponge filter.
Sand filter.
Charcoal filter.
PVC pipe filter.
Sponge filter (source: Rooftop RWH by M. Patil).
Domestic rainwater harvesting
In this kind of harvesting, the catchment area is mainly rooftop area (Figure 14). Here, it is required to check two factors such as rainwater storage capacity and harvesting capacity. Harvesting capacity can be improved by using the right kind of catchment area. The storage capacity can be enhanced by considering appropriate storage vessels. Nowadays, commercial domestic rainwater harvesting systems are available. These systems are categorized according to the design and capacity of their storage vessels. The designs of these systems are very trustworthy to be used. These water systems are usually used as secondary water source in addition to the main water supply. This harvesting system is generally used for watering kitchen gardens. This water can also be used for other residential usage like bathing, cleaning, washing, etc. This system is simple to install and easy to manage [14, 15, 16].
2. Rock and other surface catchment systems
Domestic rainwater harvesting (source: David English Water Pumps).
Catchment areas made up of rock are the ideal type catchment systems for rainwater. These structures are constructed at a site where users have easy access. The sites should not be a place where there is a possibility of soil erosion and negative impact to vegetation. In this case, the collected rainwater is usually stored in barrages or large open containers. These are suitable for use in school, industries, colony with a large number of residential buildings, etc. In this case water treatment is required before using it. In this case, underground tanks are also applied [17] (Figure 15).
3. Subsurface dam and sand dam
(a) Picture of a rock catchment system and (b) layout of other surface catchment systems (source: UNEP and Rainwater Harvesting Handbook).
In sand dams, runoff rainwater is stored in various types of small-scale reservoirs [18]. The reservoir structures are like mud, stone, or concrete dams or a simple mined pond. Another form of such structure uses hand-dug wells and some horizontal inflow pipes for water mining. These are called subsurface dams (Figure 16). Here, water comes with its purest form and hence does not need further treatment before consuming. These types of structures are very effective functionally in arid and semiarid areas where rainfall varies from 200 to 750 mm. The harvesting water is mainly utilized for domestic, cattle, and kitchen gardening. Picture of a sand dam is shown in Figure 17.
4. Earth dams like ponds and pans
Layout of a subsurface dam (source:
Picture of a sand dam (source:
Earth or mud dams are capable of storing rainwater up to 10,000 m3 [18]. The depth of these ponds is around 5 m. These are generally built using human power or using the help of domestic animals. In some cases, farm tractor, crawler, or bulldozer are also used. Such dams are categorized into three types such as Charco dams, Hillside dams, and Valley dams. Charco dams are constructed in an almost flat surface. Hillside dams are designed for sloppy hilly surface. Valley dams are constructed in a valley surface where water is available only seasonally. Ponds are the man-made-type small earth dams as seen in Figure 18. These are constructed by digging the earth surface and placing that mined soil on the lower side of the pond to increase the storage volume. Pans are nature-made ground dip curves where rainwater can be gathered in rainy seasons. This is the earliest form of rainwater harvesting system created by nature (Figure 19).
5. Recharge structures
Picture of a pond.
Picture of a pan (source:
Surface water has a natural tendency to recharge into the underground water reserve [19]. Nowadays, this recharging is done using artificial recharge structures utilizing suitable civil construction techniques. It augments cover-up of the depleted aquifer. It helps in water conservation for future usages. This recharging should not dilute the quality of the existing groundwater. The main purpose of artificial recharge of groundwater is to restore the quantity of the underground water due to excessive use.
Commonly used recharging methods are as follows:
Recharging bore wells
Recharge pits
Soak away or recharge shafts
Recharging dug well
Recharge trench
Percolation tank.
Some of these structures are shown in below figures (Figure 20).
6. Conservation tillage
Some of the recharging structures (source: Rooftop RWH by M. Patil).
This method is one conventional form of farming [19]. In this method, farm surface is plowed with tractor or bullock plow to loosen soil before cultivation. If certain modification is made to the conventional form of tillage as shown in the following figure, then it becomes conservation tillage. This type of modern tillage is capable of conservation of water, soil, and other energy resources by decreasing the tillage intensity and preservation of crop residue. This tillage rarely disturbs the soil surface used for harvesting of crops. A comparative view of both the tillage is shown in Figure 21.
7. Planting pits
Comparison of conventional tillage and conservation tillage (source: Climate Tech Wiki).
Planting pits is also an innovative rainfall harvesting method (Figures 22 and 23) [19]. It holds rainwater in its pits and stops rainwater from runoff. This helps in enhancing infiltration of groundwater into underground. It also helps in decreasing soil erosion. Here, the distance between two nearby pits is kept at 50–100 cm. The depth of each pit is usually kept between 5 and 15 cm. This technique is suitable for soil with low permeability like clay. This method can be applied to semiarid areas for crops like sorghum, maize, sweet potato, bananas, etc. The major main benefits of this method are that it is easy to construct, use, and take care. However, large effort is required for construction of pits as they cannot be mechanized.
8. Katumani pit
Planting pits (Source: Malesu et al. [
Digging hole for planting pit (source:
Katumani pits are small crescent-shaped pits side covered by native grasses and legumes [18, 19]. Each pit is 15 cm deep and 20 cm wide with downslope ridges of about 30 cm height as shown in Figure 24. Pitting can be extended down the slope as per the requirement and convenience. Although it is a laborious method, it conserves soil and can meet water demand of high water demanding crops like banana and sugar canes.
9. Semicircular bunds
Katumani pits in three plans such as a, b, and c (source: Namirembe et al. [
This is one of the micro-catchment types of rainwater harvesting system [18, 19]. These consist of semicircle-shaped stone banks. The landfills of the bunds are prepared in such stagewise orientation manner in rows (Figure 25). If ever rainwater overflow occurs, then it will flow from one row to the next down row. Labor cost, slope of land, availability, and size of stone are some major factors of this technique.
10. Negarim micro-catchments
Semicircular bunds for fruit plant (source: Snobar et al. [
The word “Negarim” is derived from the Hebrew word “Neger” that means “runoff.” Negarim micro-catchment is one of the most recent innovations of rainwater harvesting systems [18, 19, 22]. These look like diamond-shaped bowls (Figure 26). The boundary surfaces of these structures are bordered by small earth bunds. Each structure has a groundwater penetration pit in its lowermost corner. Runoff rainwater within each structure is accumulated and stored in their respective pits. These techniques are basically used for growing plants or scrubs. This technique is suitable for small-scale vegetation in dry areas. It helps in soil conservation too. These are easy to construct and structurally are well-ordered and accurate. The first ever structure of such micro-catchment is reported from southern Tunisia. However, it is widely used in the Negev desert of Israel.
11. Tied contour ridges
Negarim micro-catchment structure with plantation (source:
Contour ridges are small-sized clay ridges with height of around 20 cm [18, 19]. It has an upslope channel that helps in flowing runoff water from catchment strip between the ridges (Figure 27). Cultivation is not done in the catchment strip. Therefore, the purpose of this structure more satisfies controlling soil erosion rather than rainwater collection. The main purpose of this system is to collect local area runoff rainwater and then keep them in land surface near to the plant roots. These structures are not meant for controlling overflow. Hence, the system is needed to be designed with a cutoff drain. This technique is practiced widely in African countries like Kenya, Niger, and Zimbabwe. Its maintenance cost is less if it is well designed.
12. Contour stone bunds
Tied contour ridges (source: Muslim Science).
These are constructed in sloppy area where rainfall varies between 200 and 750 mm [18, 19]. These structures are made of stones (Figure 28). So, they are suitable on stony land. These structures can slow down runoff and protect soil from filtering out. They also help in enhancing the infiltration of runoff water. These structures can be constructed both with and without spillways. Structures without spillways are simple in construction and easy to maintain. These types of structures are suitable for small-scale irrigation in farming lands.
13. Fanya juu terraces
Contour stone bunds in Kenya (source: Yazar et al. [
In Kiswahili language, in Swahili, the word “juu” means “up” and the word “Fanya juu” means “throw the soil up.” Fanya juu terraces are constructed by digging soil and pitching it upslope, making a mound for water collection [18]. The mound creates a runoff barrier, whereas the trench holds the runoff rainwater. The ridges are usually alleviated with fodder grasses. In these techniques crops like banana, citrus, and guava can be cultivated. This technique is suitable for areas getting low annual rainfall areas and with less than 20% slopes, hilly area, and deep soils with massive fear of soil erosion. Farmers basically use this technique to increase their crop. These terraces are perfect for cultivation of fodder grasses. In addition to it, these structures support in preventing soil erosion. Cultivation becomes easier as these terraces are made of multilevel structures. Again, yield from the crops enhanced when fertilizer is applied to it. The structure is shown in Figure 29.
14. Fanya chini
Bean being grown on Fanya juu terraces in Lanzi (source: Michael Rastall,
The structure of Fanya chini is the same as Fanya juu. However unlike Fanya juu, here soil is put on the lower side of the contour trench [19]. These are used to conserve soil as well as divert rainwater. Here, the ridges are used to grow feedstuff. These are easier in development than that of Fanya juu tarraces. But here in this case multilevel structure is not possible. The maximum limit of slope in these structures is around 35%.
15. Earth bunds with external catchment
Bunds or teras are some small barriers made to prevent runoff water from entering a catchment with crops (Figure 30) [18]. Bunds reduce speed of runoff rainwater on and increase recharging of the groundwater. Several different structures of bunds are found like rectangular type, contour type, and base type. In rectangular bund structure, three sides are bounded, and the fourth one is open to collect water. In contour-type bunds, row structure is erected along a hillside. The size of base bund structure is with length of 50–300 m and width of 20–100 m. Here, bunds are constructed not to collect water. Their main purpose is to balance the hydration of soil and also recharging under groundwater. The structure without a spillway may break the sides of the bunds. Therefore, spillways are also added to these structures. This helps in improving the efficiency and lowering the maintenance costs.
16. Contour ridges with external catchment
Earth bunds with external catchment (source:
This technology is the same contour ridging technique but uses an external catchment (Figure 31) [17]. It includes an extra spillway structure that can handle the excess runoff water flow (Figure 32). These structures are constructed with mud or pebbles.
Macro-catchment water harvesting system (source: Imbira [
Spillway construction for bunds with external catchments (Pacey and Cullis, 1991).
Indian administrations are taking many new projects to locate and to revive the age-old conventional water harvesting methods [26, 27]. These approaches are found to be very easy, reliable, and eco-friendly. The existence of many such ancient structures has been proven by archaeological findings. In past found evidences, it is verified that the Indus Valley civilization is pioneer in it. Indians have built many more such innovative and effective structures of rainwater harvesting. Although these techniques are not very popular today, some of them are still in use. Some of such structures are discussed as follows.
Some more such structures are
The Rain Centre is a chain of organization mainly to spread literacy on rainwater harvesting and utilization. Nowadays, it is becoming very popular among urban Indians. It educates the significance of rain in Indian life. It also tells about how rain influences the customs, traditions, economy, and politics of different parts of India. This center also cites the various distinct examples of harvesting rainwater and people working in this field. The rain centers are mainly built to educate people to harvest rainwater in a proper manner. For this purpose, the local NGOs and dedicated citizens of an area are selected and first educated. The first rain center in India is established in Chennai in 2002.
Now, it has a chain of 11 model rainwater harvesting projects in Delhi. The Rain Centre builds rainwater harvesting systems for individual or organization with their demands. The fourth rain center is established in Burdwan, West Bengal of India. Now, offices of rain centers are operating in West Bengal, Gujarat, Chennai, and Meerut of India [5].
As per the previous all discussion, rainwater harvesting is very beneficial. Some of the remarkable advantages in implementation of this technique are marked as follows. Rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate. Highly skilled manpower is not required for implementation of this technology. Local people can be easily trained to construct and maintain rainwater harvesting plants. Construction materials are also usually locally available. It is one of the most convenient system as it provides water at the point of consumption. Also, work force in this technique are locally available. The workforces are mostly the consumer themselves only. Running costs are almost negligible [3].
This technology usually has a very limited number of limitations as follows. Rainwater harvesting technologies are mainly depending on rainfall which is uncertain in nature. This technology uses a “bottom-up” approach instead of the conventional “top-down” approach. Therefore, awareness about this technology is less. For a particular area, the type and size of rainwater harvesting are highly reliant upon the quantity and quality of its rainfall. Catchment area and type of catchment surface are also very vital. These structures cannot be used as the primary source of water supply because rainfall is unequally distributed in different seasons in a year. Rainwater harvesting systems also depend on consumer demands and their affordable budget. The architecture of this system needs to design the structure considering every aspect from physical, environmental, to monetary point of view [26].
The building and maintenance cost of rainwater harvesting systems varies considering its catchment area, conveyance, and storing vessels. Place to place also, the cost varies. Like in a study, it is found that the cost of these structures in Asia varies from $0.17 to $0.37 per cubic meter of water storage. This cost is quite less than that of Africa. However, rainwater harvesting systems are less costly than the use of bore wells and tube wells if the initial investment does not include the cost of roofing materials. The lasting period of these structures is also more than 10 years. They need less maintenance and operation cost [27].
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Motyka",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"},{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski"}]},{id:"46882",doi:"10.5772/58534",title:"Additive Manufacturing of Al Alloys and Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs)",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-al-alloys-and-aluminium-matrix-composites-amcs-",totalDownloads:10089,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:117,abstract:null,book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",fullTitle:"Light Metal Alloys Applications"},signatures:"Diego Manfredi, Flaviana Calignano, Manickavasagam Krishnan,\nRiccardo Canali, Elisa Paola Ambrosio, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues,\nMatteo Pavese and Paolo Fino",authors:[{id:"16648",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Manfredi",slug:"diego-manfredi",fullName:"Diego Manfredi"},{id:"18978",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavese",slug:"matteo-pavese",fullName:"Matteo Pavese"},{id:"19187",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Biamino",slug:"sara-biamino",fullName:"Sara Biamino"},{id:"19188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"elisa-ambrosio",fullName:"Elisa Ambrosio"},{id:"19189",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Fino",slug:"paolo-fino",fullName:"Paolo Fino"},{id:"170227",title:"Dr.",name:"Flaviana",middleName:null,surname:"Calignano",slug:"flaviana-calignano",fullName:"Flaviana Calignano"},{id:"170228",title:"MSc.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Canali",slug:"riccardo-canali",fullName:"Riccardo Canali"},{id:"170229",title:"MSc.",name:"Manickavasagam",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"manickavasagam-krishnan",fullName:"Manickavasagam Krishnan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2538,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16114,totalCrossrefCites:178,totalDimensionsCites:384,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6825,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2314,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The stability of coordination complex is an important factor that decides the stability and reactivity of a metal complex. The stability of metal complex is governed by two different aspects such as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilities. The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5208,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81781",title:"Experimental Investigation of Mechanical and Wear Behaviour of AZ91 Magnesium Hybrid Composite Materials",slug:"experimental-investigation-of-mechanical-and-wear-behaviour-of-az91-magnesium-hybrid-composite-mater",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104703",abstract:"In recent years, emerging requisite for advanced materials gave a path for hybrid composites. Magnesium metal matrix composites are gaining more interest and a better substitute for heavier steel, aluminium, titanium and even for plastic based materials. At present the AZ91 magnesium alloy is most widely in transport vehicle industry. However, the application of AZ91 magnesium alloys are limited due to several negative effects such as poor creep resistance, wear resistance and inferior corrosion resistance when it is exposed to atmospheric conditions. Future to improve the strength, better corrosion resistance and wear resistance are important for their extend applications of exciting alloy AZ91. The main objective of the present investigation is to achieve above mentioned properties. The AZ91 alloy was reinforced with titanium dioxide/0.5% graphene and with titanium/0.5% graphene in varying weight percentage (1%, 2%) by stir casting technique. These combinations are called hybrid metal matrix composite of materials such as AZ91 + 1%Ti +0.5% Gr (A1), AZ91 + 2%Ti +0.5% Gr (A2), AZ91 + 1%TiO2 + 0.5% Gr (B1) and AZ91 + 2%TiO2 + 0.5% Gr (B2) alloys. The following experiments such as tensile, compressive, hardness and wear tests have been carried out to find all the properties from the newly developed hybrid metal matrix composite of materials and compared with AZ91. Wear tests have been carried out by pin on disc tribometer for both dry and wet sliding condition under 20 N,40 N,60 N, and 80 N. The results indicated the AZ91–1%TiO2–0.5%Gr having high wear resistance compared to other three combinations as well as AZ91. The present experimental investigations of hybrid metal matrix composite of materials have wear resistance in the order of B1 > A2 > A1 > B2 > AZ91 and AZ91–2%TiO2–0.5% Gr showed good tensile strength and hardness. The enhanced these properties were discussed in this paper.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Palanivel Mathiazhagan and S. Jayabharathy"},{id:"81709",title:"New-Age Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) Alloy for High Temperature-High Strength Applications: A Review",slug:"new-age-al-cu-mn-zr-acmz-alloy-for-high-temperature-high-strength-applications-a-review",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104533",abstract:"One of the prime challenges with age hardened Al-Cu alloys is the strength degradation at high temperatures (above ∼250°C) due to the coarsening of strengthening θ′ precipitates and associated metastable θ′ → stable θ phase transformation. A recent discovery suggests that micro-alloying with Manganese (Mn) and Zirconium (Zr) can synergistically restrict θ′ precipitate coarsening, thereby rendering an excellent high temperature stability for Al-Cu-Mn-Zr (ACMZ) alloys. The θ′ precipitates are stabilized primarily from the reduction of interfacial energy by preferential solute segregation (Mn & Zr) at θ′ precipitate/α-Al matrix interfaces. The Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys thereby exhibit excellent high temperature hardness and tensile properties (yield and ultimate tensile strength) in addition to superior fatigue life and creep resistance. This newly developed Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys also showed excellent hot tearing resistance compared to the conventional cast Al-Cu alloys so much so that it meets the industrial standards as well. These alloys also have promising manufacturing possibility by additive route. Overall, Al-Cu-Mn-Zr alloys offer great potential for the automotive industry because of their unprecedented high temperature performance which should enable engineers to build light weight passenger vehicles leading to a safer and greener environment.",book:{id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys - Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg"},signatures:"Samarendra Roy and Shibayan Roy"},{id:"81342",title:"Magnesium Borates: The Relationship between the Characteristics, Properties, and Novel Technologies",slug:"magnesium-borates-the-relationship-between-the-characteristics-properties-and-novel-technologies",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104487",abstract:"Magnesium borates are compounds including mainly magnesium (Mg), boron (B) oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H). Magnesium borates are traditionally famous for their strong thermoluminescence, mechanical and thermal features due to their high elasticity coefficient, corrosion, and heat resistance. Because of being beneficial, especially in the applications such as thermoluminescence and X-ray screening, and ease of synthesis, magnesium borates are produced by using different experimental procedures exhibiting different characteristics. Main traditional synthesis techniques can be classified as liquid state and solid-state synthesis methods. With the help of novelties in synthesis technology, new techniques are beginning to emerge in magnesium borate syntheses such as hybrid synthesis, ultrasound, microwave, and capping agent addition. The strengthened characteristics of the compounds would lead to new applications such as stomach cancer chemotherapy and wastewater treatment. In this chapter, it is aimed to make a comparison between the characteristics of synthesized magnesium borates and their properties. In addition, new types of magnesium borates obtained by various synthetic techniques are expected to be useful for industrial applications such as space technology, radiation dosimetry, X-ray screening, ion batteries, and hydrocarbon reaction catalysis. Such classification of properties and the synthesis techniques will enlighten the relationship between the characteristics and novel applications of magnesium borates.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Fatma Tugce Senberber Dumanli"},{id:"81125",title:"Magnesium Alloys for Sustainable Weight-Saving Approach: A Brief Market Overview, New Trends, and Perspectives",slug:"magnesium-alloys-for-sustainable-weight-saving-approach-a-brief-market-overview-new-trends-and-persp",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102777",abstract:"In the transportation sector, weight-saving strategies emphasize greenhouse gas reductions by improving fuel efficiency. Furthermore, it is a fact that consumers appreciate less-consuming vehicles. Lighter battery electric vehicles (BEV) mean higher travel distance covered with the same battery charge. Still, the fuel range of BEV is today not a secondary issue for choosing an e-vehicle as a unique family vehicle. Weight-saving strategies are also a priority for hydrogen gas-fuelled vehicles. Until hydrogen fuel for the transport sector is not produced at affordable costs in fully renewable pathways, increased fuel efficiency is critical for the product appeal. Magnesium is an environmentally compatible and biodegradable material with a similar density to structural plastics. On the contrary, plastics are responsible for nonbiodegradable microplastics in deep-marine environments when not recycled or correctly treated at their end of life. Due to the costly usage of lightweight materials, priority is given to activities to reduce costs by developing new materials and increasing the affordability of manufacturing costs. In this chapter, magnesium is presented from much perspective point of view: we will base it on comprehension of the past, considering the present, but with some ambition to propel hearts over today’s obstacles.",book:{id:"11208",title:"Current Trends in Magnesium (Mg) Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11208.jpg"},signatures:"Fabrizio D’Errico, Martin Tauber and Michael Just"},{id:"80372",title:"Application of the Aluminothermic Reduction Process for Magnesium Removal in Aluminum Scrap",slug:"application-of-the-aluminothermic-reduction-process-for-magnesium-removal-in-aluminum-scrap",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102407",abstract:"Magnesium is considered as impurity element in aluminum recycled for obtaining some cast alloys, with low concentration Mg, because at 0.1 wt% results in fragility, fractures, and defects. This research applies the aluminothermic reduction process to decrease magnesium content in aluminum cans by adding ZnO, to produce reaction products solid-state (Al2O3, MgO and MgAl2O4), and there is a possibility to obtain Al-Zn alloy. The conditions of the process were, melting temperature (750, 800, 850°C) and stirring velocity (200, 250, 300 rpm). The Mg and Zn contents were measured for chemical analysis and scrap generated from every process was analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The results show how the aluminothermic reduction decreased Mg from 0.93 to 0.06 wt% and increased zinc up to 5.52wt % in the molten metal. Therefore, this process can be used to remove Mg and can also prevent the generation of polluting gases into the environment.",book:{id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys - Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg"},signatures:"Rocio Maricela Ochoa Palacios, Citlaly Castillo Rodriguez, Jesus Torres Torres, Perla Janet Resendiz Hernandez and Alfredo Flores Valdes"},{id:"80920",title:"Drilling of 7075 Aluminum Alloys",slug:"drilling-of-7075-aluminum-alloys",totalDownloads:51,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102864",abstract:"Aluminum alloy (Al 7075) has been increasingly used as structural components in automotive and aerospace industry due to their low density, high strength and good corrosion resistance compared with other metals. To manufacture and assemble the components, drilling operations are often conducted. However, Al 7075 is ductile and soft, which causes difficulty in drilling, resulting in material adhesion, high tool wear, short tool life and poor hole quality. As a result of the poor hole quality, there is a high percentage of part rejection, which can increase the manufacturing time and cost. This chapter discusses challenges and techniques to drill Al 7075 in terms of the cutting parameters and drilling conditions to prolong the tool life and achieve good hole quality. Drilling experiments on Al 7075-T6 (heat-treated) were conducted using carbide cutting tools at various cutting parameters. Reducing cutting speed and increasing feed rate resulted in reducing tool wear, whereas a reduction in surface roughness, hence improved machined surface finish, was found when both cutting speed and feed rate were reduced in drilling Al 7075-T6. Producing good hole quality is vital during the drilling process to ensure a good assembly and product service performance.",book:{id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys - Design and Development of Innovative Alloys, Manufacturing Processes and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg"},signatures:"Aishah Najiah Dahnel, Mohamad Noor Ikhwan Naiman, Muhammad Azim Mirza Mohd Farid, Ahmad Faris Abdul Rahman and Nur Munirah Meera Mydin"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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