\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-248-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-247-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-249-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8bc7ffd7544fff1901301c787e64fada",bookSignature:"Prof. Magdy Elnashar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11998.jpg",keywords:"Preparation, Characterisation, Applications, Immobilised Cells, Biomaterials, Biofibers, Resins, Polysaccharides, Biocomposites in Health Sciences, Biocomposites in the Chemical Industry, Nanobiocomposites, Nano-Composites",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 10th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Magdy Elnashar received his M.Sc. Degree in Chemistry from the Cairo University, Egypt, in 1998, and his Ph.D. Degree in Biochemistry from the University of Leeds (top 100 in the world). He was the head of the Group of Encapsulation and Nanobiotechnology at the Centre of Advanced Sciences in Egypt. Prof. Elnashar has 6 patents, and 11 Awards in teaching, research, and commercialization. His scientific interests include the production of nano to macro beads, biopolymers grafting, and immobilized enzyme",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"12075",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdy",middleName:null,surname:"Elnashar",slug:"magdy-elnashar",fullName:"Magdy Elnashar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12075/images/system/12075.jpg",biography:"Prof. Magdy Elnashar was born in Cairo, Egypt in 1972. He recevied his M.Sc. Degree in Chemistry from the Cairo University, Egypt, in 1998 and his Ph.D. Degree in Biochemistry from the University of Leeds, UK, in 2005. \nProf. Elnashar was awarded several prizes, among which the Prize of the National Research Center for promoting science in the field of Biotechnology in 2010 and the Prize of the President of the National Research Centre for the best applied article in 2009. His current position is the Head of Biopolymers & Nanobiotechnology Group at the Center of Excellence, National Research Center in Egypt. \nProf. Elnashar’s fields of interest are in the production of Nano to Macro Beads, Biopolymers Grafting, Immobilized Enzymes, Drug Delivery Systems, Nano Magnetic Particles, Diagnostic Kits (Immunology) and Water Purification.",institutionString:"Curtin University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Curtin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. A unique name with a unique work ethic right at your service."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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The two load-carrying components of the asphalt mixtures are the mineral aggregates and the binder. Asphalt binders are obtained from the refining of crude oil. They are produced from the heavy residue after the refining of fuels and lubricants. Asphalt is a thermoplastic material that demonstrates viscoelastic properties under most pavement operating conditions [1]. It is this fundamental property that makes them versatile binders for asphalt mixtures with the viscoelastic characteristics of the bituminous binders directly and significantly influencing the performance of the mixtures.
\nOne of the distress modes of asphalt pavements is permanent deformation or rutting that occurs at high operating temperatures, and it is believed that the accumulated strain in asphalt binder is mainly responsible for the rutting. Rutting is defined as longitudinal surface depressions along a pavement’s wheel paths. In asphalt pavements, rutting is defined as the progressive accumulation of longitudinal depressions in a wheel path under repetitive loading [2].
\nThe majority of rutting problems result from plastic deformation of the surface course. It is characterized by shear deformation inside the asphalt mixture [3]. The permanent deformation per wheel passage correlates with the stiffness of the asphalt binder used, and decreases with increasing number of wheel passages [4]. Also, permanent deformation in asphalt binder is highly dependent on the stress level. One of the most recent areas of investigation in pavement engineering is the relationship between asphalt rheology and rutting in pavements.
\nAsphalt mixture is a viscoelastic material that contains mineral aggregates, asphalt binder and air voids. Asphalt binder, as one of the load carrying components of the asphalt mixtures, is a viscoelastic, thermoplastic material that is characterized by a certain level of rigidity of an elastic solid body, but, at the same time, flows and dissipates energy by frictional losses as a viscous fluid [5]. Its characteristics are dependent on time and temperature [6]. At higher temperatures and longer loading times, the asphalt material softens and behaves more similar to a viscous fluid. At lower temperatures and faster loads, the asphalt material becomes stiffer and act more as an elastic material. Because of this, rutting is more critical during the hot season in a year and under slower moving traffic.
\nAs the asphalt binder is responsible for the viscoelastic behavior of all bituminous materials, it plays a dominant part in determining many of the aspects of pavement performance, such as resistance to permanent deformation. Therefore, binder has a critical role against rutting in mixture. Also, as with any viscoelastic material, asphalt’s response to stress is dependent on both temperature and loading time [5]. Therefore, permanent deformation in asphalt binder is highly dependent on the factors such as temperature, stress level, loading time etc.
\nRecognizing the limitation of the traditional asphalt binder characterization procedure in 1987, the Federal Highway Administration initiated a nationwide research program called the Strategic Highway Research Program, usually referred to as SHRP [6]. The final product of the SHRP research program was Superpave® (Superior Performance Asphalt Pavements). The Superpave® was designed to provide performance-related properties that can be related in a rational manner to pavement performance [5].
\nThe Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) was introduced in 1993 by Superpave® as a tool to measure the binder mechanical characterization. This device provided a useful method to evaluate binder rutting resistance capability. The principle used with the DSR is to apply sinusoidal, oscillatory stresses or strains over a range of temperatures and loading frequencies to a thin disc of bitumen, sandwiched between the two parallel plates of the DSR. Anderson et al. [6] assumed that rutting is caused by the total dissipated energy as calculated from the strain-stress curve.
\nwhere:
\nWi = total energy dissipated at the ith cycle, τ0 = maximum stress applied, G* = complex modulus, δ = phase angle.
\n|G*|/sin δ was introduced as the rutting parameter. Equation 1 shows that increasing the rutting parameter |G*|/sin δ causes dissipated energy to decrease and, as a consequence, more rutting occurs.
\nUsing cyclic reversible loading for viscoelastic materials can be misleading because although this test has the capability of estimation the total energy dissipated during a loading cycle, as it is unable to separate permanent deformation and delay elasticity in these materials. Rutting is a repeated mechanism with sinusoidal loading pulse in which the pavement layer is not forced back to zero deflection but would recover some deformation due to elastic stored energy in the material of the layers. Under this type of loading, the energy is dissipated in damping and in permanent flow [7]. It was proposed that a creep and recovery test in the DSR could solve the above problems [8].
\nThe repeated creep test is proposed as a method of separating the dissipated energy and estimating the resistance to accumulation of permanent strain for asphalt binders. During the NCHRP 9-10 project, Bahia et al. [8] suggested the repeated creep recovery test (RCR) as a better tool to investigate the rutting resistance of asphalt binders using the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR). The NCHRP 9-10 project recommend a shear stress in the range of 30–300 Pa for 100 cycles at a rate of 1 (second) loading time followed by a 9 (seconds) unloading time [8].
\nThis project introduced a new parameter Gv to characterize the rutting resistance of asphalt binders. This new parameter was derived from the four-element Burger model, which is a combination of a Kelvin model and Maxwell model. The total shear strain versus time is expressed as follows:
\nwhere γ (t) = total shear strain, γ1 = elastic shear strain, γ2 = delayed elastic strain, γ3 = viscous shear strain, τ0 = constant stress, G0 = spring constant of Maxwell model, tG1 = spring constant of Kelvin model, η1 = dashpot constant of Kelvin model, t = time, η0 = dashpot constant of Maxwell model.
\nDividing Eq. (2) by the constant stress leads to the following equation:
\nwhere Je = elastic creep compliance, Jde(t) = delayed elastic creep compliance, Jv(t) = viscous creep compliance.
\nInstead of using Jv which has a unit of 1/Pa, the inverse of compliance Gv is used. Gv is defined as the viscous component of the creep stiffness [8].
\nD’Angelo showed that a single stress level did not completely account for the stress dependency of modified binders and multiple stress levels need to be used [9]. Testing binders at multiple stress level using the RCR test would require an extensive amount of time.
\nNCHRP 9-10 project recommended RCR testing using the DSR to evaluate the rutting resistance of asphalt binders using Gv parameter showing viscous component of the creep stiffness. This parameter has shown promising results to characterize the rutting behavior of asphalt binder, especially modified binders. The main benefits of RCR compared with the current test standard and parameter |G*|/sin δ are described in previous work [10] and can be summarized as follows:
Better simulation of actual loading from truck on the pavement using repeated creep loading compared to dynamic shear procedure.
It is simpler way to identify binder rutting resistance using permanent deformation derived from RCR test. This method highlights the effect of delayed elasticity which is very important for modified binders and allows the binder to recover deformation during the rest period. The parameter |
It is not fully understood if testing at low stress levels is representative of binder rut resistance behavior as happens in the field since the stresses and strains in the binder can be very high and non-linear. Permanent deformation in asphalt binder is highly dependent on the stress level. Determining the stress level at which the binder is exposed in the mixture is an important matter [11]. Permanent deformation is not a linear viscoelastic phenomenon and therefore measurement of linear viscoelastic binder properties are not likely to correlate with it [12].
\nThe RCR test provides valuable information about the asphalt material rutting resistance when temperature changes happen. However, since the loading on pavement in the field is not consistent, multiple stresses are required to accurately characterize the asphalt binder rutting behavior. These stresses should be selected to capture the properties of the asphalt in linear and in nonlinear domain.
\nThe MSCR test was developed to reduce the number of samples at each stress level and it is the following development of RCR test. The test uses 1 (second) creep loading followed by 9 (seconds) recovery for the following stress levels: 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, 6400, 12,800 and 25,600 Pa at 10 cycles for each stress level. The test starts at the lowest stress level and increase to the next stress level at the end of every 10 cycles, with no rest periods between creep and recovery cycles or changes in stress level [11].
\nD’Angelo selected two stress levels, 0.1 and 3.2 kPa, upon correlation between binder and mixture rutting results for performing the MSCR test. Ten cycles are run for each stress level for a total of 20 cycles. Figure 1 shows the typical results from MSCR test.
\nMSCR response curve.
The average non-recoverable strain for the 10 creep and recovery cycles is then divided by the applied stress for those cycles yielding the non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr). Jnr for 0.1 kPa is calculated by divided the strain after 10 cycles to 0.1 kPa. Equations (4) and (5) show the calculation method for Jnr at 0.1 kPa.
\nwhere \n
The definition for the Jnr at 3.2 kPa is analogous. The Jnr parameter was suggested as a measure of the binder contribution to mixture permanent deformation [13].
\nLater, Shenoy [14] used non-recoverable compliance to characterize the propensity of asphalt binder to resist permanent deformation in the pavement. He proposed measuring the non-recoverable compliance through the dynamic oscillatory test using a frequency, time, strain or sweep test. Mathematical formula was used to calculate non-recoverable compliance from the complex modulus and phase angle. Also Shenoy showed that the unrecoverable strain in a binder that is during a creep and recovery test could be calculated directly from the dynamic oscillatory test using a frequency test [15]. The percent-unrecovered strain is calculated as follows:
\nTo minimize the unrecoverable strain, the following term (the inverse of the non-recoverable compliance, %γunr/σo) needs to be maximized:
\n|G*|/ (1−(1−tanδsinδ)) was proposed as a refinement to the Superpave® specification for performance grading of asphalts. The drawback of this parameter is that at δ < 52°, the model would predict unrealistic negatives values of (1−(1−tanδsinδ)) [15].
\nBouldin et al. [16] developed a semi empirical method to predict the rut resistance (R) as a function of loading (time and load) and temperature from data at single frequency. This approach is based on the assumption that the strain accumulation rate depends on the binder stiffness and viscoelastic contribution f(δ), and these two contributions are independent
\nwhere k = constant, γacc = accumulated strain, δ = phase angle, Y0, X0, a, b, c = empirical fitting parameters.
\nThe disadvantage of this parameter is that at phase angles between 40 and 75° this parameter does not fully capture the viscoelastic nature of many modified binders [16].
\nThe MSCR is proposed as a better test to evaluate modified binders and estimate their role in pavement performance. The MSCR has received many positive feedbacks as a good candidate for rutting evaluation and shown a great promise. However, this test has faced few challenges regarding implementation, especially in terms of analysis of the result and interpretation.
\nWhile results of the MSCR test are promising [9, 11, 13, 17, 18], there are important concerns about current testing and analysis protocols. It is not clear that testing at a low stress levels (0.1 and 3.2 kPa) is the best way to characterize the rutting resistance of an asphalt binder. The stresses and strains in the binder can be high, much higher than the linear limit for the material. Permanent deformation in asphalt binder is highly dependent on the stress level. Determining the stress level at which the binder is exposed in the mixture is an important matter [19, 20]. Permanent deformation is not a linear viscoelastic phenomenon and, therefore, measurement of linear viscoelastic binder properties are not likely to correlate with it [21]. The selection of two stress levels is not necessarily based on the stresses that asphalt binder experiences inside the pavement. The number of cycles and the time of loading do not provide full picture of characterizing long term deformation in the material. The recovery time may need to be longer to fully capture delayed elastic behavior of modified binders; some binders are still recovering after 9 (seconds) of recovery [22]. Golalipour [23] investigated these factors and provided some improvements for the MSCR test protocol.
\nIn the latest version of AASHTO standard T 350 standard “Standard Method of Test for Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR) Test of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)” or American Society for Testing and Materials standard (ASTM) 7405, the test consists of 20 cycles of 0.1 kPa stress creep and recovery, followed immediately by another 10 cycles of 3.2 kPa stress creep and recovery. Each cycle consists of 1 second of loading and 9 seconds of recovery upon instantaneous unloading [24, 25].
\nThe non-recoverable creep compliance, Jnr, and the percent recovery, R%, are two of the parameters calculated from the measured strain under different stress cycles [9, 11]. The Jnr parameter was suggested as a measure of the binder contribution to mixture permanent deformation. Different factors can have significant impact on Jnr value such as the duration of the creep interval, the duration of the recovery interval, the number of loading cycles and, of course, the entity of the applied shear stress. In other words, Jnr depends on the mechanical history of the experiment.
\nThe low-temperature cracking of asphalt concrete pavements is a major pavement distress mechanism in cold regions costing hundreds of millions of dollars in rehabilitation costs to various agencies. It usually occurs in the form of regularly spaced transverse cracks, initiating at the surface of the asphalt layer and further propagating downward. Consequences of thermal cracking are an immediate increase of the roughness of the pavement surface (i.e., a reduction of the comfort and safety of the ride) and the loss of the sealing function of the pavement for the underlying layers. However, predictions of this distress have not been accurate enough, often resulting in premature road failures. It is believed that the excessive brittleness due to the increase in stiffness and decrease in the ability to relax stress leads to the buildup of thermally induced stress and ultimately cracking of mixtures in pavements.
\nThe prediction of asphalt pavement thermal cracking has been the subject of numerous studies that date back to the early 1960’s [26]. In many of these studies, attempts were made to introduce a procedure to predict pavement cracking based on the stress-strain-time—temperature relationship. A number of methods have been introduced throughout the years to model the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt binders and mixtures to estimate the accumulation of thermal stress during cooling cycles and predict the temperature at which cracking occurs [27, 28, 29].
\nIt has been shown that the characteristic of the asphalt binder can significantly impact the low temperature behavior of asphalt pavement. During the service life of the pavement, asphalt is exposed to low temperatures, which tend to alter the rheological behavior. Different studies have concluded that asphalt binder behavior is the dominant component for low-temperature performance of the asphalt pavement mixtures [30]. Therefore, it is very important to study the asphalt binder characterize at low temperatures to have a clear picture of factors that affect the low temperature behavior of pavement.
\nBased on the concept that asphalt binder properties play the major role in cracking, several studies have focused on investigating the effect of rheological and other parameters of asphalt binder on low temperature performance. A quantitative method is necessary in order to study the complex role of asphalt binder in the pavement and to relate its properties to low temperature cracking phenomenon.
\nIt is believed that thermal stresses causing cracking are due to constrained thermal strains. When the temperature drops, the pavement tends to contract its volume, following its thermal expansion/contraction coefficient. However, the layer underneath opposes some resistance due to friction, therefore thermal strains within the asphalt layer are not free to take place leading to co-active stresses proportional to the stiffness of the material. Since asphalt is a viscoelastic material, part of said stresses are dissipated through relaxation, but eventually they build up until they reach the strength of the material, leading to the formation of cracks to relieve these stresses [31].
\nA number of methods have been introduced throughout the years to model the viscoelastic behavior of asphalt binders and mixtures to estimate the accumulation of thermal stress during cooling cycles and predict the temperature at which cracking occurs. Shoor et al. [32] studied the penetration measurement to investigate the low temperatures behavior of asphalt binder. Majidzadeh and Schweyer [33] investigated asphalt low temperature properties using more fundamental approach using viscoelastic models. They studied few asphalt binders’ behavior at the temperature range of −9–5°C using cylindrical specimens. At the lowest temperatures, the asphalt binders exhibited some instantaneous elastic deformation. Pink et al. [34] used a Rheometric Mechanical Spectrometer (RMS) to make accurate low-temperature viscoelastic measurements on asphalt down to −94°C. They developed a methodology to construct a dynamic master curve to separate the effect of time and temperature. Button et al., also used the RMS to measure viscosity of asphalts from 0 to −46°C. Thus, most of the predicting low-temperature cracking methods involve measured asphalt stiffness, predicted asphalt stiffness, or consistency and temperature susceptibility parameters that indirectly establish asphalt stiffness [35].
\nDuring the SHRP project, several studies have focused on developing a new device for measuring low temperature stiffness of binders. Finally, these studies led to the development a device to determine the properties and response of asphalt binders at low temperatures in the 1980’s. This device was later modified and updated as part of the SHRP binder research [36]. The resulting machine was named the Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR).
\nThe data acquisition system of the BBR records the load and deflection test results and calculates two parameters: (1) Creep Stiffness, S(t), which is a measure of how the asphalt binder resists the creep loading, and (2) m-value, which is a measure of the rate at which the creep stiffness changes with loading time (Figure 2).
\nBBR test principles.
Thermo-mechanical properties of the asphalt samples can be measured using the Bending Beam Rheometer to evaluate the low temperature properties based on the ASTM D6648 and AASHTO T 313 [37, 38]. The stiffness, S(t), is a measure of the thermal stresses developed in the asphalt pavements as result of thermal contraction. Classic beam analysis theory is used to calculate the creep stiffness of the asphalt binder beam at 60 seconds loading time [5]. The BBR loads the beams for 240 seconds and report the stiffness values at loading times of 8, 15, 30, 60, 120 and 240 seconds. These values were chosen because they are fairly equally spaced on a logarithmic time scale. These data points, along with the following equation, are used to determine the shape of the stiffness (creep compliance) master curve for the asphalt binder (Eq. (10)).
\nwhere S(t) = asphalt binder stiffness, T = time (s), A, B and C = constants.
\nThe slope of the stiffness curve, m, is a measure of the rate of stress relaxation by asphalt binder flow. The m-value indicates the rate of change of the stiffness, S(t), with loading time. In other words, the m-value is the slope of the log creep stiffness versus log time curve at any time. Since the time dependency of asphalt binder varies, the shape of the stiffness master curve as well as the stiffness at 2 hours loading time are important to take into consideration. Therefore, the slope of the stiffness master curve is also used for specification purposes [39].
\nIn the current PG specification, two parameters from BBR test are used to characterize the binder low temperature rheological behavior. Apparent stiffness, S, and the slope of the log stiffness versus log time, the m-value are determined at a loading time of 60 seconds. The temperature at which S(60) ≤ 300 MPa and m(60) ≥ 0.3 is specified as the critical temperature + 10°C (Figure 3). These limits were established based on data from previous studies as well as the data obtained by SHRP (Bahia and [6]).
\nBBR data analysis: (a) stiffness; (b) m-value.
The effect of these two specification parameters, S(t) and m-value, on thermal cracking is analogous to the effect of G* and δ on rutting and fatigue cracking. As S(t) increases, the thermal stresses developed in the pavement due to thermal shrinking also increase, and thermal cracking becomes more likely. On the other hand, as the m-value decreases, so does the rate of stress relaxation. In other words, as the slope of the asphalt binder stiffness curve flattens, the ability of the asphalt pavement to relive thermal stresses by flow decreases. This again would increase the propensity of thermal cracking in the pavement.
\nIt was in the 15th century that anatomy (still undistinguished from physiology) started to strongly develop. It was part of the core of the European society developments, upon the development of the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the early Modern period, the melting pot for important medical developments, announcing the “European miracle” of the following centuries [1]. But for all practical purposes, physiology was considered to be born in the 17th century, most likely upon the publication of William Harvey’s book on the circulation of the blood, in 1628 (Figure 1A) [2].
A: Title page of William Harvey’s De Motu Cordis (1698) to the left and demonstration of blood flow in the veins of the forearm to the right. B: Above; Malpighi’s drawing of the pulmonary capillaries and alveoli: 2 lungs with the alveoli on the left and the capillaries on the right. Below; pulmonary capillaries in a diagram of an alveolus that has been opened up.
It was on Harvey’s work that for the first time traditional (and unquestionable) beliefs about the heart and the circulation (dating back to Galen, 1500 years earlier) have been dethroned. Harvey declined to consider uncritically what he had been taught and insisted on relying on his own scientific observations. This approach is considered to be one of the most revolutionary ideas in science in the 17th century, and Harvey’s greatest contribution to science [3].
However, this was not without controversy. Many have initially opposed to the concept of physiology however great names such as Marcello Malpighi (Figure 1B) and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek have supported the thoughts on human function, joining efforts in developing modern physiology.
Following the initial scientific developments, a halt followed between 1750 and 1850 throughout Europe with critical thinking of medicine as a science coming to a stop and being replaced by an artistic view of medical science, resourcing to texts in Latin. This came to such an extent that the microscope was not made available to students in Leiden as was auscultation not included in the teaching curricula, albeit having been discovered in 1819 [4].
In the middle of the 1800’s German doctors proposed the ‘medicine equals science’ concept and pointed towards the reintroduction of science in the curricula, motivated by Rudolf Virchow (cellular pathology) and by significant scientific advances at that time such as the periodic table (Dmitri Mendelejev) and upon the publication of the “Origin of Species” (Charles Darwin). Noteworthy, important technological advancements were also made at that time such as the development of steam locomotives and railroads, and the first steel steamship crossing the Atlantic. For the above, ideal conditions for the advancing of physiology has also occurred giving rise to physiologists like Carl F.W. Ludwig in Germany and Claude Bernard in France [5].
Specializations within general physiology also started, namely on gastrointestinal physiology (William Beaumont); pathology (Rudolf Virchow) and bacteriology (Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch), with scientific journals being written as the basis for solidification of these new physiology branches such as the “Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin” (Virchow and Reinhardt; today called Virchows Archiv) and Pflügers Archiv (today called Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology), laying the basis for modern physiology in the 19th–20th century with names such as Pavlov (psychophysiology), Sherrington (neurophysiology), Mosso (ergograph, sphygmomanometer), Golgi (nervous system, malaria), and Ringer (Ringer’s solution). This great evolution was supported (and recognized) with the creation of the Nobel Prize of Physiology or Medicine, first awarded in 1901 [5].
The rapid changes observed in modern societies have caused higher level education providers (i.e. Higher Education) to face a variety of challenges in order to cope with today’s demands [6]. This has, in all, lead to the training of more enthusiastic students in an array of interdisciplinary fields [7], generating effective pedagogical methods and strategies to the point that these are now recognized as one of the most important necessities of educational systems [8].
Physiology is today recognized as the bedrock of medical curriculum [9] and, as such, the preference for a particular content delivery method has been vastly investigated by to pass knowledge logically and strategically to students [10]. A greater focus has been given now on critical thinking skills in contrast to emphasis on the systems-based didactic lectures [11]. This has been done also due to the longstanding recognition of the Physiology Science as a challenging discipline for students to grasp, assimilate and employ in clinical sciences. Furthermore, as a core science in the disease process, its understanding is of the utmost importance for an integrated knowledge [12, 13].
As such, physiology educationists are making great efforts towards focusing on ways to obtain vertical and horizontal integration in the discipline of Physiology, exceeding the typical periodical assessment of the medical curriculum by further stimulating and introducing a myriad of new teaching and learning approaches to captivate and augment students’ knowledge acquisition [14].
The 21st century is demanding profound changes in veterinary education. Scientific knowledge grew at a dizzying speed, so even for researchers, it is difficult to keep up with the literature. The world is completely different and never the expression “times are changing” heard in the transition from our parents’ generation to ours, was applied with as true sense as now. As in all sectors of society, Education systems are also changing. Big transformations occurred following the Bologna treaty that changed the educational paradigm, advocating greater student autonomy and self-learning. These changes must now be optimized considering technological evolution, that have begun to change how students acquire information [15]. It is imperative to occupy the fast fingers of students on smartphones in favor of teaching and science. This is a challenge for today’s teachers, according to the idea that “The more complex the world becomes, the more creative we need to be to meet its challenges” [15, 16]. Another issue is the curricula reforms, that resulted in a reduction of teaching hours. In some core disciplines such as physiology, this reduction has resulted in serious reviews of the way it is taught [15].
Current higher education students are generally in their late teens and early adulthood (although naturally some are older and a small number may be younger), and belong to the so-called Generation Z, born between 1995 and 2009. Generation Z follows members of Generation Y, more commonly known as Millennials, who were born between 1975 and 1995. Most of them do not remember life without the internet, and have had technology like smartphones, iPads, smartboards and other devices available throughout most of their schooling years [17, 18]. They grew up around gaming and have great affinity with not just technology platforms, but also with game-like settings that provide, among other components such as continuous challenges, captivating storylines, immediate rewards and feedback, and sometimes fun [19].
Students from the so-called Generation Alpha, born between 2010 and 2025, future students in the higher education system, are younger than smartphones, the iPad, 3D television, Instagram, and music streaming apps like Spotify. This will be the first generation to be born entirely within the 21st century and likely to live in the 22nd century in large numbers. They are also the first generation to experience a pandemic situation in their early childhood: the SARS-CoV-19 pandemic (Figure 2) [17, 18].
The 21st century students in higher education system in 2021.
Interestingly, Generation Alpha started at the same year that Apple launched its iPad, Instagram made its debut and the American Dialect Society crowned “app” as its word of the year. Surrounded by technology, this generation does not live without it, as an extension of itself. Digital tools are omnipresent in their lives, being the “most materially endowed and technologically literate generation to ever grace the planet!” [18].
This generation has grown up like no other, surrounded by technology from childhood, making it, certainly, the fittest generation in terms of digital skills. They are immersed in technology, almost as an extension of their way of being. It is widely accepted that technology can bring countless benefits. Let’s think about the SARS-CoV-19 pandemic. Although too early to know exactly the pandemic impact, in early 2020, the coronavirus pandemic forced schools and most employers to operate remotely, and technology was the one who came to the rescue. This crisis has driven unpredictable direct and indirect effects on the entire educational system. Although technology can be extremely useful, when it is overkill, it can create some drawbacks, such as shorter attention spans and delayed social development [17, 18]. The impact of all this crisis is yet to be determined for years and years to come.
At this point we all understand that the entire educational system (including higher education), must undergo a phenomenal adaptation to keep up with this distinct new generation of students [18]. Past/traditional methods of teaching and learning may already make little sense to today’s students who learn and think differently, and to their future workplace, where change is a constant, and where making use of information is now far more valuable than simply knowing things. Schools are probably failing to teach students to respond to rapid changes and how to handle new information because they are clinging to obsolete methods, namely memorize facts for a test when all the information will be fully available at a click [17]. To avoid demotivation, the learning process has been advocating new strategies, including activities student-centred, to achieve the expected learning outcomes and at the same time, to maintain student’s engagement [20, 21]. In order to increase students’ knowledge, understanding, and at same time enhancing their motivation and engagement, teachers must create a joy, an excitement, and a love for learning, while inspiring students. It is imperative for teachers to demonstrate how to learn, rather than dictating what they know [22]. New strategies will lead to success, reducing the frustration of a lonely, passive study, reducing despair, depression and poor quality of life.
Designing learning interventions requires careful consideration of how information is perceived and cognitively processed by students. Perceptual preferences refer to the preferred way to receive information and include visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners [23, 24]. It was observed that 73% of students learn effectively if the teacher combines visual, auditory, and kinesthetic activities, but the remaining students fail to understand the subject matter unless it is presented in their preferred way [25].
Visual students learn by watching, have a keen visual memory and are very imaginative. They are targeted by the presence of models and demonstrations, and extract detail from the background information, remembering faces rather than names. These students usually sit in front of the room and take notes or doodle. They understand better if they can see the facial expression and the body language of the teacher. Visual students normally prefer a quiet environment to study. Computer assisted learning (CAL) is an interesting option for these students, because it allows the schematic representations of information, through charts, graphs, diagrams, and flow charts [23, 24, 26].
Auditory learners prefer verbal instructional methods, such as lecture, discussion, work in groups, debates, games, and answering questions. They find it hard to study from notes and have difficulty with reading and writing tasks. Distinctions that are important to them include pitch, time, volume, rhythm, and resonance. These students often remember names but not faces, do not take notes in class, humor talk to themselves when bored or concentrating, and read aloud. They prefer to study in a noisy environment, as sounds can evoke memory of information [23, 24, 26].
Kinesthetic students also called as tactile learners require whole body movement and real-life experience to absorb and retain information, appreciating to manipulate models and role playing. They learn from external stimuli and movement and are often risk takers and disorganized. These students use highlighters and pictures to study. They learn best when there is music in the background and snacks are available. Kinesthetic learning methods include build, design, visit, interview, and play [23, 24, 26].
Thus, learning interventions need to incorporate the perceptual preferences of the students and help them to develop alternative modes of learning [23] through the incorporation of multisensory and diverse instructional methods (Figure 3).
Learning preferences (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).
The competitive workspace of the 21st century requires students to develop expertise across the four domains of knowledge, that includes the ability to think (cognitive skills), the capacity to valuing (affective skills), a skilled behavior (psychomotor skills), and strive to perform at highest levels (conative skills). However, the acquisition of expertise across all four domains of learning requires appropriate training [23, 27] and assessment [27].
Cognitive skills include six levels of complexity [28], ranging from lower-order skills (remember, understand, and apply) that require less cognitive processing to higher-order skills (analyze, evaluate, and create) that require greater degree of cognitive processing [29]. These cognitive skills can be contextualized into four types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive) that need to be achieved in the learning activities [28]. Factual knowledge refers to the acquisition of basic elements (terminology and discrete facts) that will allow students to solve problems. Conceptual knowledge is related to the generalizable principles (categories, theories, principles, and models) that transcend the specific contexts of a task or procedure and is commonly described as “knowing why”. Procedural knowledge refers to the technique, process, or methodology that allow executing a task or procedure proficiently and is described as “knowing how”. Finally, metacognition includes self-assessment ability and knowledge of various learning skills and techniques [23, 29, 30].
Most instruction in higher education is focused on the cognitive learning skills [29, 31], however, the development of the affective and psychomotor domains are crucial to the success of health professionals [29]. The affective domain refers to emotions and feelings, especially in relationship to a set of values, and is related to the way in which we deal with things emotionally. This domain includes five categories listed from the simplest behaviors (receiving, responding and valuing a particular phenomenon) to the most complex ones, related to organizing and characterizing values [23, 27]. The development of affective skills is fundamental in the veterinary field. Veterinary health professionals face difficult situations on a daily basis. It is necessary to be empathic with clients, to deliver bad news, to deal with animal cruelty, and to see clients struggling to balance financial needs with the needs of their pets. It is imperative for these students, future professionals, to develop affective skills, to create a culture of wellbeing that will allow to deal with all difficult and stressful situations.
The psychomotor domain is related to the mastery of physical skills, including reflective movements, fundamental movement, perceptual skills, physical abilities, skilled movement, and non-discursive communication [23]. Psychomotor skills are important in the veterinary field, since professionals perform delicate/sensitive physical tasks, handle sensitive medical equipment and frightened animals. The exhibition of an appropriate body language is also highly desired to efficiently communicate with colleagues/peers and clients.
The conative domain refers to the will, desire, drive, level of effort, mental energy, intention, striving, and self-determination to perform at the highest standards possible [27, 32]. It is important that students understand the importance of physiology for their professional career and have the internal desire to understand it, rather than memorizing concepts for assessment, which are soon forgotten and do not lead to effective learning (Figure 4) [23].
Comprehensive learning outcomes for the 21st century college graduates.
Learning outcomes that cut across the four domains of the knowledge include the capacity to access and use information, communicate using multiple media, demonstrate understanding, apply rules and procedures, be creative and curious, think critically, make sound judgments, solve problems, be committed to life-long learning, proactively seek to extend knowledge and exhibit an ethical behavior [27]. However, these meta-outcomes must be assessed to guarantee that they are learned, since students choose to focus their study efforts on subjects, they know that will be tested [27, 33].
It is not new and has been assumed since the Bologna treaty that the teaching and learning processes should be student centered, and a shift from an “instruction paradigm” towards a “learning paradigm” should be followed. Therefore, students must build their own understanding of concepts, relationships and procedures, and teachers can encourage this process by carefully considering the type and organization of information, as well as instructional strategies. Specifically, teachers should reduce the total amount of factual information students are expected to memorize, reduce passive lecture format, and devote much more effort to helping students to become active, independent learners and problem solvers. Collaborative learning activities, interactive models, educational games, and establishing a culture of inquiry/scholarship are critical for achieving these goals [22]. In this context, the teacher assumes the role of facilitator of learning experiences, designing structured classroom environments to maximize student learning, and promote at the same time “classrooms equity” [34, 35].
Active learning strategies meet perceptual preferences of all types of learners. [22, 36, 37]. The implementation of evidence-based active learning interventions, physiology-specific, particularly in large-enrolment class environments can be a challenge [35, 38]. However, active learning strategies range in scale from simple, “low risk” to more complex, “higher risk” activities.
Simple activities require little planning from the instructor and little involvement from the students (did not require verbal feedback to the teacher) and are easy to implement. They include pause procedure, minute papers, think pair-share activities, and classroom assessment techniques. More complex activities require more interaction and commitment of the students and more planning by the teacher. Students can work in informal, cooperative learning groups to solve problems, answer inquiry-type questions, analyze case studies and discuss articles among themselves and with the class. These active learning activities can be interspersed between lecture periods (basic active-learning lecture) [39] or replace completely lecturing. In this case, content can be transmitted before class, asking students to watch videos, or read certain material and then lecturing time can be exclusively used for active learning [35].
The use of games for teaching and learning purposes is not new. Games although fun and entertainment provides engaging experiences, interactive learning environments and collaborative learning activities [40].
Game-based learning (GBL) is an active learning approach that uses different types of game with defined learning outcomes [41, 42, 43]. It includes the so-called serious games, when its main goal is teaching and learning, besides entertainment [36, 44]. GBL is useful whether we are addressing basic disciplines or more specific ones. Physiology is considered difficult by many students from different courses in the area of veterinary health, namely veterinary medicine and nursing. They attribute the difficulty to the need to memorize content, an excessive quantity of information, difficulty in understanding the relations between the morphology and function of organs and systems, and the perception of some topics as being too abstract [45]. GBL creates a beneficial learning environment, requiring the interaction of the students in questions and answers that assist in retaining information and improving performance. In addition to the positive impacts on student learning, the use of educational games can increase involvement with activities related to the content of the course, as well as promote greater perception of improved learning by the students [45, 46]. On the other hand, games bring an element of pleasure and can reduce anxiety; students are promoted as participants and share their knowledge and engage in teaching each other; and students can combine theory and practice [47, 48].
Games used can be digital games, but it also can be other types of games, like board games.
Digital games, also called computer games, are games that use the advance of digital technology and offers new and engaging teaching method that allow students a most effective learning, once it is active, experiential, situated, problem-based oriented and provides immediate feedback [36]. Based in the use of computers and internet, this learning and teaching strategy has been increased, conducting to the production of several games with educational purposes in the veterinary field [49, 50].
Board games are games with rules, a playing surface, and tokens that enable interaction between or among players and facilitate face-to-face interactions with peers and teachers [51, 52].
When comparing board games with computer games, the first are more effective in terms of acquiring knowledge, but computer games yield better results when it comes to motivation, self-efficacy, or skill enhancement [42, 52]. When we combine motivation and engagement in the learning and teaching process, learning outcomes will be successfully achieved.
The meaning of gamification varies widely and is often confused with GBL. Gamification is an umbrella term, that involves the application of game elements such as points, levels, time constraints and awards, and use them as non-game settings to other areas of interest [42, 53, 54]. Gamification has been characterized as well adapted to the learning style of Z generation [21, 42, 53, 54, 55]. Applied to an educational context, a gamified learning experience can positively influence student engagement by using gamification principles to affect the cognitive, emotional, and social aspects of the learning experience [54]. The cognitive aspect is stimulated through goal-oriented and learning objectives-based activities that challenge students within the gamified environment. The emotional aspect plays an important part in a gamified learning platform: curiosity, frustration, joy, pride and optimism are present during the experience [42]. Most importantly, the gamified learning experiences give feedback and allow repetition, encouraging resilience and reframing of failure, reinforcing the idea that repeated failures will eventually lead students to level completion and achieving learning goals [56]. The social aspect involves the participation of students within an environment where they interact with their peers and are part of a group. In this learning environment, students can have new identities and roles (using avatars and role play), and through branching mechanisms, they are asked to make choices and decisions. Also, gamification allows students to publicly identify themselves as “masters,” once they reach a higher level of mastery, and gain social credibility - for example, via a leaderboard [57] - as well as academic recognition by accumulating points [58].
A virtual laboratory is any online environment that is based on interactive learning either individually or in groups, allowing students to explore topics in an asynchronous manner that has no immediate physical reality [59].
In the last decade, there has been a gradual shift of conventional physical, in-person laboratories towards virtual alternatives, motivated by several reasons. Physical laboratories are expensive. They need advanced instruments and equipment, space, professional personnel, and maintenance. Moreover, the student population is increasing, conducting to higher experimental costs. Virtual laboratories and tools provide significant long-term cost savings. Whilst the initial development or purchase costs may be large, once developed, the majority do not require the ongoing purchase of consumables, the provision of physical space, laboratory equipment or support staff time [60].
Animal-based laboratories, very useful in the past for physiology teaching and learning, can be associated with ethical concerns, while virtual animal model simulations reduce the ethical dilemmas and broadens the types of experiments that can be conducted. Moreover, virtual laboratories exhibit higher levels of efficiency and safety, enabling students to learn in their own time and pace [61, 62, 63]. This is also another great advantage when we think of all the students undertaking part-time employment to support their studies. For them, the possibility to study at their own time and pace, at home or elsewhere, and to access virtual laboratories and experiments that always work, and with consistent data, is unvaluable. With these simulations, experiments are far shorter; students can undertake more experiments in the time available increasing their learning. Several studies have already proven that virtual laboratory tools were equally effective as traditional laboratories in increasing student knowledge and understanding, when evaluated by student performance in examinations [62, 64, 65, 66].
Nevertheless, virtual laboratories have intrinsic constraints and limitations. They do not provide students with the opportunity to develop key practical or technical skills (hands-on experience), or how to use specific items of equipment or to promote awareness of ethical, health and safety issues. They will always give the characteristic and correct data, like a perfect scenario, and we all know that in real life it’s not always like that [60, 63].
Although virtual laboratories have become increasingly common as a form of teaching aid in different learning situations, creating a virtual laboratory for teaching and learning is, however, overly complex, incorporating skills in diverse areas such as interaction design, visualization, and pedagogy. It involves design and production of texts, images, 3D environments and interactivity, and the production requires programming and animation [63, 67]. There are some virtual labs already deposited in open educational resource (OER) repositories (https://libguides.mines.edu/oer/simulationslabs) that can be easily used and are invaluable strategies for this demanding learning/teaching process [63]. When asked whether virtual or traditional laboratories should be discontinued, students saw a place for both within the curriculum, recommending that they should be used in parallel [68].
In this enthusiastic process of teaching and learning physiology, our option is for a blended/mixed approach, meaning a process that brings together what we consider the best from different approaches: experiments hands-on, virtual experiments, digital games/simulations, board games, crosswords and word search games.
This way we intend to avoid boredom, to promote curiosity, motivation, and engagement, and to create learning opportunities for all students (visual, auditory and kinesthetic students) to go beyond rote memorization of terms and processes, and towards developing mental models of physiological phenomena.
Reflecting the importance of technology in the Z Generation, all students own at least one Internet-ready device (e.g., iPad, laptop, tablet, smartphone), enabling the use of online resources in this approach.
Crosswords are an easy and fun way to engage students. Crossword puzzles have the purpose of encourage students to form words or phrases which lead to the answers. It can be used as a means of enhancing general and scientific information, assuming a facilitative role for problem-solving skills.
This is an in-house crossword (Figure 5). Starting from physiologic concepts or definitions, and using online free tools (https://worksheets.theteacherscorner.net/make-your-own/crossword/), the puzzle shown in the image is created.
Physio crosswords. (in English, for example n° 1: Across1: TSH target organ. Answer: Thyroid).
In a combined work of teachers and students, through a Pedagogical project financed by Polytechnique Institute of Viseu (IPV), The MacVet Project (Create, Simulate and Learn), three in-house learning games were created from classic games: Vetpoly, Physiohedbanz and Pictionaryvet (Figure 6).
Vetpoly board and game; Physiohedbanz game and rules’ card; Pictionaryvet rules’ card.
The traditional Monopoly board game has been converted to VetPoly. The original game has been adapted by creating a new board, community box cards and lucky cards, so that the game would reflect the veterinary field environment. The community box cards have been turned into Quizz timecards. Whenever the player lands on a Quizz time house they will have to answer a physiology question. If the player gets it right, he will receive a monetary reward; if he makes a mistake, he will be penalized and will have to return the amount indicated on the card to the bank. This game adapts to various curriculum units, just by replacing the Quizz time cards.
The Hedbanz was converted to Physiohedbanz. Using cards with figures/concepts related to physiology, that students must identify without seeing it. The game is based in old game of “What am I?” Player has to ask “yes” or “no” questions before time runs out (e.g., ADH. The student with the ADH card, must ask if it is a hormone, if it acts in the renal tubules, if it inhibits diuresis). In the end wins the player with more scoring badges.
The Pictionaryvet, similar to the classic Pictionary game, requires some drawing skills. Students are invited to draw the concepts/terms/processes, all related to physiology. Like Physioheadbanz, there are time restrictions for each team.
Animals’ experiments, classically used in the learning process of physiology, have been gradually replaced by “virtual animals”, with enormous advantages: reduction of the live animals used and replacing them by alternatives. The use of “virtual rats” is one of the best known alternatives. We use, for several years and with remarkable academic success, a “Laboratory exercise using “virtual rats“ to teach endocrine physiology” [69] and “Virtual rat: a tool for understanding hormonal regulation of gastrointestinal function” [70]. Although may be considered “old” papers, they remain actual. Through the description of the experiment and by the analysis of the results given, students are invited to actively enhance their understanding of physiology and foster logical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Z generation and technology are always holding hands. Most students (in many cases all students) not only own smartphones and other gadgets but are also attached to them (both physically and emotionally), and in some cases are inseparable. Smartphones provide convenience, portability, comprehensive learning experiences, multi sources and multitasks, and are environmentally friendly. Students use their smartphones for a great variety of tasks: to be connected to their friends, to be on top of every event, and to access teaching materials or supporting information, normally accessible through the Internet. They also use smartphones to interact with teachers and group colleagues outside classes.
Students using interactive quizzing in an online setting reported increased engagement whilst learning due to the fun, joyful and attractive environment, and because of the interaction that occurs. It has also other advantage: the fact that it promotes a healthy competition, conducting to better learning outcomes. A great advantage of Kahoot! is that it is equally effective across both face-to-face and online teaching sessions (Figure 7).
Muscular physiology Kahoot! Performed in a face-to-face teaching lesson.
Other online quizzes available on the internet, like Socrative, are also utilized in the process of teaching and learning physiology.
As mentioned, simulations can be a practical and effective alternative to traditional laboratory experiences, sparing the need to use subjects (e.g., animals) and/or expensive equipment. There are some online resources available, but our main experience is with Labster [71] (https://www.labster.com/), a platform of laboratory virtual simulations, aiming to increase the learning outcomes. Upon launch a simulation, students are invited to go through a tutorial to know how to navigate in the simulation (arrows that will indicate where to look, or where to go, holograms that show were to go or where to place objects, like pipettes, glass slides, beakers…). There is a lab pad, available during all the simulations that help the student with four sections: the Home page provides instructions and quiz questions, the Theory page gives access to all the information needed in order to answer the quiz questions, the Media page stores all the images seen during the simulation, and finally the Mission page provides an overview of all the simulation steps (Figure 8).
Labster simulation: Hematology. Introduction to blood.
The benefits of using active learning strategies, and in understanding the student that is in front of us, are tremendous, since the potential of every student can be elevated, resulting in better learning outcomes and student satisfaction and enjoyment.
Remaining in a traditional and lecture-based method of curriculum delivery has been attributed to be one of the causes for school dropout and failure. Z generation is technology oriented and its inclination to turn to the digital world must be faced as a teaching ally. We also showed that besides technology, there are also other strategies, more economic ones, that can be applied. What matters is to stimulate learners. We all know that physiology is a complex science. Our job, as teachers, is to provide the correct tools for the students to learn by developing their cognitive skills, their reasoning ability and their critical thinking, and to develop affective, psychomotor and conative skills. From here, the need for constant learning and the fascination for science will be a natural consequence. We cannot forget that in the 21st century, information is just a click away. What each one does with this information is what it counts.
This work was supported by the Polythecnic Institute of Viseu (IPV), through MAcVET – Apoios Especiais PV, and VLAB – Apoios Especiais PV, and by Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), through funds to Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM) UID/04413/2020 and to Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences UIDB/04033/2020.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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