Composition of PCR mix
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tElectromagnetic imaging is an emerging biomedical imaging modality, which when matured, might present an effective supplement to current imaging technologies for non-invasive assessment of functional and pathological conditions of tissues. This book aims to provide a state-of-art for the most relevant advancements in the development of electromagnetic sensing and imaging for non-invasive detection, by covering all aspects related to the design, modeling, and experimentation. The authors are welcome to submit original research and review articles reporting recent advances in the application of electromagnetic waves technologies in industry and bioengineering.
\r\n\r\n\tThe scope of this book will be the collection of new and/or review results exploring the use of electromagnetic waves for industrial and biomedical applications with particular focus on inclusion detection and medical treatment as well as a diagnostic tool for disease detection. Potential topics include but are not limited to the following: Electromagnetic sensing and imaging for industry applications, Electromagnetic sensing and imaging for biomedical applications, Microwave sensing and imaging , Non-invasive electromagnetic diagnostic tools, Usage of electromagnetic waves for probing organs and advanced MRI techniques, Theoretical modeling of electromagnetic wave propagation, Application of electromagnetic waves in advanced MRI techniques, RF sensors and coils, Biomaterials for wearable sensors, In vitro and in vivo testing.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-582-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-581-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-583-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e57ef4b5bada0d966637cd303d76278f",bookSignature:"Distinguished Prof. Lulu Wang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9878.jpg",keywords:"Electromagnetic Sensing, Imaging, Biomedical Applications, Electromagnetic Measurements, Conductivity, Electromagnetic Induction Tomography, Electric Impedance Imaging, Microwave Imaging, Biomaterials, RF Coils, Electromagnetic Scattering Problems, Integral Equations",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 3rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"With an M.E. (Hons.) and a Ph.D. degree from the Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, Dr. Wang is the first author of over 60 peer-reviewed publications, received multiple national and international awards from various professional societies and organizations she is a member of (ASME, IEEE, AAAS, PSNZ, and IPENZ ).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/257388/images/system/257388.jpg",biography:"Lulu Wang is a Full Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Shenzhen Technology University in China. She received the M.E. (First class Hons.) and Ph.D. degrees from the Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, in 2009 and 2013, respectively. From 2013 to 2015, she was a Research Fellow with the Institute of Biomedical Technologies, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. In 2015, Dr. Wang became an Associate Professor of biomedical engineering with the Hefei University of Technology. In 2019, she became a Full Professor of biomedical engineering with the College of Health Science and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Technology University. Her research interests include medical devices, electromagnetic sensing and imaging, and computational mechanics. Over the past five years, Dr. Wang is the first author of 60 peer-reviewed publications, 2 ASME books, 7 book chapters, and 12 innovation patents. She has edited three books and two special issues of international journals. Dr. Wang is a member of ASME, IEEE, AAAS, PSNZ, and IPENZ. She has been an active scientific reviewer for numerous journals and international conferences. She received multiple National and International Awards from various professional societies and organizations.",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"259492",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Gojević-Zrnić",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259492/images/7469_n.png",email:"sara.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49354",title:"Effect of Imidacloprid on Bacterial Soil Isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis",doi:"10.5772/61503",slug:"effect-of-imidacloprid-on-bacterial-soil-isolate-bacillus-weihenstephanensis",body:'The insecticides have been used over the past 40 years for protection of crops against insects. Most insecticides cause pollution of air, soil and water due to application by spraying in large quantities. The use of pesticides has become an integral part of the modern agricultural system. It is estimated that 4 million tons of pesticides have been applied to world crops annually for pest control [1]. The residual pesticides may become the contamination sources and pose a serious threat to the soil and groundwater environment through the rainfall infiltration process. Some pesticides act on biochemical processes that are common to many animals, plants and microorganisms, and thus are a greater hazard to non-target organisms. Imidacloprid is a systemic chloronicotinyl insecticide and is used for soils, seeds and foliar applications for the control of sucking insects, including rice hoppers, aphids, thrips, whiteflies, termites, turf insects, soil insects and some beetles [2]. The active chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect’s nervous system [3]. Imidacloprid is a Category II acute toxicant, and thus, is classified as a General Use Pesticide. Imidacloprid is hazardous to the insects, especially honeybees, and also to fish, birds and algae.
In humans it is linked to reproductive and mutagenic effects and is considered neurotoxic. Reproductive toxicity testing also showed that imidacloprid is an agonist to the acetylcholine receptors that regulates the endocrine system in the brain [4]. The over accumulation of this pesticide in environment requires higher awareness about this pesticide. Imidacloprid is reported to have different impacts on soil bacterial community and also cluster analyzing clearly showed that imidacloprid has significant negative impact on soil bacterial diversity in highly polluted farms and soil microbial balance has been gradually upset by the application of more pesticide.
Oxidative stress is a misbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and detoxification, resulting in increased levels of enzyme activity. ROS are of increasing interest in environmental toxicity as they may provide insights to toxicity mechanisms and may identify novel biomarkers. ROS can modify and inactivate proteins in a variety of ways. It is commonly recognized that Escherichia coli is the most suitable model system for the investigation of the cell response to oxidative stress. When organisms or cells are exposed to low levels of certain harmful physical or chemical agents, the organisms acquire an induced tolerance against the adverse effects. The effect of hydrogen peroxide on the activity of Sox RS and Oxy R regulon enzymes in different strains of Escherichia coli has been studied. Exposure to acetamiprid in Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas and Bacillus subtilis resulted in synthesis of stress enzymes [5].
The term “genomics” was first used by Winkler to describe the haploid set of chromosomes and the genes associated with them. Genomics includes many scientific disciplines [6]. Toxicogenomics is the subdiscipline combining the fields of genomics and toxicology [7]. It has also been described as the study of genes and their products important in adaptive responses to chemical-derived exposures. The toxicogenomic approach provides opportunities to improve understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying toxic responses to environmental contaminants [8]. Therefore, the present investigation was carried out to study the effect of 10–7 to 10–3 molar concentrations of imidacloprid for a period of 24, 48, 72 and 96 h on three antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase in Bacillus weihenstephanensis. Further, the genes for the three enzymes involved in the antioxidant defense process in soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis were sequenced and identified.
The experiment was carried out during the summer of 2011 at the laboratory of Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karanatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka. The soil samples were collected from cotton fields around Hubli city. These fields did not have a history of imidacloprid applications for the past 5 years. Soil was collected at a depth of 15 cm and samples were passed through a sieve of 2 mm to remove stones and plant debris. One gram of soil was mixed with 9 ml of sterilized water and mixed by shaking for even distribution of soil in water. And 1 ml of solution from this test tube was then added to another test tube with 9 ml sterilized water. This gives a dilution of 10–2 and in the same pattern dilutions up to 10–7 were prepared. And 100 µl of solution from 10–6 dilution was spread on nutrient plates containing different concentration (125, 250, 500 and 1,000 ppm) of imidacloprid. These plates were incubated at 37°C for 48 h. After incubation, bacterial colonies were counted using colony counter and results were expressed as the number of bacteria in 1 g of soil [9].
Imidacloprid was applied to experimental field at recommended rates and at 1.5× rates on two plots on same field in replicates, the plot without application served as control. Soil samples were taken on 7, 14, 21 and 28th day of application. About 1 g of sample was suspended in 9 ml of sterilized water. Serial dilutions were done as mentioned earlier. Then, 100 µl of solution from 10–6 dilution was spread-plated on nutrient agar plates. These plates were incubated at 37°C for 48 h. After incubation, colonies of bacteria were counted using colony counter and results were expressed as the number of bacteria in per gram of soil [9].
The stock solution of one molar imidacloprid was prepared and further diluted to give 10–3, 10–4, 10–5, 10–6 and 10–7 molar. Soil isolate was isolated and identified from soil as described in our previous publication. The bacterium was maintained at 4°C on nutrient agar and sub-cultured every fortnight. The medium used for toxicity testing was an optimized medium (dextrose – 0.65 g /l: yeast extract – 1.05 g /l; K HPO –0.30 g/l; NaCl – 0.25 g /l) [9].
Pre-inoculum was prepared by inoculating a loop full of bacteria from the overnight incubated nutrient agar slant cultures on a 100 ml sterilized optimized growth medium and incubated for 24 h at 37°C under static conditions [9].
Imidacloprid tolerant colonies isolated and identified morphological, cultural and biochemical characters and 16S rDNA identification as described in our previous publication. The pure culture was grown on nutrient agar medium [10].
Five millilitres of the pre-inoculum was inoculated to 250 ml Erlenmeyer’s flask containing 100 ml of sterilized optimized growth medium amended with different molar concentrations of imidacloprid. The flasks were incubated at 37°C for 96 h under shaking conditions at 120 rpm on a rotary shaker. At regular intervals, sample was taken out from each flask aseptically for analysis [10].
The cells were centrifuged at 8,000 rpm for 3 min and the pellet was dissolved in 0.2 ml of lysis buffer (50 mM tris-cl and 10 mM lysozyme). The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 10 min and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. Supernatant was used as the source of enzyme.
The activity of SOD, catalase and peroxidase were assayed using the supernatant from centrifugation (15,000 rpm) for 12 min at 4°C homogenate by standard methods [11–12].
The genomic DNA was isolated from soil isolate SP-03 by CTAB method. The DNA stock samples were quantified using Nanodrop spectrophotometer at 260 and 280 nm using the convention that one absorbance unit at 260 nm wavelength equals 50 µg DNA per ml. Quality and purity of DNA were checked by agarose gel electrophoresis. The DNA was used further for PCR. And 250 μl of the isolated genomic DNA was taken and treated with 1 μl of RNase enzyme and incubated at 37°C in a water bath for 30 min and further incubated at 60°C for 10 min in the water bath and used as a template with PCR mix [13].
\n\t\t\t\tContents\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tVolume (µl)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
10× Taq Assay buffer MgCl2\n\t\t\t\t Template Primers (Forward + Reverse) (10 pM) dNTP mix Taq DNA polymerase HPLC grade water | \n\t\t\t1.0 0.5 2.0 1 + 1 0.4 0.3 3.8 | \n\t\t
Composition of PCR mix
\n\t\t\t\tSL. No.\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAntioxidant enzyme\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPrimer \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\tSuperoxide dismutase (SOD) | \n\t\t\tForward- 5-atagcttggcagagcgacat Reverse- 5-tatacgcctcattgcagcag | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tCatalase (CAT) | \n\t\t\tForward -5-ggaaaccactggcaggtaaa Reverse- 5-ctgccgatctcacttcatca | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tPeroxidase (POX) | \n\t\t\tForward- 5-tcacaaaccgttcatttcca Reverse- 5-ccagagctgcttcgtaatcc | \n\t\t
Primers of stress enzymes
\n\t\t\t\tSteps\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTemperature (°C)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTime\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCycles\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Initial denaturation | \n\t\t\t95 | \n\t\t\t2 min | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t
Final denaturation | \n\t\t\t94 | \n\t\t\t30 sec | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t
Annealing* | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 30 sec | \n\t\t|
Extension | \n\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t90 sec | \n\t\t|
Final extension | \n\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t10 min | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t
PCR Conditions
*mentioned in text
The annealing temperatures for catalase peroxidase and for superoxide dismutase were 46°C.
Statistic significance between the control and the experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by post-hoc Dunnett’s test (P ≤ 0.05) [9].
The result of the laboratory study is given in Table 1. Application of imidacloprid at 125, 250, 500 and 1,000 ppm resulted in 9.80, 08.40, 6.73 and 5.60 × 10–6 colonies (P < 0.05) when compared to 11.05 × 10–6 in control plates (Graph 1).
In the field studies, imidacloprid was applied in both recommended and ×1.5 rates and the results are given in Graph 2. The results showed that imidacloprid-treated fields at recommended and ×1.5 rates showed significant (P < 0.05) decline in bacterial counts at different post-application intervals when compared to control, but the colony count increased with the time.
Effect of imidacloprid on bacterial populations in the soil under laboratory conditions
The bacterial strain SP-03 isolated from soil was a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, facultatively anaerobic, grows at 5–40°C, at pH 6–7; produce subterminal ellipsoidal endospores; white-colored colonies; positive for catalase activity, Voges-Proskauer, starch hydrolysis and oxidase; and negative for methyl red, gelatin liquefaction, production of indole and citrate. The 16S rDNA gene of SP-03 was isolated and sequenced. This 16S rDNA gene sequence was then compared with previously published 16S rDNA gene sequences and based on matches the strain was classified as a member of the genus Bacillus. The sequence of strain SP-03 displayed the highest identity (100%) with the 16S rDNA gene of Bacillus weihenstephanensis KBAB4 (GenBank Accession Number: HG 486214.1) (Figure 1, 2). The Bacillus weihenstephanensis showed highest growth at 22°C and at pH of 7.0.
On exposure of Bacillus weihenstephanensis to various molar concentrations (10–3 to 10–7) of imidacloprid for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, there was a significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes studied. There was a significant increase (P ≤ 0.05) in the activity of superoxide dismutase (Graph 3), catalase (Graph 4) and peroxidase (Graph 5) in all the treated groups. The antioxidant enzyme activity increased with an increase in the concentration of imidacloprid.
In the present gene sequencing study, different markers of 400, 600, 1,000 and 1,200 bp (Figure) 6) were run along with our test sample. The superoxide dismutase gene was corresponding to 624 bp. This gene was isolated, eluted and sent for sequencing. The sequence was received and this was subjected to NCBI BLAST which revealed that the nucleotide sequence was of 624 letters bearing accession number YP_001648011.1 that showed 100% query coverage with Bacillus weihenstephanensis Fe/MnSOD (sod A) (Figure 3). The gene for catalase corresponded band at 800 bp. The isolated gene was eluted and sent for sequencing. The received sequence, subjected to NCBI BLAST revealed that the nucleotide sequence was of 800 letters bearing accession number YP_001647388.1 and showed 100% query coverage with Bacillus weihenstephanensis Hydroxyperoxidase HP(II) (Kat E) (Figure 4). The gene for peroxidase that corresponded to 480 bp was isolated, eluted and sent for sequence analysis (Table 2, 3). The sequence report was received, which was subjected to NCBI BLAST which revealed the nucleotide sequence of 480 letters bearing accession number YP_001644822.1 and showed 100% query coverage with glutathione peroxidase of Bacillus weihenstephanensis (Figure 5).
Results obtained in laboratory studies showed significant (P < 0.05) decrease in bacterial count when compared to that of control. A gradual decrease in bacterial count is observed with increase in concentration of imidacloprid, with minimal count reported at 1,000 ppm. The results obtained were similar to results reported earlier in a study involving five other pesticides [14].
The results indicate toxic effect of imidacloprid on bacterial populations. Results obtained from bacterial enumeration of imidacloprid-treated soils at recommended rate showed significant (P < 0.05) decrease in bacterial numbers, proving negative effect of imidacloprid on bacteria. This negative effect reduced after 14 days of treatment. The negative effect of imidacloprid was vanished by 28th day of application, indicated by bacterial count, which was almost similar to pre-treatment count. Similar results were reported in a study involving imidacloprid and five other pesticides; in the study the toxic effect was vanished by 21st day of imidacloprid application [14].
The different studies have shown that the impact of pesticides application microorganisms present in soil is variable. The impact depends on interaction between microorganisms and active substances and formulation. It also depends on surfacing of specific group of microorganisms [15]. The microorganisms can develop the ability to use an applied pesticide as a source of energy and growth [16].
The initial decrease in bacterial count is expected as pesticides are known to affect the microbial populations by controlling the survival and reproduction of individual species. Initial reduction in microbial count is also reported in studies involving different pesticides such as endosulphan, cypermirithin thiodan, etc. [12, 17–18], and herbicides like glyphosate, atrazine, simazin and alachlor [19–22] when applied at recommended rates. It has been observed in many studies that pesticides stimulated the mineralization rate of organic carbon in comparison with control samples [23–24]. Microorganisms susceptible to toxic effects of pesticides are removed from the population of soil microflora. The pesticides kill the bacterial cells by penetration and disturbing the cell metabolism.
Effect of imidacloprid on bacterial populations in soil under field conditions
The reduction in the number of sensitive microorganisms and increase in resistant microorganisms lead to reduced soil microbial biodiversity. The increase in bacterial numbers after 14th day may be due to the ability of bacteria to degrade toxic compounds like pesticides [25]. The growth of pesticide-resistant microorganisms may compensate the loss of pesticide-sensitive microorganisms in the population [24]. The addition of fungicide leads to increase in bacterial populations due to no competition with fungi or antagonistic inhibition by fungi [26]. Bacteria are known to become resistant to toxic compound with production of specific degrading enzymes [27].
The application of 1.5× of imidacloprid showed significant (P < 0.05) decrease in bacterial number. The results were similar to recommended rates, but bacterial numbers increased slowly. These results were comparable to the results reported in similar studies with pesticides like metoalchlor, atrazine, dimethoate and endosulfan [20, 22, 28–29].
Bacillus weihenstephanensis
The bacterial strain SP-03 isolated from soil was a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, facultatively anaerobic, grows at 5–40°C, at pH 6–7; produce subterminal ellipsoidal endospores ; white-colored colonies; positive for catalase activity, Voges-Proskauer, starch hydrolysis and oxidase; and negative for methyl red, gelatin liquefaction, production of indole and citrate. The 16S rDNA gene of SP-03 was isolated and sequenced. This 16S rDNA gene sequence was then compared with previously published 16S rDNA gene sequences and based on matches the strain was classified as a member of the genus Bacillus. The sequence of strain SP-03 displayed the highest identity (100%) with the 16S rDNA gene of Bacillus weihenstephanensis KBAB4 (GenBank Accession Number: HG 486214.1). The Bacillus weihenstephanensis showed highest growth at 22°C and at pH of 7.0.
Phylogenetic tree of Bacillus weihenstephanensis
Partial reduction of oxygen to water during microbial respiration gives rise to reactive oxygen intermediates, e.g. superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals. Microorganisms have developed efficient enzymatic and nonenzymatic mechanisms to eliminate these toxic and mutagenic reactive oxygen species. Superoxide is eliminated by dismutation to H2O2 catalyzed by superoxide dismutase and accumulation of H2O2 is prevented by the action of catalases and peroxidases [30].
Numerous pesticides such as paraquat, DDT, PCB, Arochlor, etc. have been used as model factors inducing oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro [31]. The tissue damage occurs due to conversion of pesticides to free radicals or superoxide radical during their metabolism. Organisms exposed to different concentrations of xenobiotics have the risk of carcinogenic effect, neurological actions and brain damage [32]. The organisms have developed some mechanisms to control the amount of hydroxyl and superoxide radicals generated to overcome the toxic effects of xenobiotics. Antioxidants quickly scavenge the hydroxyl and superoxide radicals generated. The antioxidants can be enzymatic or nonenzymatic which safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reactions before vital molecules are damaged. The antioxidant enzymes include catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase, glutathion-S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase [33].
Effect of imidacloprid on SOD activity in Bacillus weihenstephanensis
Significant increase in activity of SOD compared with the control may be due to the toxic effects of imidacloprid. ROS depends on the oxidative metabolism of xenobiotics or endogenous compounds. The antioxidant defense systems work by lowering the concentrations of xenobiotics rather than complete elimination. When the ROS generated exceeds the antioxidants’ capability of that cell, it results in oxidative stress [34].
The stress-mediated cytotoxicity results due to oxidative processes and loss of key antioxidant enzymes. Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and mammalian cells induce antioxidant proteins in response to oxidative stress [35]. It is suggested that an increase in SOD and CAT might be in response to increased oxidative stress or might be due to compensatory response to oxidative stress induced by this xenobiotic. Superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase are the enzymes that participate in the protection against reactive oxygen species.
Catalase is one of the most efficient antioxidants known so far. It is present in peroxisomes of nearly all aerobic cells and protects the cells from the toxic hydrogen peroxide effects by catalyzing its decomposition into molecular oxygen and water without the production of free radicals. In addition, catalase is known to act on toxic compounds by per oxidative reactions. It is demonstrated that acetamiprid-induced oxidative stress on Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas sp and Bacillus subtilis resulted in elevated superoxide dismutase and catalase activities to antagonize oxidative stress [5].
Effect of imidacloprid on catalase activity in Bacillus weihenstephanensis
The present study revealed that the catalase activity was significantly increased in all the groups with increase in the dose and durational exposure of imidacloprid to Bacillus weihenstephanensis. Similarly, it has been reported that induction of major antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, were observed after their exposure to a single oxygen generating system in Escherichia coli. It is suggested that response to low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide induces catalase in Escherichia coli during logarithmic growth [36].
Peroxidase is found among animals, plants and microorganisms, where they perform essential roles in the metabolism. To prevent the lethal effects of such metal-ion-catalyzed oxidation (MCO), bacterial cells have evolved protective mechanisms to neutralize the formation of toxic oxygen radicals. For instance, small molecule antioxidants, such as catalases and peroxidases, have been reported to play protective roles in the enteric bacteria in Pseudomonas sp. and in Bacteroides sp. [37].
The enzyme peroxidase is an important antioxidant enzyme, which plays a pivotal role in plant growth and development. The presence of phenol substances leads to enhanced activity of peroxidase (POD). The POD helps in providing resistance to stress and self-defense by increasing the rate of respiration under stress conditions [38].
Effect of imidacloprid on peroxidase activity in Bacillus weihenstephanensis
The present study revealed that the peroxidase activity in the treated groups increased significantly in higher dose (10–5, 10–4 and 10–3 M) of exposure and there was no significant increase observed in the lower dose (10–7 and 10–6 M) of imidacloprid in Bacillus weihenstephanensis. Similar results were reported in other organisms which suggest that a gradual increase of catalase or peroxidase production in aging cultures is not surprising since catalase and/or CP is one of the radical-scavenging enzymes in cells in response to oxidative stress [39]. On the other hand, several organisms produce two or more catalase peroxidase, whereby one enzyme was expressed at the end of exponential growth and during the stationary phase. This behavior was observed in Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas putida, Streptomyces coelicolor and Arcobacter nitrofigilis [40]. It is also reported that superoxide dismutase and peroxidase form the first line of defense against reactive oxygen species [41].
The significant increase in the antioxidant enzymes activity observed in the present study may be due to synthesis of these enzymes as a response to chemical stress induced by imidacloprid or due to inhibition of the membrane-bound enzymes by affecting the enzyme complex, oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity enzymes, induction of antioxidant proteins in response to oxidative stress [42].
The research in life sciences is affected significantly by the mapping of the genes and genomes of organisms. The related mapping technology is changing the current understanding of biological systems [43]. The application of life science areas of toxicology, genetics, molecular biology and environmental health to describe the response of organisms to environmental stimuli is called toxicogenomics. The toxicogenomics is developed in the past 15 years and will help in advancing the scientific basis of risk assessments for the environmental contaminants [44].
Gel image of stress enzymes amplicon
In the present study, the exposure of Bacillus weihenstephanensis to imidacloprid resulted in the expression of manganese containing superoxide dismutase (sod A) gene. MnSOD and FeSOD have an extremely broad phylogenetic distribution, being expressed in both prokaryotic (eubacterial and archaeal) and eukaryotic cells and are quite homologous [45]. Expression of sod A gene has also been reported for other bacterial species. A strain of Sulfolobus sulfataricus produced Fe-Mn SOD with half-life of 2 h at 100°C [46]. In a study, superoxide dismutase producing Bacillus sp. was isolated from Bulgarian thermal spring [47]. In another study, Thiobacillus denitrificans strain “RT” Fe-superoxide dismutase has been purified with a molecular weight of 43,000, and is composed of two identical subunits. Aerobically and anaerobically grown Thiobacillus denitrificans cells contain the same Fe-enzyme with similar levels of activity. Manometric sulfite oxidation measurements suggest for the enzyme a protective function of sulfite against the auto-oxidation initiated by superoxide free radicals [48]. Escherichia coli when grown under anaerobic conditions contained only Fe-SOD, but exposure to oxygen induced the synthesis of Mn-SOD and New-SOD [49].
Phylogenetic tree of SOD
SOD of B. subtilis is manganese associated as indicated by a high similarity of the putative amino acid sequence of B. subtilis SodA to those of Mn-Sod from B. caldotenax and B. stearothermophilus, and presence of four conserved metal-binding sites. This SOD was found in vegetative cells and in spores [50]. A new, thermostable superoxide dismutase (SOD) from Bacillus licheniformis M20, is isolated from Bulgarian mineral springs. It is reported that B. subtilis contains a cytosolic Mn-superoxide dismutase [51]. Xenobiotic degrading bacteria experience oxidative stress, both as directly from the pollutants themselves and from intermediates generated during biodegradation processes [52]. Depending on the type of oxidative stress, not only different amounts of proteins can be modified but also different species may appear. It was shown that the set of oxidized proteins depended on the method of induction of oxidative stress.
The present study reveals that the genome of catalase encoded in our Bacillus weihenstephanensis culture on exposure to imidacloprid was Kat E (HPII). HPII and catalase-2 monofunctional catalases of E. coli and B. subtilis, expressed in the stationary phase, have D-isomer prosthetic groups with six haem. Catalase from E. coli HPI R., Halobacterizlm halobitlm and facultative alkalophilic Bacillus species have bifunctional catalase-peroxidases [53–56]. Several organisms produce two or more catalase/peroxidases, whereby one enzyme was expressed at the end of exponential growth and during the stationary phase. This behavior was observed in Escherichia coli,\n\t\t\t\t\tPseudomonas putida, Streptomyces coelicolor and Arcobacter nitrofigilis [40]. It has been reported that various bacteria such as Citrobacter freundii, Edwardsiella tarda, Enterobaacter aaerogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia and Salmonella typhimurium exhibited patterns of catalase activity similar to that of HPI and HPII bands of Escherichia coli.
Phylogenetic tree of catalase
Bacterial monofunctional catalases of E. coli HPII [53] and B. subtilis catalase-2, both of which are expressed in the stationary phase, contain six haem D-isomer prosthetic groups in a hexameric structure of larger subunits. From the present study of exposure of Bacillus weihenstephanensis to imidacloprid, it can be concluded that the catalase enzyme can be encoded by the Kat E (HPII) gene.
The present sequence analysis of the peroxidase gene suggests that Bacillus weihenstephanensis subjected to imidacloprid expressed the glutathione peroxidase (Tpx) gene. The findings of study also support a thiol-dependent antioxidant activity for thiol peroxidase in Streptococcus parasanguis, which protects the organism from stress [57]. It is reported that the bacterial thiol peroxidases include a pair of cysteine residues and comprise part of the functional group for the peroxidase activity [58]. Escherichia coli thiol peroxidase is part of an oxidative stress defense system that uses reducing equivalents from thioredoxin (Trx1) and thioredoxin reductase to reduce alkyl hydroperoxides [59]. The specific mechanism(s) by which thiol peroxidase protects Streptococus\n\t\t\t\t\tparasanguis from the toxicant may be similar to those described for other thiol-specific antioxidants of Escherichia coli. The Mycobacterium sp. strain PYR-1 degrades polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, environmental pollutants. It was shown that inducible catalase-peroxidase of katG gene of this culture is involved in molecular mechanisms of degradation of these pollutants [60].
Phylogenetic tree of glutathione peroxidase
Present investigation was carried out to analyze the effect of imidacloprid on antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase in soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis, isolated after field studies on the effect of imidacloprid at recommended and 1.5× rates, Which showed that there was an increase in the activity of all the three antioxidant enzymes. The enzyme activity increased with an increase in the concentration of insecticide proving that the inhibitory effect is dose-dependent. Further, sequencing revealed that Fe/MnSOD (sod A), hydroxyperoxidase HP(II) (Kat E) and glutathione peroxidase genes were expressed in response to stress induced by imidacloprid treatment in Bacillus weihenstephanensis. The present investigation indicates that imidacloprid induces stress, which results in the expression of antioxidant enzymes in the soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis to protect the cellular components from oxidative damage. Study also reveals that the soil isolate Bacillus weihenstephanensis has developed the resistance to imdacloprid toxicity by synthesis of antioxidant enzymes. Further research can be performed to use it in the field for pollution monitoring and risk assessment due to imidacloprid contamination in soil, thereby exploring the possibility of using soil isolate imidacloprid-resistant Bacillus weihenstephanensis in the study of complex biological processes and to clean the fields with imdacloprid contamination.
Climate change is the disruption in the long-term seasonal weather patterns caused by global warming. How will long-term climate change affect businesses and the financial system, and how should impacts be managed over the course of the twenty-first century? These are some of the questions that have gained unprecedented attention in public discourse as global warming projections for the coming decades get worse.
\nClimate change exacerbates existing risks and creates new risks for natural and human systems [1]. The World Economic Forum’s Global Risk Report specifies that three of the five topmost likely global risks are related to climate change. Specifically, it ranks failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation as the one most likely to impact on global risk [2]. The adverse effects of climate change are pervasive and systemic, affecting all asset classes, industries, and economies, and in turn, the financial system.
\nThe bankruptcy of California’s largest electric utility, Pacific Gas and Electric (PG and E), dubbed the first climate change bankruptcy [3], demonstrates the possible disruptions of production and consumption, and reduction in future asset values from impacts of climate change [4]. Notably, Mark Carney, the former governor of the Bank of England, has linked climate-related risks to financial stability. He noted that the combination of the weight of scientific evidence and the dynamics of the financial system suggest that in the fullness of time, climate change will threaten financial stability and longer-term prosperity [5].
\nFrom the foregoing that climate change has developed to one of the greatest global challenges, it is imperative to examine the climate change science and uncertainties associated with climate change, while identifying and explaining climate-related risks, the financial aspect of climate change, credit implications of climate change, integration of climate-related risks into credit risk assessment, and climate risk management.
\nThe main aim of the chapter is to enumerate the channels through which climate change can cause credit risks and affect the stability of the financial system. Approaches to incorporate climate change into corporate risk management are also discussed. The chapter employs a systematic literature review approach to explore the relationship between the three notions of climate-related risks, credit risk, and financial stability toward achieving its objectives.
\nThe rest of the chapter is divided into seven parts. Section 2 discusses the science and uncertainties involved in climate change. While various forms of climate-related risks are presented in Section 3, Section 4 enumerates their credit risk implications. How to integrate climate-related risks into credit risk assessment is the focus of Section 5. Sections 6 and 7 explore how climate change can negatively impact financial stability and how organizations could manage climate-related risks, respectively. Section 8 presents the findings and makes suggestions for further research.
\nSince Arrhenius [6] established and quantified the contribution of carbon dioxide (CO2) to climate change, the consensus among publishing scientists, international agencies, and leading scientific societies in climate science is that the increase in the earth’s temperature we are currently witnessing is anthropogenic, that is man-made [1, 7, 8] caused by the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. The most prevalent of these GHGs is carbon dioxide (CO2), associated with burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, forestry, and other land uses, but other gases—such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)—are also contributing [9].
\nThe decay rate of GHG in the atmosphere alters as the average temperature level increases. There has been a striking rise in temperatures over the last decade as the level of CO2 in the atmosphere has skyrocketed. Global temperatures have been far higher in the past decade compared with their 100-year average, in tandem with an unprecedented rise in CO2 in the atmosphere as shown in Figure 1.
\nAtmospheric carbon dioxide and Earth’s surface temperature (1880–2019) [10]. Yearly temperature compared to the twentieth-century average (red and blue bars) from 1880 to 2019, based on the data from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Centers for Environmental Information (NOAA NCEI), plus atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (gray line): 1880–1958 from Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science (IAC), 1959–2019 from NOAA Earth System Research Laboratories. Original graph by Dr. Howard diamond NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, and adapted by NOAA Climate.gov.
Scientific advances that allow long-dated horizons suggest that irrevocable temperature increases have already been locked in (see Figure 2). Moreover, the current trends are on track to lead to systemic disruptions to ecosystems, societies, and economies [12] and may be catastrophic and irreversible for human populations, according to more than 11,000 scientists [13].
\nClimate risk scenarios: Projections of carbon emissions and global warming (emissions of CO2 in gigatons per year) [11].
While the future is always unknown, we speak of risk if the probability distribution of possible future outcomes is known and of uncertainty if it is not. Human-induced climate change, its impacts, mitigation, and adaptation are fraught with uncertainty. The future pathways for GHG emissions and temperatures set out by climate scientists embody both risk and uncertainty.
\nThe uncertainties involved in climate change preclude prediction of the precise nature, timing, frequency, intensity, and location of climate change impacts. These uncertainties also depend on a multitude of demographic and socioeconomic factors, such as technology, values and preferences, and policies, which are also deeply uncertain [14]. Added to these demographic and socioeconomic sources of uncertainty is scientific uncertainty which arises from our incomplete knowledge of the climate system [15].
\nDue to these interacting sources of uncertainty, studies of climate change and its impacts rarely yield consensus on the distribution of exposure, vulnerability, or possible outcomes. Thus, in contrast to risk situations where the probability distributions are known, there are no well-defined probability density functions (which are among the most common tools for characterizing uncertainty) for climate change [16].
\nClimate uncertainty leads to imprecision in estimating climate and economic outcomes. This implies not only imperfect understanding of the ability of mitigation pathways to deliver temperature outcomes but also suggests that there is a significant possibility that the tails of the distribution are considerably fatter than currently estimated. Fat-tailed climate events could not only significantly damage growth and welfare, but economic mechanisms may also be ineffective in responding appropriately. This could result in structural economic changes, and banks may find themselves facing abrupt adjustment which could be severely financially disruptive [17].
\nClimate-related risks are mainly divided into two basic sets: physical risks from more frequent and severe meteorological and hydrological events, and transition risks from the process of decarbonization that is aimed at mitigating global warming.
\nThe physical climate-related risks represent the economic costs and financial losses due to increasing frequency and severity of climate-related weather events (e.g., storms, floods, or heat waves) and the effects of long-term changes in climate patterns (e.g., ocean acidification, rising sea levels, or changes in precipitation), resulting from continuously growing GHG emissions [18, 19].
\nPhysical risks can affect both the supply and demand sides of the economy. On the supply side, natural disasters can disrupt business activity and trade and destroy infrastructure, diverting capital from technology and innovation to reconstruction and replacement [20]. It affects output levels and output growth by impacting labor productivity, speeding up the depreciation of capital stock, increasing cost of repair and replacement, and reducing funds allocated to research and innovation [21]. On the demand side, increasing expenditures for repair and replacement will, ceteris paribus, reduce investment on and consumption demand for other goods. Business investment could also be dampened by uncertainty about future demand and growth prospects and substantial price impacts [22]. Households confronted with more frequent extreme weather events might increase precautionary saving, which would depress private consumption in general [21].
\nTransition risks arise as a result of the shift to a low-carbon economy (such as changes in public regulation, technology, or in households’ or investors’ preferences) triggering changes in demand-related factors. This adjustment process is likely to have a significant impact on the economy and, in particular, on some financial asset values [11].
\nTransition risks are characterized by a radical uncertainty on the nature of the low-carbon pathway (i.e., the pathway for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which restructures the economy) and a more usual uncertainty on the methods for implementing this pathway in economic and social terms [23].
\nOver the last few years, the topic of stranded assets, caused by risk factors like physical climate change impacts, as well as societal and regulatory responses to climate change, has loomed larger [24]. Stranded assets are defined as assets that have suffered from unanticipated or premature write-downs, devaluations, or conversion to liabilities [25]. With transition toward a lower-carbon economy, carbon assets are expected to suffer from unanticipated or premature write-offs, downward revaluations, or get converted to liabilities [26].
\nEstimation by McGlade and Ekins [27] shows that approximately one third of the current oil reserves, half the gas reserves, and almost 90% of the coal reserves would become stranded assets if global temperature target of the Paris Agreement is attained. While an early and smooth transition results in much fewer risks, too rapid an adjustment of asset prices due to a late transition might eventually bring about a climate Minsky moment—a sudden drop in assets prices [21].
\nPhysical risk and transition risks are correlated, because the more transition policies enter into force, the fewer physical risks are likely to materialize. On the other hand, the harder the economy is hit by physical risks, the stronger the demand will be for effective transition measures [21].
\nMaterializing physical and potentially also transition risks will drive up liability risks [21]. Liability risks materialize when organizations are directly or indirectly adjudged legally responsible for climate-related losses and must financially compensate other parties [28, 29]. Organizations are also prone to increasing liability risk if they do not manage transition risks well as enshrined in the polluter pays principle. Organizations whose activities are negatively affected by unmitigated climate change could seek compensation from those who had caused or allowed the damage and thereby at least partially internalize the negative externalities [21].
\nCredit risk is the risk of a financial loss resulting from a borrower’s failure to repay part of or all the interests and the principal of a loan. Climate-related risks affect all three dimensions of credit risk—a borrower’s capacity to generate enough income to service and repay its debt as well as the capital and collateral that back the loan [30].
\nFor financial institutions, credit risks can materialize directly, through their exposures to corporations, households, and countries that experience climate shocks, or indirectly, through the effects of climate change on the wider economy and feedback effects within the financial system. Exposures manifest themselves through increased default risk of loan portfolios or lower values of assets [31].
\nCorporate credit portfolios are also at risk, as highlighted by the PG&E’s bankruptcy. Increase in extreme and severe weather events could have second-round effects on the price of corporate bonds, and the rise in debt defaults would induce climate-related financial instability which would adversely affect credit expansion and magnify the negative impact of climate change on financial activity [19].
\nTransition risks materialize on the asset side of financial institutions, which could incur losses on exposure to firms with business models not built around the economics of low-carbon emissions [31]. Climate change mitigation policies to reduce GHG emissions can create costs for carbon-intensive sectors and companies, thereby influencing the credit quality of GHG-intensive borrowers and also credit risks to banks [32]. Ongoing developments in the international climate policy arena show there will be more rigorous future global climate policy regime. Noncompliance with mitigation policies might become reputational risks and therefore credit risks. Hence, both compliance and noncompliance with the mitigation policies will have implications for loan providers, equity investors, and project financiers [32].
\nLiterature establishing the link between climate change and credit risk is growing. Kleimeier and Viehs [33] show a significant and negative relation between CO2 emission levels and the cost of bank loans. Delis, De Greif, and Ongena [34] observe that banks appeared to start pricing climate policy risk after the Paris Climate Agreement, while Ginglinger and Quentin [35] find that greater climate risk leads to lower leverage in the post-2015 period.
\nCapasso et al. [36] investigated the relationship between exposure to climate change and firm credit risk and found that the exposure to climate risks affects the creditworthiness of loans and bonds issued by corporates. Similarly, Delis et al. [34] demonstrated that climate policy risk is priced in syndicated loans, especially in sectors related to fossil fuel. Jung et al. [37] provided evidence of the existence of a positive association between the cost of debt and carbon-related risks for firms. Rajhi and Albuquerque [38] submitted that natural disasters are predictive of higher nonperforming loans and higher likelihood of default in developing countries. Battiston et al. [39] found that while direct exposures to the fossil fuel sector are small, the combined exposures to climate policy-relevant sectors are large, heterogeneous, and amplified by large indirect exposures via financial counterparties. Ilhan et al. [40] showed for a sample of S&P 500 companies that higher emissions increase downside risk—the potential losses that may occur if a particular investment position is taken. Monasterolo and De Angelis [41] indicated that investors require higher risk premia for carbon-intensive industries’ equity.
\nThere are two approaches for integrating climate-related risks into credit risk assessments. On the one hand, there is a risk approach whose objective is to integrate a new source of risk in order to accurately measure credit risk and assumes that a risk differential between green and brown assets exists; on the other hand, there is an economic policy approach, aiming to foster the transition to a low-carbon economy by shifting credit from brown to green activities [42].
\nUnder the risk approach, the risk-weight factor is recalibrated for all categories of assets to identify the differential due to climate-related risks. The differential should be taken into consideration when determining pricing and capital requirements. When the objective is to adjust capital requirements as an economic policy tool to allocate credit to specific sectors, the accurate level of climate-related risks is not a central concern anymore. This approach rather focuses on channeling credits to facilitate the transition toward a low-carbon economy. The objective is to foster transition by introducing a financial incentive through the capital adequacy regulation without following a risk reasoning [42].
\nClimate-related risks are expected to be included in all relevant stages of the credit-granting process and credit processing. Specifically, institutions are expected to form an opinion on how climate-related risks affect the borrower’s default risk. The climate factors that are material to the borrower’s default risk of the exposure are expected to be identified and assessed. As part of this assessment, institutions may take into consideration the quality of the clients’ own management of climate-related risks. They are also to give appropriate consideration to changes in the risk profile of sectors and geographies driven by climate-related risks [28].
\nIn quantifying, evaluating, and factoring climate-related risks into credit risk assessment, institutions require risk indicators or ratings for their counterparties that take into account climate-related and environmental risks. This is achieved by identifying borrowers that may be exposed, directly or indirectly, to increased climate-related risks. Critical exposures to such risks should be highlighted and, where applicable, considered under various scenarios with the aim of ensuring the ability to assess and introduce in a timely manner any appropriate risk mitigation measures including pricing [28].
\nCounterparty credit scoring requires detailed sectoral and geographic metrics to interpret climate-related risks as a view of financial vulnerability, taking into account mitigation measures. The resulting risk score can be used to inform credit decisions and to create a portfolio overview. The score can also be embedded in internal and external climate-related risk reporting (Table 1) [43].
\n1. Defining climate scenarios | \n2. Estimating economic and financial impacts | \n3. Translating financial impacts into credit risk measures | \n
---|---|---|
“The estimation of the impact of climate change and of the transition to a low-carbon economy on credit risk relies first on the definition of physical scenarios for climate change and for the transition. These scenarios define how climate change will impact the variables that are relevant for economic activities, how a transition will mitigate these impacts and which measures are taken to steer the transition.” | \n“Once the impact of climate change on the variables relevant for economic activities has been estimated, its consequences must be translated into economic terms though macro and microeconomic simulations. This step basically assesses the direct and indirect repercussions of climate change and the transition to a low-carbon economy in economic terms and identifies which actors are affected by them and by how much. Once the economic effects on actors have been identified, the next step is to estimate the impact of these effects on both their cash flows and their balance sheets.” | \n“Based on this assessment of financial impacts on firms and households, the next step is to compute how changes in cash flows and balance sheets will affect their credit worthiness in terms of probability of default and loss given default – and thus also in their credit ratings.” | \n
Steps for integrating physical climate risk into credit risk assessment processes [44].
For better integration of climate-related risks into credit risk assessment, Monnin [30] advocates addressing the limitations of historical data; expanding the horizon of credit risk models; finding the right level of data granularity; identifying the relevant climate-related risk exposure metrics; and translating economic impact into financial risk metrics.
\nEstimates of the aggregate economic impacts of climate change and the costs of mitigation both vary widely and are highly dependent on factors such as core assumptions, model design, sectoral coverage, and scenario selection [45]. On the one hand, available estimates suggest that physical damage from climate change could reach one tenth, or even one fifth, of global GDP by the end of this century, with considerable uncertainties around amplifying dynamics. In terms of current global output, this would amount to USD 8–17 trillion. On the other hand, some estimates suggest the transition to a low-carbon economy will require investment of between USD 1 trillion and USD 4 trillion in constant terms when considering the energy sector alone, or up to USD 20 trillion when looking at the economy more broadly [11].
\nDietz et al. [46] employed standard integrated assessment model (IAM) and the climate value-at-risk (VAR) framework to quantitatively investigate the physical impact of climate change on the financial system. They found that without mitigation efforts, physical risks related to climate change could lead to a loss of USD 2.5–24.2 trillion of the value of global financial assets. For the transition risks, estimate by Mercure et al. [47] put the discounted global wealth losses from stranded fossil fuel assets may amount from USD 1–4 trillion.
\nPhysical impacts of climate change as well as the transition toward a resilient low-carbon economy pose significant challenges for macro-financial management, as they can damage the balance sheets of governments, households, firms, and financial institutions due to the adverse and possibly abrupt impacts on investment and economic growth, fiscal revenue and expenditure, debt sustainability, and the valuation of financial assets. In turn, macro-financial risks translate into weakened resilience to physical climate risks and constrained capacity for climate adaptation and mitigation efforts. Transition risks are particularly high for countries that generate a significant share of public revenue from carbon-intensive industries. Lower-income and conflict-affected oil and gas exporters (mostly in Africa and the Middle East) are more vulnerable and less able to manage a low-carbon transition. They have not yet converted hydrocarbon rents into other sources of export revenues needed to grow and diversify [48].
\nFor banks, climate-related risk factors manifest as increasing credit, market, and operational risks [49]. Climate-related financial risks may weaken financial sector balance sheets and induce or amplify macro-financial risks, particularly in the case of shocks. Such shocks could stem from disasters or sudden changes in policy, technology, or consumer preferences. The resulting financial sector losses and volatility in financial and commodity markets can adversely impact funding, liquidity, and lending conditions and weaken financial sector balance sheets, giving rise to negative feedback loops with macro-fiscal implications. Emerging markets and developing economies may be particularly affected, given that their financial markets are less resilient to such shocks [48]. By destroying the capital of firms and reducing their profitability and liquidity, climate change is likely to increase the rate of default of corporate loans that could harm the stability of the banking system [19]. A recent survey by the Bank of England on the preparedness of UK banks for climate change found their planning horizons averaged 4 years, likely too short even to account for likely physical and liability risks [50].
\nClimate change also has implications for insurance companies on both sides of the balance sheet: as investors and as underwriters. As institutional investors, insurance companies face largely similar transition and physical risks as other asset managers. They are disproportionally affected due to the long-term nature of their equity and infrastructure investments. As underwriters, pricing risks may arise from changing risk profiles to insured assets [48]. According to Lloyd’s of London, damages from weather-related losses around the world have increased from an annual average of USD 50 billion in the 1980s to close to USD 200 billion in the past 10 years [51].
\nInstitutional investors will be disproportionately affected by climate change, given their much longer-term investment horizons. In addition to the climate-related risks that affect financial stability, second-tier impacts from climate change (such as food security, social, and political unrest, and biodiversity loss) are likely to be nonlinear, characterized by tipping points, and material over the long term [48]. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) [52] put the value of global stock of manageable assets at risk from climate change till the end of the century at USD 4.2–43 trillion (in 2015 value terms).
\nClimate change qualifies as a systemic event. A systemic event is defined in economics by three essential elements: a shock, which can be a broad shock simultaneously affecting a wide range of institutions, or a limited shock followed by an important domino effect; contagion effects through a web of interrelations; and the endogenous nature of this shock, meaning that it is caused by cumulated disequilibria over time [53].
\nThree fundamental reasons at least can justify this transposition of the financial concept of systemic risk to climate change. First, climate change impacts are systemic in nature. They affect the whole planet, in most of its dimensions. They have the ability to profoundly change the earth system as we currently know it. The second is the radical uncertainty. Historical data provide no useful guidance to future climate events or/and outcomes. Finally, the notion of a climate systemic risk at world scale provides a powerful new rationale in the debate on international monetary reform [53].
\nClimate and financial fragilities reinforce each other. They are intertwined into positive feedback loops so that climate systemic risks also incur financial systemic risks. Financial fragility to external risks may increase climate fragility through negative externality effects. Conversely, climate fragility incurs new risks that may reinforce financial fragility, as Figure 3 illustrates. The realization of a climate systemic risk translates into potential financial turmoil and this in turn can increase around the provision of the ultimate liquidity [53].
\nRelationship between climate and financial fragilities [53].
Physical and transition risk drivers impact economic activities, which in turn impact the financial system. This impact can occur directly through, for example, lower corporate profitability or the devaluation of assets, or indirectly, through macro-financial changes [28]. Climate-related risks—in particular, transition risks—are actually closer to being in a state of uncertainty. Further uncertainty is created by the highly interconnected nature of the modern financial system. Interlinkages among financial institutions—both banks and nonbanks—can amplify both positive and negative shocks and significantly decrease the accuracy of default probabilities [54].
\nPhysical risks can cause economic costs and financial losses across different financial portfolios (e.g., loans, equities, and bonds) and also affect the expectation of future losses, which can threaten the solvency of households, businesses, and governments and therefore financial institutions [18]. The exposure of financial institutions to physical risks can trigger contagion and asset devaluations propagating throughout the financial system [18]. Rapid and ambitious transition to low-carbon economy will lead to transition risks with large fractions of proven reserves of fossil fuel becoming stranded assets, with potentially systemic consequences for the financial system. Other fossil fuel-dependent sectors will probably be impacted indirectly as a consequence [55]. The size of the impact depends on the assumptions made about when and how the transition happens and which sectors it affects. The risk is that a sharp reassessment of climate change risks could lead to a financial market reassessment, leading to a spiral of persistent tightening of financial conditions as losses ensue [18].
\nA wholesale reassessment of prospects, as climate-related risks are reevaluated, could destabilize markets, spark a pro-cyclical crystallization of losses, and lead to a persistent tightening of financial conditions: a climate Minsky moment—involving a rapid, system-wide (downward) repricing of carbon assets which would threaten financial stability [56].
\nThe economic effects of bank losses and asset price deflation can exacerbate climate-induced financial instability [57]. This calls for a collective prudential approach—monetary policies and banking regulations, which intend to act on eliminating possible future outcomes more than on internalizing externality, because of radical uncertainty [53].
\nRisk management has increasingly become a well-established tool for climate change adaptation, given the significant uncertainty about future impacts and the inability to rely on historic data as a basis for current action [58, 59]. Risk management is part of a comprehensive suite of tools for climate change adaptation, with international and national standards being developed to assist governments, businesses, and communities [59].
\nISO 14090:2019: Adaptation to climate change—Principles, requirements and guidelines specifies the principles, requirements, and guidelines for adaptation to climate change. These include the integration of adaptation within or across organizations, understanding impacts and uncertainties, and how these can be used to inform decisions. ISO 14091:2019 provides guidance for assessing the risks related to the potential impacts of climate change. It describes how to understand vulnerability and how to develop and implement a sound risk assessment in the context of climate change. It can be used for assessing both present and future climate change risks.
\nAs part of their overall internal control framework, organizations should have an institution-wide risk management framework that extends across all business lines and internal units, including internal control functions [28]. The risk management framework should encompass financial and nonfinancial risks, on-balance-sheet risks, and off-balance-sheet risks, including risks that the institution is currently exposed to and for risks that the institution may be exposed to going forward [28].
\nEceiza et al. [43] enumerate five principles of climate-related risk management to include formulation of climate-related risk governance, to ensure the board focuses on the risks and for climate-risk management, and to cascade throughout the organization; tailor strategic plans and business models toward embedding climate-related risks in risk frameworks and capital allocation processes; inject climate-related risk considerations into all risk-management processes to align climate-related risk exposure with risk appetite; periodic scenario analysis and stress tests to assess the organization’s resilience; and focus on enablers and build capacity, including technology, data, and talent to manage climate-related risks.
\nA strategic approach to managing the financial risks from climate change developed by the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA) (Bank of England) entails governance, risk management, scenario analysis, and disclosure. A firm’s board should understand and assess the financial risks from climate change that affect the firm and should be able to address and oversee these risks within the firm’s overall business strategy and risk appetite. Firms are expected to employ their existing business strategy and risk management frameworks to address financial risks from climate change, in line with their board-approved risk appetite. Firms should identify, measure, monitor, manage, and report on their exposure to these risks to their stakeholders. Material exposures should be included in their Internal Capital Adequacy Assessment Process (ICAAP) or Own Risk and Solvency Assessment (ORSA). Where appropriate, the PRA expects firms to consider a range of quantitative and qualitative tools and metrics to monitor their exposure to financial risks from climate change. Firms should provide evidence of how material risks will be mitigated and have credible plans or policies to manage these exposures. The management information should enable the board to discuss, challenge, and take decisions relating to the firm’s management of the financial risks from climate change. Scenario analysis should also be used to explore the resilience and vulnerabilities of a firm’s business model to a range of outcomes, based on different transition paths to a low-carbon economy, as well as a path where no transition occurs. Disclosures should be as insightful as possible, reflecting the firm’s evolving understanding of the financial risks from climate change (Figure 4) [60].
\nElements of climate-related risk management [60].
Similar good practices of governance and climate-related risk management recommended by the French Prudential Supervision and Resolution Authority (Banque de France) [61] include the following: integration of climate-related risks, including their implementation and monitoring, into the strategy of institutions; the internal organization of institutions, both in terms of the allocation of responsibility over all business lines, and in terms of the structuring of climate risk control, should align with the institutions’ strategic orientations; full integration of the material risks induced by climate change into the risk appetite framework of the institution, and also mobilization of appropriate tools to allow for a thorough assessment of these risks; and disclosure of the institution’s strategy and its risk management mechanisms with regard to climate change to ensure both a better understanding and a better integration of climate-related risks.
\nClimate change is rapidly proceeding, and climate-related risks are being exacerbated. While the mechanisms of physical climate change and the possible impacts are scientifically well understood, the specific estimates of these impacts are associated with uncertainty.
\nClimate change will affect all sectors of the economy, and it is relevant to investors and financial institutions, posing an unprecedented challenge to the governance of global socioeconomic and financial systems. Climate-related risks touch on the interests of a broad range of stakeholders across the private and public sectors, impact all the key dimensions of credit risk, and are the main channels through which climate change can affect financial stability.
\nThis chapter establishes the need for organizations to have a holistic, well-documented, and institution-wide risk management framework that extends across all business lines and internal units to manage their climate-related risks.
\nIn all, the chapter provides a preliminary view on how climate change can cause credit risk and financial instability. As such, the chapter does not comprehensively address the complex tasks of managing climate-related risks in organizations. A more comprehensive study is required on what strategies and approaches are needed to manage uncertainties and risks that are an integral part of climate change in organizations.
\nIntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"qngrRaqGuveqFgrcChoyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. 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