\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3427",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Neural Stem Cells - New Perspectives",title:"Neural Stem Cells",subtitle:"New Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Twenty years after the discovery of neural stem cells, the question whether the central nervous system can be considered among regenerative tissues is still open. On one side, deep characterization of neural stem and progenitor cells, their niches, and their progeny in brain neurogenic sites overtly showed that new neurons can be generated in the brain of adult mammals, including humans. On the other side, many problems arise when stem cells encounter the mature brain parenchyma, still hampering the development of efficacious therapeutic approaches with endogenous or exogenously-delivered neural stem cells. This book tries to make the point on these extremely promising, yet unresolved, issues.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1069-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7133-1",doi:"10.5772/56573",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"neural-stem-cells-new-perspectives",numberOfPages:430,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"43e043afc3a3af46076832b4f784dcca",bookSignature:"Luca Bonfanti",publishedDate:"April 24th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3427.jpg",numberOfDownloads:33002,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:41,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:87,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 29th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 2nd 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 1st 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"154282",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Bonfanti",slug:"luca-bonfanti",fullName:"Luca Bonfanti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/154282/images/system/154282.jpg",biography:"Luca Bonfanti, DVM, PhD, graduated (with honors) in 1987 at the School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Turin, Italy. 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Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9653",title:"Light Pollution, Urbanization and Ecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b1e5d120ec03412f5e22b7cd0d7c69f8",slug:"light-pollution-urbanization-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9653.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50311",title:"Typical Non–TiO2-Based Visible-Light Photocatalysts",doi:"10.5772/62889",slug:"typical-non-tio2-based-visible-light-photocatalysts",body:'\n
In the past decades, the development of photocatalysis has been the focus of considerable attention with photocatalysis being used in a variety of products across a broad range of research areas, including especially environmental and energy-related fields [1]. The pioneering discovery from the water splitting reported by Fujishima and Honda in 1972 [2] is considered to be unlock the doors of the photocatalysis research. This is because they found that the photocatalytic properties of certain materials could convert solar energy into chemical energy to oxidize or reduce materials to obtain useful materials including hydrogen [3, 4] and hydrocarbons [5] and to remove pollutants and bacteria [6] on wall surfaces and in air and water [7]. Among the various photocatalysts developed, TiO2 is undoubtedly the most popular and widely used photocatalyst since it is of low cost, high photocatalytic activity, chemical, and photochemical stability [8]. However, due to the wide bandgap of TiO2, it could absorb and utilize ultraviolet (UV) light, which accounts for a small fraction of solar light (3–5%). Hence, it is necessary to develop a particular photocatalyst, which is sensitive to sunlight. The range of optical absorption of TiO2 could be extended from UV to visible light, which is a good way to utilize of solar energy effectively in photocatalytic reactions. In the past decades, researchers spent a great deal of time and resources developing visible light–active photocatalysts [9]. In order to design visible-light response photocatalysts, two strategies have been proposed. One approach is the modification of the wide bandgap photocatalysts (such as TiO2, ZnO) by doping or by producing between them and other materials. The other approach is the exploration and development of novel semiconductor materials capable of absorbing visible light.
\nFrom the view point of using solar light, the first step in the development of a technology that makes efficient use of solar energy is the discovery of a photocatalyst that becomes highly active under visible light (λ > 400 nm). Since the optical absorption properties of a photocatalyst is determined by the energy bandgap of semiconductor photocatalyst, it is necessary to choose a narrow band of semiconductor as photocatalyst. Hence, the energy band engineering is a fundamental aspect of the design and fabrication of visible-light–driven photocatalysts. Considering the optical absorption, direct, and narrow bandgap semiconductors are more likely to exhibit high absorbance and be suitable for the efficient harvesting of low-energy photons. However, it is a pity that the recombination probability for photo-excited electron–hole pairs is rather high in direct and narrow bandgap semiconductors, and the band-edge positions are frequently incompatible with the electrochemical potential that is necessary to trigger specific redox reactions [10]. Therefore, the energy band structure of a photocatalyst plays a significant role in the light absorption property and in determining the redox potentials. In order to effectively utilize the solar energy, design and adjustment of band structure are an effective approach to obtain visible-light response photocatalyst with excellent performance. Through unremitting efforts, researchers have developed some typical and excellent visible-light-driven semiconductor photocatalysts, such as WO3, Ag3PO4, BiVO4, g-C3N4-based photocatalysts, which possess suitable energy band configurations. In this chapter, we would like to focus on these four typical visible-light-driven semiconductor photocatalysts and summarize the recent progress of enhanced visible-light efficiency. Furthermore, we also highlight the crucial issues that should be addressed in future research activities.
\nThe crystal structures of WO3 are described below: WO3 crystals are generally formed by corner and edge sharing of WO6 octahedra. The following phases are obtained by corner sharing: monoclinic II (ε-WO3), triclinic (δ-WO3), monoclinic I (γ-WO3), orthorhombic (β-WO3), tetragonal (α-WO3), and cubic WO3 [11]. However, cubic WO3 is not commonly observed experimentally. Szilágyi et al. [12] found that the monoclinic WO3 always shows the best photocatalytic activity among these crystal phases.
\nThe electronic band structure of WO3 can be described as follows: WO3 is an n-type semiconductor, with an electronic bandgap (Eg), corresponding to the difference between the energy levels of the valence band (VB), formed by filled O 2p orbitals and the conduction band (CB) formed by empty W 5d orbitals [13]. It is known that the cubic phase is the ideal crystal phase of WO3, and the crystal phase changes with the distortion degree from the ideal phase, which is accompanied by a change in Eg since the occupied levels of the W 5d states change [14]. As a photocatalytic material, stoichiometric WO3 has a CB edge, which is positioned slightly more positive (versus NHE (normal hydrogen electrode)) than the H2/H2O reduction potential [15] and a VB edge much more positive than the H2O/O2 oxidation potential, which makes WO3 capable of efficiently photo-oxidizing a wide range of organic compounds [16] such as textile dyes and bacterial pollutants. When compared to TiO2, another advantage of WO3 is that it can be irradiated by the blue region of the visible solar spectrum. Furthermore, WO3 has a remarkable stability in acidic environments, making it a promising candidate for treatment of water contaminated by organic acids [17].
\nThe preparation of nanometer-sized crystalline WO3 particles and control of their morphology is important to improve photocatalytic activity. Zhao and Miyauchi [18] developed a facile and economical method to produce high-purity tungstic acid hydrate nanotubes and nanoporous-walled WO3 nanotubes on a large scale. They found that the WO3 nanotubes loaded with Pt nanoparticles show larger surface area and higher visible-light-driven photocatalytic activity compared to Pt-nanoparticle-loaded commercial WO3. Recently, attention has been focused on three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) materials with pores sizes in the sub-micrometer range, because of the potential of photocatalysis application. Generally, the 3DOM materials can be prepared by three steps. Firstly, some mono-disperse polymer spheres such as poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and polystyrene (PS) were selected as a colloidal crystal template. Secondly, the colloidal crystal template was immersed into the material precursors. Thirdly, the polymer colloidal crystal template was removed by the calcination removed to form an ordered porous structure. The ordered (“inverse opal”) structures prepared by this method consist of a skeleton surrounding and a uniform close-packed macropores. For instance, Sadakane et al. [19] prepared 3DOM WO3 using a colloidal crystal template of PMMA spheres.
\nGenerally, WO3 exhibits low photocatalytic activity for decomposing organic compounds compared with traditional TiO2 photocatalyst under UV light irradiation. However, WO3 could show high photocatalytic activity for the decomposition of organic compounds under visible light when the surface is modified with noble metal nanoparticles, such as platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and so on. For instance, Abe et al. demonstrated that WO3 deposited with Pt nanoparticles exhibits good photocatalytic activity for the decomposition of liquid and gaseous organics. It was an impressive performance that the photocatalytic activity of Pt/WO3 was almost close to that of TiO2 under UV light irradiation and much higher than that of N-doped TiO2 under visible irradiation [20]. In the Pt/WO3 system, the electrons were excited to the CB from the VB of WO3 and then were injected into Pt nanoparticles, which act as electron pools to participate in two or four electron reductions of the adsorbed oxygen molecules. Hence, the particle size of the Pt nanoparticles plays a very important role in the multi-electron reduction process. On the other side, the metal surface of Pt induces the photocatalyst is more hydrophobic compared with a metal oxide surface. These findings were widely concerned in the past years and were considered to open up a research upsurge of WO3 photocatalyst.
\nLarge area uniformity, low production cost, and excellent durability of WO3 thin films can play a very important role in the fabrication of electrochromic devices and photocatalytic materials. In the past years, the electrodeposition, sol–gel processing, one-pot direct hydrothermal growth, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, and vacuum evaporation methods were used to prepare WO3 thin films. In particular, Miyauchi M synthesized WO3 films with underlying Pt nanoparticles (WO3/Pt/substrate) and those with overlying Pt nanoparticles (Pt/WO3/substrate) by sputtering and sol–gel methods [21]. Figure 1 shows the SEM images of different Pt layer surfaces. Moreover, it is found that underlying Pt nanoparticles greatly enhanced the photocatalytic oxidation activity of WO3 without decreasing the photo-induced hydrophilic conversion between these films. The optimum structure for high performance in both photocatalysis and photo-induced hydrophilicity was WO3 (50 nm)/Pt(1.5 nm)/substrate, and this film exhibited a significant self-cleaning property even under visible-light irradiation.
\nSEM images of different Pt layer surfaces: (a) 0.5 nm, (b) 1.5 nm, (c) 3 nm, and (d) 10 nm thick. The inset words describe the sheet resistance of the film surfaces measured by a four-pin probe method (reproduced with permission from [
In 2010, a breakthrough on visible-light-driven photocatalysts was made by Ye’s research team, who reported the use of Ag3PO4 as an active visible-light-driven photocatalyst for the oxidation of water and photodecomposition of organic compounds [22]. Ye’s research team demonstrated that Ag3PO4 photocatalyst could achieve high quantum efficiency under visible-light irradiation. The quantum efficiency of this novel photocatalyst could up to 90% which is significantly superior to others such as BiVO4 or N-doped TiO2. However, it should be noted that there are still some limitations in the Ag3PO4 photocatalytic system. Firstly, the particle size of Ag3PO4 is relatively large (0.5–2 μm) that limits the photocatalytic performance. To enhance photocatalytic activity of this new material, it is desirable to synthesize nanosized Ag3PO4 particles with higher surface area which is beneficial to the photocatalytic reaction. Secondly, the Ag3PO4 photocatalyst suffers from serious stability issue which is the main hindrance for the practical application of Ag3PO4 as a recyclable and highly efficient photocatalyst. This is because the CB potential of Ag3PO4 is more positive than that of the hydrogen potential (0 V). As shown in Figure 2, the CB and VB potentials of Ag3PO4 are +0.45, +2.9 V vs. NHE, respectively [23]. Thus, under visible-light irradiation, electrons and holes were generated in the CB and VB of Ag3PO4, and then, the photogenerated electrons could reduce the interstitial silver ions (Ag+) to form the silver atoms (Ag), resulting in the photocorrosion of Ag3PO4 without a sacrificial reagent. The formed Ag nanoparticles would adhere to the surface of the Ag3PO4 photocatalyst and suspend in the photocatalytic reaction systems, giving rise to the prevention of absorption of visible light and the decrease of photocatalytic activity [24]. Hence, it is necessary to enhance the photocatalytic activity and stability of Ag3PO4.
\nSchematic drawing of redox potentials of Ag3PO4 (reproduced with permission from [
The morphology control of photocatalysts has been considered to be one of the most promising avenues to improve the photocatalytic properties. This is because photocatalytic reactions are typically surface-based processes, and thus, the photocatalytic efficiency is closely related to the morphology and microstructure of a photocatalyst. Accordingly, further studies on Ag3PO4 crystals with new morphologies and structures will be of great value.
\nTo investigate the effects of the shapes and facets of particular photocatalysts on their photocatalytic properties, single-crystals of Ag3PO4 were synthesized in two forms by Ye’s research team [25], firstly with rhombic dodecahedron shapes and exposed {110} facets, and secondly cubes bounded by {100} facets. Ye’s research team found that rhombic dodecahedral Ag3PO4 crystals could be prepared using CH3COOAg as the silver ion precursors, while cubic Ag3PO4 crystals could be prepared using [Ag(NH3)2]+ as the silver ion precursors. The Ag3PO4 dodecahedrons were formed by 12 well-defined {110} planes with cubic crystal symmetry (Figure 3a), whereas the Ag3PO4 cubes showed sharp corners, edges, and smooth surfaces (Figure 3b). The results of photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange (MO) and RhB dyes indicated that the rhombic dodecahedral Ag3PO4 exposed {110} facet showed higher photocatalytic activity than the cubic Ag3PO4 exposed {100} facet (Figure 3c,
SEM images of Ag3PO4 sub-microcrystals with different morphologies: (A) rhombic dodecahedrons and (B) cubes. The photocatalytic activities of Ag3PO4 rhombic dodecahedrons, cubes, spheres, and N-doped TiO2 are shown for the degradation of (C) MO and (D) RhB under visible-light irradiation (λ > 400 nm) (reproduced with permission from [
Very recently, some morphologies of Ag3PO4 have been reported by other research teams. For examples, Liu and co-workers [26] reported Ag3PO4 crystals with porous structure. Guo and co-workers synthesized tetrahedral Ag3PO4 crystals with exposed {111} facets and tetrapod-shaped Ag3PO4 microcrystals with exposed {110} facets [23, 27]. Teng and co-workers [28] synthesized Ag3PO4 crystals with tetrapod morphology by a hydrothermal method. Liang et al. [29] synthesized hierarchical Ag3PO4 porous microcubes with enhanced photocatalytic properties. However, these reported various morphologies of Ag3PO4 crystals were obtained by adjusting internal experimental conditions such as raw materials, solvents, pH values, and additives. Our research team found that the Ag3PO4 products with various new morphologies such as branch, tetrapod, nanorod, and triangular prism were prepared via a facile and efficient synthesis process [30], as shown in Figure 4. It is demonstrated that the morphology of Ag3PO4 crystals can be controlled by simply adjusting external experimental conditions such as static and ultrasonic conditions. When the product was prepared under static conditions for 0 h, branched Ag3PO4 was achieved. Increasing the static time led to the formation of tetrapod morphology. When the synthesis process was completed under ultrasonic conditions within 2 h, nanorod-shaped Ag3PO4 was obtained. Prolonging the ultrasonic time could result in the formation of triangular-prism-shaped Ag3PO4. The photocatalytic results indicate that the branched Ag3PO4 sample shows greatly enhanced photocatalytic activity compared with other as-prepared Ag3PO4 samples.
\nSEM images of branched (a), tetrapod (b), nanorod-shaped (c), and triangular-prism-shaped (d) Ag3PO4 crystals (reproduced with permission from [
To elucidate its mechanism of the extremely high photo-oxidative activity under visible-light irradiation of Ag3PO4, theoretical works have been carried out using first-principle method. So far, theoretical investigations are mainly focused on the energy band configuration because photo-excited carriers are generated when the incident photon energy is higher than the bandgap of Ag3PO4. Besides that, the alignment between the band edges and the redox potentials of the target molecules should also be considered. This is because the photogenerated electrons can be transferred to the adsorbed oxygen molecules only when there is a sufficiently large negative offset of the conduction band minimum (CBM), and the photogenerated holes could combine with water molecules when there is a sufficiently large positive offset of the valence band maximum (VBM) according to the redox potentials [31].
\nTo obtain insight into the high photo-oxidative activity of Ag3PO4,
(Color) Total and local DOS for (a) Ag3PO4, (b) Ag2O, and (c) AgNbO3. For the local DOS, we use spheres of radii 1.503, 0.82, 1.233, and 1.503 Å for Ag, O, P, and Nb, respectively. The VBM represents the zero energy. The insets in (a) and (b) display the extended plots of DOS for Ag s and d at the energy range near the CBM. The partial charge density corresponding to one of the P-O bonding states is illustrated in the leftmost area in (a). The mauve and red spheres denote the positions of P and O atoms, and the isosurface (yellow surface) is at 0.03 e/Å3, respectively (reproduced with permission from [
In addition, Ma et al. [33] used first-principles density functional theory incorporating the LDA + U formalism to investigate the origin of photocatalytic activation of Ag3PO4. They found that Ag3PO4 has a great distribution of CB and the inductive effect of PO43−, which is benefit for the separation of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. It is theoretically demonstrated that Ag vacancies in Ag3PO4 with high concentration have an evident influence on the separation of electron–hole pairs and the optical absorbance of visible light, which presents a rational interpretation of the experimental results of high photocatalytic activity of Ag3PO4.
\nTo harvest photons in visible region, many narrow bandgap metal oxides or chalcogenides have been coupled with TiO2 to fabricate visible-light photocatalysts, which exhibit visible-light photocatalytic activity to a certain extent. Such a strategy is also applied to modify Ag3PO4 photocatalyst to enhance its photocatalytic activity and/or improve its stability.
\nRecent reports indicated that the insoluble AgX (X = Cl, Br, I) nanoshells on the surface of Ag3PO4 could improve its photocatalytic activity and stability [24]. In addition, various coupled systems, such as Ag3PO4/TiO2 [34], Ag3PO4/Ag [35] composites have been developed to improve the photocatalytic activity and/or stability of Ag3PO4. Our research team found that Ag3PO4 and reduced graphite oxide sheets (RGOs) nanocomposites show the enhanced photocatalytic activity and structural stability [36]. We also found that, when Ag3PO4 and TiOF2 were compounded, the stability of composite photocatalysts was highly enhanced but the photocatalytic activity was not improved. In the case of Ag3PO4/TiOF2 composite, Ag3PO4 and TiOF2 have different conduction bands (Ec), valence bands (Ev), and Fermi levels (Ef) (the detail analysis of level energies was shown in the Supplementary data). When the mixed Ag3PO4/TiOF2 composite is formed, the Fermi energies of these two phases have to be the same in the boundary between the Ag3PO4 and TiOF2 phases. This leads to both of the Ec and Ev of Ag3PO4 lie above that of TiOF2, as shown in Figure 6. Under visible-light irradiation, a larger number of electrons are excited to the Ec from the Ev of Ag3PO4 and then transferred to the Ec of TiOF2, while the holes left on the VB of Ag3PO4. Thus, the enriched electrons on the surface of TiOF2 could facilitate their participation in a multiple-electron reduction reaction of oxygen (O2 + 2H+ + 2e− → H2O2), which effectively protects Ag3PO4 semiconductors to avoid its self-corrosion by a single-electron reduction reaction (Ag+ + e− → Ag). Therefore, the Ag3PO4/TiOF2 composite photocatalyst exhibits enhanced photocatalytic stability compared with that of pure Ag3PO4. It is thought that TiOF2 was used as an electron acceptor and protected Ag3PO4 particles to avoid the self-corrosion of Ag3PO4. On the other hand, the left holes on the VB of Ag3PO4 could migrate to the surface of photocatalysts and participate in the photo-oxidative reaction and then decompose the methylene blue (MB) molecules.
\nSchematic diagram for the CB, VB, and Fermi level of Ag3PO4 as well as TiOF2, and the electron–hole separation and energy band matching of Ag3PO4/TiOF2 composite under visible-light irradiation (reproduced with permission from [
BiVO4 is one of the typical complex oxides with narrow bandgap, which possess excellent visible-light photocatalytic properties. As an n-type semiconductor with a direct bandgap of 2.4 eV, BiVO4 could absorb ample visible light and is stable in neutral electrolyte, nontoxic, and relatively cheap [38]. BiVO4 has three crystal systems of zircon-tetragonal, scheelite tetragonal, and scheelite-monoclinic. However, only the scheelite-monoclinic phase is reportedly active in the photocatalytic oxygen evolution [39]. In addition, the scheelite-monoclinic can be obtained from the irreversible phase transformation of the zircon-tetragonal structure at the temperature of 400–500°C [40].
\nBiVO4 could be synthesized by various methods, such as solid-state reaction, metal organic decomposition, hydrothermal treatment, and coprecipitation.
\nBiVO4 prepared via a solid-state reaction always shows big particle size and low surface area, which resulted in poor photocatalytic activity. So, it is encouraged to synthesize BiVO4 by new methods.
\nZhang et al. [41] reported BiVO4 nanosheets were hydrothermally synthesized by a simple one-step route in the presence of sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) as a morphology-directing template. The BiVO4 nanosheets had a monoclinic structure, were ca. 10–40 nm thick, and showed a preferred (010) surface orientation.
\nSingle-crystalline BiVO4 microtubes with square cross sections and flower-like morphology was prepared by a facile reflux method at 80°C [42]. In the synthesis process, no surfactants or templates were involved. The prepared microtubes show the monoclinic structure with a growth direction of [010], and the side length is about 800 nm as well as the wall thickness is around 100 nm.
\nLi et al. [43] describes a nanocasting synthesis of ordered mesoporous BiVO4 photocatalyst with the help of a template of silica (KIT-6) using ammonia metavanadate and bismuth nitrate hydrate as vanadium and bismuth sources, respectively. Monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 crystals were formed inside the mesopores of hard template (silica) by a mild thermal process, and mesoporous BiVO4 was obtained after the removal of silica by NaOH treatment. The prepared mesoporous BiVO4 showed not only the activity for photocatalytic O2 evolution but also the photocatalytic oxidation of NO gas in air under visible-light irradiation.
\nIn particular, Li’s research team prepared BiVO4 crystals exposed with {010} and {110} crystal facets, as shown in Figure 7. They found that the reduction reaction with photogenerated electrons occurs separately on the {010} facet under visible-light irradiation, while the oxidation reaction with photogenerated holes takes place on the {110} facet. Therefore, a conclusion that efficient charge separation can be achieved on different crystal facets was given. Based on this finding, they further demonstrated that the reduction and oxidation co-catalysts could be selectively deposited on the {010} and {110} facets, respectively, giving rise to a much higher photocatalytic and photo-electrocatalytic activity for water oxidation reactions than the photocatalyst with randomly distributed co-catalysts. Overall, these results indicate that the photogenerated electrons and holes can be separated between the different facets of semiconductors.
\nSEM images of BiVO4 (a), Au/BiVO4 (b), Pt/BiVO4 (c), Ag/BiVO4 (d), MnOx/BiVO4 (e), and PbO2/BiVO4 (f). The deposited contents of the metals/metal oxides are all 5 wt%. The scale bar is all 500 nm (reproduced with permission from [
Heterostructure formation is widely utilized to improve the properties of a semiconductor by combining with other functional materials. It has a large scope of materials as well as applications including photocatalysis, photovoltaics, light-emitting devices, and optoelectronics [45]. Combination of two semiconductors (n/n or p/n) with proper band positions can make cascade electron transfer from CB of upper potential to CB of lower potential. Successful heterojunction formation of BiVO4 has been reported with WO3, SnO2, Fe2O3, CuWO4, and CdS, in which the WO3/BiVO4 has been the most common. WO3 (Eg = 2.6–2.8 eV) is one of the most active metal oxide photocatalyst with CB at 0.42 VRHE (RHE: reversible hydrogen electrode) and VB at 3.12 VRHE [46]. With such band configurations presented at Figure 8a, the photo-induced electrons transfer from BiVO4 to WO3, whereas holes cannot. This prevents electron/hole recombination in BiVO4. Since WO3 has better mobility and longer diffusion length than BiVO4, the photo-induced electrons collected in WO3 can be more efficiently converted to photocurrents with much reduced recombination compared to the case when the photo-induced electrons are locked in BiVO4. Since BiVO4 has a smaller bandgap and wider pH stability, BiVO4/WO3 heterojunction can absorb larger portion of solar light and has better neutral stability compared with pure WO3. The improved charge transfer characteristics of BiVO4/WO3 heterojunction was confirmed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) that showed that resistance of the heterojunction is reduced almost to that of WO3. Moreover, nanostructured WO3 was found to be more effective. As shown in Figure 8b, WO3 prepared in one-dimensional (1D) nanorods or nanowires makes the BiVO4/WO3 heterojunction more effective [47]. The particular geometry reduces the distance that the photo-induced holes have to travel in radial direction to reach the surface of WO3 photocatalyst. On the other hand, the photo-induced electrons have to flow along the axial direction making a vectorial flow. Another successful heterojunction is BiVO4/SnO2, as shown in Figure 8c. SnO2 has a large bandgap of 3.5 eV and potentials of CB (0.27 VRHE) and VB (3.77 VRHE), which are favorable for cascade the photo-induced electron transferred from BiVO4 [48]. In addition, SnO2 has a passivation effect of FTO glass. Thus, a large number of interfacial defects and the potential electron trap states of FTO can be passivated by a thin SnO2 layer, improving charge transfer at BiVO4/FTO interface [49]. Also very positive VB of SnO2 prevents a backward hole transfer through SnO2 layer forming a “hole mirror.” As CB potential of BiVO4, SnO2, and WO3 is aligned in cascade (0.02/0.27/0.41 VRHE), ternary composite of BiVO4/SnO2/WO3 could be prepared as an effective heterojunction, as shown in Figure 8d [48].
\nSchemes of BiVO4-based heterojunction: (a) BiVO4/WO3 [
Since the pioneering work in 2009 on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) for visible-light photocatalytic water splitting [51], g-C3N4-based photocatalysis has become a very hot research topic. Unlike TiO2, which is only active in the UV region, g-C3N4 has a bandgap of ca. 2.7 eV, with the CB and VB positions at ca. −1.1 and ca. +1.6 eV vs. NHE, respectively. This electronic structural character suggests the g-C3N4 could be a visible-light active photocatalyst. g-C3N4 is not only the most stable allotrope of carbon nitrides at ambient atmosphere, but it also has rich surface properties that are attractive for catalysis application due to the presence of basic surface sites. The ideal g-C3N4 consists solely of an assembly of C–N bonds without electron localization in the π state (this material is a π-conjugated polymer).
\nThe most common precursors used for chemical synthesis of g-C3N4 are reactive nitrogen-rich and oxygen-free compounds containing prebonded C–N core structures, such as triazine and heptazine derivatives, but most of them is unstable and difficult to obtain and/or highly explosive. The synthesis of single-phase sp3-hybridized carbon nitrides is a challenging task due to their low thermodynamic stability. Generally, the defect materials are much more valuable than the ideal one, in particular for catalysis, which requires surface defects. Thus, the synthesis of g-C3N4 with defects is an interesting topic, when the material is going to be used in catalysis.
\nPure g-C3N4 can be obtained at ca. 500°C when the precursor cyanamide is pretreated with a basic solution (like aqueous NaOH) [52]. It is found that the presence of hydroxyl ions facilitates the transformation of cyanamide to g-C3N4, probably due to the hydroxyl ions that promote the condensation process, by reacting with the hydrogen atoms on the edges of the intermediate.
\nGenerally, porous photocatalysts are very fascinating, because the porous structure can provide a large surface area and a lot of channels, which is benefit for the diffusion of contaminant molecules, as well as charge migration and separation. Researchers always synthesize the porous g-C3N4 photocatalyst using hard and soft templates because the porous structure of g-C3N4 can be tuned by choosing different templates. Recently, porous g-C3N4 can also be synthesized using surfactants (e.g., Triton X-100, P123, Brij 58) or ionic liquids as soft templates through a self-polymerization reaction [53].
\n1D nanostructured photocatalysts such as nanorods, nanowires, nanobelts, and nanotubes continue to attract special attention. This is because unique chemical, optical, and electronic properties can be achieved by tuning their length, diameter, and aspect ratio, which is beneficial for optimizing their photocatalytic activity. For example, g-C3N4 nanorod networks were fabricated by a solvothermal method using cyanuric chloride and melamine in a sub-critical acetonitrile solvent [54]. It needs only a temperature of 180°C, which is much lower than that of traditional solid-state synthesis method (normally 500–600°C). The as-prepared sample mainly consists of regularly nanorods (accounts for 90%). The average diameter of these nanorods is 50–60 nm, and the length is about several micrometers.
\nBandgap engineering of g-C3N4 to control its light-absorption ability and redox potential plays an important role in enhancing its photocatalytic performance. The main strategies to adjust the band structure of g-C3N4 are operated at the atomic level (such as elemental doping) and the molecular level (such as copolymerization).
\nOn one hand, elemental doping plays an essential role in tuning the electronic structure of g-C3N4. Non-metal doping occurs via substitution of the C or N atoms, which affects the corresponding CB and VB, while metal doping occurs via insertion into the framework of g-C3N4. In most cases, a decreased bandgap can be obtained, resulting in extending the light absorption ability. This is quite a flexible strategy that enables the bandgap engineering of g-C3N4 by choosing specific doping elements and their amounts, depending on the desired band positions. On the other hand, molecular doping is a unique way for modifying the bandgap of g-C3N4 but is usually not available for inorganic semiconductors. Anchoring a very small amount of structure matching organic groups at the edges of g-C3N4 nanosheets can significantly affect its bandgap and light-harvesting ability. The doping amount of organic additives can be changed to obtain g-C3N4 with the desired bandgap. To illustrate the bandgap engineering of g-C3N4 by both elemental doping and molecular doping, the band structures of some typical samples of modified g-C3N4 are summarized in Figure 9 [55].
\nSchematic illustration of the band structures of typical samples of g-C3N4 in comparison with TiO2 (reproduced with permission from [
To develop effective g-C3N4-based nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance, several main requirements must be considered. Firstly, the composite semiconductor should absorb efficient sunlight. Secondly, the photogenerated charges should be separated effectively and the transfer process should be accelerated. Thirdly, the composite semiconductor must have sufficient redox potential for the desired photochemical reactions. Finally, the composite semiconductor should be stable during the photocatalytic reaction process [56]. Of course, it is difficult to meet all these requirements for a single-material system, while the composite photocatalysts may have the potential to achieve these goals.
\nSo far, a large number of semiconductors have been coupled with g-C3N4 to form semiconductor–semiconductor heterojunctions. Among them, two types of heterojunctions have been mainly investigated: traditional type-II heterojunctions and all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunctions.
\nA g-C3N4-based traditional type-II heterojunction is constructed using g-C3N4 and another semiconductor, in which both the CB and VB positions of the g-C3N4 are higher or lower than those of another semiconductor. Due to the difference of chemical potential between the two semiconductor units, the band at the contact interface of the heterojunction could bend. This band bending induces to a built-in electric field, resulting in an opposite migration of photogenerated electrons and holes (Figure 10a) [57]. For example, g-C3N4/In2O3 heterojunctions were prepared by in situ growth of In2O3 nanocrystals on the surface of g-C3N4 via dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-assisted solvothermal method [58]. The traditional type-II heterojunction has been proved to be an efficient method for spatial charge separation. However, the major shortcoming of this heterojunction is the weaker redox ability of the photogenerated electrons and holes originated from the less-negative CB of semiconductor II and the less-positive VB of semiconductor I. Hence, it is difficult to achieve both of the outstanding charge separation efficiency and a strong redox ability for the traditional type-II heterojunction. Fortunately, a new type of all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunction has been developed recently [59], which could overcome these shortcomings. There are two main types of all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunctions: semiconductor–semiconductor (S–S) Z-scheme heterojunctions (Figure 10b) and semiconductor–conductor–semiconductor (S–C–S) Z-scheme heterojunctions (Figure 10c). Such a heterojunction allows for the utilization of semiconductor pairs with narrow bandgap without losing the strong redox ability of the photo-induced electrons and holes. In the S–S Z-scheme heterojunction, the photogenerated electrons from semiconductor II with less-negative CB tend to transfer to semiconductor I with less-positive VB via the contact interface and are further excited to the CB of semiconductor I to participate in the reduction reaction, leaving holes in the VB of semiconductor II to involve into the oxidation reaction. For example, Kumar et al. [60] reported the synthesis of N-doped ZnO/g-C3N4 hybrid core–shell nanoplates via a dispersion–evaporation method. By investigating the reactive species of the photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B in the presence of N-doped ZnO/g-C3N4 core–shell structures, a mechanism for S–S Z-scheme heterojunction was proposed. In the case of the S–C–S Z-scheme heterojunction, the conductor material between the two semiconductors serves as an electron mediator to enable the migration of photo-induced electrons from semiconductor II to semiconductor I. For example, Katsumata et al. [61] obtained a similar S–C–S Z-scheme heterojunction composed of Ag3PO4, Ag, and g-C3N4 for the efficient photocatalytic decolorization of methyl orange.
\nProposed transfer pathways of photo-induced carriers for different semiconductor heterojunctions: traditional type II heterojunction (a), all solid-state S–S Z-scheme heterojunction (b), all-solid-state S–C–S Z-scheme heterojunction (c). The abbreviations of A, D, S I, and S II denote the electron acceptor, electron donor, semiconductor I, and semiconductor II, respectively (reproduced with permission from [
g-C3N4 can be used for various photocatalytic applications, such as water splitting, CO2 reduction, pollutant degradation, organic syntheses, and bacteria disinfection. Remarkable accomplishments have been already achieved in the area of the g-C3N4-based photocatalytic hydrogen evolution by dye sensitization, hybridization with carbon materials, and introduction of non-noble-metal co-catalysts. Also, g-C3N4/carbon composites and g-C3N4-based all-solid-state Z-scheme heterojunctions have been shown to be superior for the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. However, visible-light photocatalytic efficiency of g-C3N4 is still relatively low and far from the requirements of practical applications. Therefore, it is required to develop higher performance g-C3N4-based photocatalysts in the future.
\nThis work is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 21403184), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 21276220), Natural Science Foundation of the Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China (Grant Nos. 14KJB150025, 15KJA430007, and 14KJB430023), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2014M561622), Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Ecological Building Materials and Environmental Protection Equipments (No. GX2015102).
\nPreterm birth defined as birth before 37 weeks of gestation will have impact on newborns outcome not just immediately but long term. Around 70% of preterm births are spontaneous and are produced by premature rupture of membranes and preterm labor. In 50% of cases the preterm birth associates different form of inflammation, chorioamnionitis and maternal infection. The aim of this chapter is to present the impact of maternal inflammation and/or infection on their preterm health.
Preterm birth according to the World Health Organization (WHO) is defined as birth before 37 completed weeks of gestation. In 2010, 14.9 million babies were born preterm, accounting for 11.1% of all births worldwide. In European countries, preterm birth represents approximately 5% of all births, while in certain African countries this ratio is around 18% [1]. Preterm birth represent the leading cause of childhood mortality in children under 5 years of age [2]. The high economic burden is generated by the neonatal intensive care, often followed by ongoing health care needs and a significant emotional impact experienced by families [3].
Preterm birth may occur spontaneously or based on a medical indication. About one third of all preterm births have a medical indication, determined by maternal or fetal risk factors, which are higher than the benefits generated by the continuation of pregnancy and include preeclampsia or diabetes mellitus [4]. Approximately 70% of preterm births are spontaneous, caused by premature rupture of membranes, preterm labor [4]. Preterm labor in about half of the cases is associated with inflammatory syndrome, with sustained inflammation. Preterm labor has a complex etiology; it can be induced by many factors: infection or inflammation, utero-placental hemorrhage, placental ischemia, uterine overdistension or stress [5]. Maternal risk factors with a role in triggering preterm labor are numerous: extreme ages of the mother, high body mass index (BMI), multiple gestation, assisted reproductive technologies, history of preterm birth, and low socioeconomic status [4]. Race is also an important risk factor; African-Americans are at higher risk of preterm birth than other ethnic groups [5].
Preterm birth is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the newborn. The pathologies induced by preterm birth are both acute and chronic. Chronic diseases may have a long-term impact on the health of preterm neonates, affecting their neurodevelopmental outcome in variable degrees.
The main acute disorders associated with preterm birth are: respiratory distress, cerebral hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), while the most frequent chronic diseases with an impact on the development and long-term prognosis of newborns are: bronchopulmonary dysplasia, retinopathy of prematurity, periventricular leukomalacia, and abnormal neurological development.
Prematurely born adults will have an increased risk of hypertension at adult age, diabetes mellitus and obesity [4].
The evolution of preterm infants is dependent on sex. Some studies showed that at the age of 2 years, chronic respiratory and neurological complications were more frequent among male compared to female preterm newborns [6].
Cytokines play an important role in initiating and regulating labor. Labor occurs under pro-inflammatory conditions with the participation of cytokines. In this pro-inflammatory environment, a three-step process takes place, which is characterized by uterine contractility, cervical ripening and membrane activation/rupture [7].
There will be a considerable release of interleukin IL-1 β, IL-6 and IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). These pro-inflammatory substances will be released by stromal cells as well as monocytes and neutrophils that invade the myometrium and the cervix during labor. IL-1β and TNF-α will cause myometrial contraction through calcium influx in myometrial smooth muscle cells. Myometrial contraction is also stimulated by prostaglandins: PGF 2α and PGE 2.
Chemotactic activity and cytokine production differ in the case of premature rupture of membranes compared to term rupture of membranes. In the decidua, leukocyte infiltration occurs during labor. The number of neutrophils that infiltrate the decidua is much higher in the case of preterm labor with associated infection. In addition to neutrophils, the number of macrophages also increases, but this increase is present in both term and preterm labor [8].
Nuclear factor kB (NF-kB), which plays a role in the synthesis of prostaglandins and the regulation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, thus influencing myometrial contraction and cervical ripening, should also be mentioned.
Chorioamnionitis is an inflammation caused by bacterial infections in the fetal membrane. This may induce different severe disorders in newborns, such as necrotizing enterocolitis, cerebral palsy or patent ductus arteriosus. These complications will have an immediate and long-term impact on the evolution of the neonate [9].
Inflammatory mediators will reach the fetus through the amniotic fluid or by transmission through the umbilical cord [10].
The inflammatory cytokines that reach the amniotic fluid will have an effect on the development of the fetal lung. Chorioamnionitis is an important risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. In neonates whose mothers had increased cytokine levels in the amniotic fluid: IL-8, IL-8, IL-1β and TNF-α, severe forms of bronchopulmonary dysplasia were more frequent. The pathological examination of the placenta can provide important information about the placental inflammatory process. Among our cases, we had a patient with a severe form of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, with oxygen requirements until the age of 4 months, without a history of severe respiratory distress, but with abscess areas, extensive inflammation evidenced by the pathological examination of the placenta and umbilical cord (Figures 1 and 2). The mother showed no clinical symptoms, but inflammatory syndrome and premature rupture of membranes were evidenced 14 days prior to labor [11].
Amniotic membrane inflammation [
Inflammation in the umbilical cord [
Although there are meta-analyses showing a weak association between inflammation and bronchopulmonary dysplasia, animal studies have revealed significant inflammation in the lungs after endotoxin injection in preterm lambs [12]. Inflammatory mediators have effects on the regulation of angiogenesis, morphogenesis and cell growth in the lungs [13].
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is more frequent in extreme preterm neonates. It may have a long-term effect on respiratory function during childhood or even adulthood. These children at school age will have an increased risk to develop asthma phenotype. Treatments used in bronchopulmonary dysplasia can also have adverse effects that will be validated in the medium or long term. Thus, prolonged use of corticoids in severe disease forms can have an impact on neurological development; prolonged use of diuretics may influence auditory bone development in the newborn [11]. Studies have shown airway obstruction in prematurely born children or adults with a history of BPD [14]. Other factors favoring the development of the disease in preterm infants are delivery by cesarean section, infections, antibiotic therapy. The risk of infections increases with the decrease of gestational age. Humoral and cellular immunity is not prepared for extrauterine life in newborns with small gestational age.
Recent research has highlighted a correlation between microbiota and immunity, i.e. the presence of a lung - intestine axis regarding mucosal status.
Multivariate logistic regression analysis of a neonatal cohort (2527 neonates with BPD and 12826 unaffected controls) revealed that neonatal sepsis is a risk factor for BPD. Breast milk and probiotics play a role in reducing BPD incidence in preterm infants [15].
In BPD, there are changes in pulmonary vascularization, the number of alveoli, the reduction of septation, the simplification of alveolar structure with an impact on gas exchanges.
In the lungs, there is an inflammatory process mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, inflammation being maintained by mechanical ventilation, oxygen administration and infection. The cytokine level will depend on the duration of mechanical ventilation, tidal volume and the type of ventilation used.
Preterm neonates with BPD have in their cord blood a high level of Th17 compared to unaffected newborns [16]. A study analyzing the serum of newborns with BPD revealed high levels of Il-6, IL-8 and granulocyte–colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) in the first week of life [17].
Inflammation in the fetal period, particularly in the case of preterm neonates, will act on an immature, developing heart.
The process of formation, development of cardiomyocytes continues until the time of birth.
Currently, it is known that inflammation, cytokine release are correlated with the occurrence of pulmonary hypertension, which will have an effect on the right ventricle and will induce systolic and diastolic dysfunction. However, studies have demonstrated that maternal inflammation will have an effect on the fetal and subsequently neonatal heart. Hyperoxia induced by inflammation will affect left ventricular structure, causing systolic and diastolic dysfunction.
Extrauterine growth restriction is correlated with adaptation difficulties, limitations of physical activity in former extreme preterm infants. This limitation can be generated by a degree of heart failure in former extreme preterm neonates and by their insufficient growth due to inadequate energy intake [15].
In adults, cardiac dysfunction induced by massive cytokine release as part of an inflammatory process or associated with sepsis has been described [18].
Due to its immaturity, the preterm neonatal intestine is at high risk for lesions caused by inflammation.
The risk factors for inflammatory lesions are represented by: immaturity of the mucosal barrier, immune cell dysfunction, low motility, reduced secretion of IgA and peptides with an antimicrobial role, high risk of dysbiosis and bacterial colonization.
Maternal chorioamnionitis determines a higher incidence of late sepsis in preterm newborns. The major intestinal consequence of maternal chorioamnionitis, chronic ischemia during pregnancy, antibiotic exposure is represented by necrotizing enterocolitis [19].
Pro-inflammatory mediators are important triggers in the development of the disease. Cyclooxygenase and platelet activating factors play a role in the inflammatory pathogenesis of NEC. The role of TLR4 receptors in NEC has been described. TLR4 recognize lipopolysaccharides and activate NF- κB, triggering the pro-inflammatory cascade. Enterocyte apoptosis is induced. The bacterial signal mediated by TLR4 causes mucosal lesions and allows the passage of bacteria into circulation. In mesenteric vessels, TLR4 will interact with bacteria, determining increased nitric oxide production, with severe vasoconstriction and reduced intestinal perfusion [20, 21].
The intestinal microbiota has an influence on immunity in both the intestine and the entire body.
Inflammation in NEC is caused by dysbiosis in the intestine and the exaggerated inflammatory response to this imbalance of the intestinal flora.
Nephrogenesis occurs until the gestational age of 34–36 weeks. The intrauterine inflammatory process will have an effect on renal function. Inflammation has an effect on the nephrogenesis process. Animal studies have demonstrated that the number of nephrons is up to 25% smaller in the case of exposure to hyperoxia and concomitant inflammation [22].
The reduced number of nephrons will have an impact on long-term renal function during childhood and adulthood, and it will favor the development of arterial hypertension at adult age.
Besides the impact on the pulmonary parenchyma, the inflammatory process in the intrauterine period also affects neurological development. Fetal inflammation, as well as inflammation in the neonatal period due to infections can have consequences on the brain, causing lesions of the white matter, inducing periventricular leukomalacia, cerebral palsy, respectively.
The increased levels of IL-1 β, IL-6 and particularly TNF-α will exert a toxic effect on developing oligodendrocytes, but will also have a toxic effect at neuronal level. Experimental animal models have revealed the evolution of neurological lesions in time. MRI studies have evidenced long-term cerebral changes during adult life in animal models exposed to inflammation in the intrauterine period. Although there are no data about preterm infants exposed to inflammatory syndrome in the intrauterine period, it is important to consider the fact that some authors have reported cases of autism as an effect of persistent inflammation in the fetal period, or schizophrenia as an effect of latent inflammation [23].
Inflammation will induce lesions directly in the oligodendrocytes and neurons, but also indirectly, through the activation of microglial cells with the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, followed by neuronal and oligodendrocytes damage [24].
The ELGAN study showed that a high level of inflammatory markers during the first month of life will entail a high risk of decrease in the intelligence quotient (IQ) and executive functions [25].
The imbalance of the intestine – brain axis has an important role in neurocognitive development. Many studies describe the role of this imbalance. In its activity, endocrine, metabolic, immune and neural factors play an important role, but they have not yet been completely elucidated.
Preterm birth represents a public health problem. Inflammation during pregnancy has effects on the fetus and subsequently, on the newborn. Inflammatory mediators in the amniotic fluid induce lesions in the lung and the central nervous system.
A non-invasive respiratory approach and the limited use of invasive respiratory support will prevent severe forms of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Enteral feeding with breast milk will have a beneficial effect on the reduction of NEC incidence, the reduction of the incidence of sepsis, BPD and ROP, as well as on the reduction of the risk for bronchial asthma during childhood and young adulthood. In the long term, implementing individualized therapeutic measures will allow a better management of each case, the decrease of fetal and neonatal mortality, and optimal neurological development.
body mass index necrotizing enterocolitis tumor necrosis factor α interleukin 1 β nuclear factor kB granulocyte colony stimulating factor
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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This chapter focuses on the heterogeneous composition of the essential oils. It discusses the usage of essential oil constituents as a key marker of the oil quality, freshness and unique characteristics. It describes the biological activity and synergistic effect of the essential oil constituents as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer agents.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",authors:[{id:"193168",title:"Prof.",name:"Nashwa",middleName:null,surname:"Fathy Sayed Morsy",slug:"nashwa-fathy-sayed-morsy",fullName:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy"}]},{id:"53463",doi:"10.5772/66623",title:"Thymus Plants: A Review—Micropropagation, Molecular and Antifungal Activity",slug:"thymus-plants-a-review-micropropagation-molecular-and-antifungal-activity",totalDownloads:2483,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Medicinal and aromatic plants are important sources for plant secondary metabolites. The genetic manipulation of plants associated with in vitro plant regeneration systems facilitates efforts to engineer secondary product metabolic pathways. The fungal infections have been increasing in recent years due to several factors, namely, the increased incidence of high-risk patients, particularly immunocompromised hosts. Aromatic plants have been empirically used as antimicrobial agents, but the mechanisms of action are still unknown. Thyme has a great interest due to the possibility of its use in different applications, in medicine, in the cosmetic industry, or as food additives. Several studies have shown that thyme oils possess antimicrobial activity. Increasingly, plant breeding has taken advantage of molecular biology developments in order to genotype the species of interest to accelerate their selection. These approaches consist in choosing desired genotypes based on molecular markers or the knowledge of the genes involved in a particular trait. The in vitro culture techniques can be used to multiply plants selected after molecular and antifungal studies. The course of the investigation and the current state in relation to micropropagation, molecular studies, and antifungal action of the Thymus genus plants will be presented.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fernanda Leal, Meriem Taghouti, Fernando Nunes, Amélia Silva,\nAna Cláudia Coelho and Manuela Matos",authors:[{id:"66270",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Leal",slug:"fernanda-leal",fullName:"Fernanda Leal"}]},{id:"53418",doi:"10.5772/66506",title:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.): An Important Medicinal and Aromatic Crop",slug:"fenugreek-trigonella-foenum-graecum-l-an-important-medicinal-and-aromatic-crop",totalDownloads:3596,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual forage legume and a traditional spice and aromatic crop that has been grown for centuries across the Indian subcontinent. In addition to South Asia, the crop is also grown in some parts of North Africa, Middle East, Mediterranean Europe, China, South East (SE) Asia, Australia, the USA, Argentina and Canada. The plant has been used traditionally in Indian Ayurvedic medicines as well as in traditional Tibetan and Chinese medication for several centuries. Modern research has also demonstrated that fenugreek seed and leaves are useful in the treatment of a number of diseases including successfully reducing blood sugar and blood cholesterol levels in both animals and humans. The plant has recently attracted great interest in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and functional food industries due to its rich medicinal properties.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Peiman Zandi, Saikat Kumar Basu, William Cetzal-Ix, Mojtaba\nKordrostami, Shahram Khademi Chalaras and Leila Bazrkar Khatibai",authors:[{id:"193070",title:"Dr.",name:"Peiman",middleName:null,surname:"Zandi",slug:"peiman-zandi",fullName:"Peiman Zandi"},{id:"196977",title:"Dr.",name:"Saikat",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Basu",slug:"saikat-kumar-basu",fullName:"Saikat Kumar Basu"},{id:"196978",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Cetzal-Ix",slug:"william-cetzal-ix",fullName:"William Cetzal-Ix"},{id:"196979",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kordrostami",slug:"mojtaba-kordrostami",fullName:"Mojtaba Kordrostami"},{id:"196980",title:"MSc.",name:"Shahram",middleName:null,surname:"Khademi Chalaras",slug:"shahram-khademi-chalaras",fullName:"Shahram Khademi Chalaras"},{id:"196981",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Bazrkar Khatibai",slug:"leila-bazrkar-khatibai",fullName:"Leila Bazrkar Khatibai"}]},{id:"52636",doi:"10.5772/65725",title:"Olea europaea subsp. africana (Oleaceae)",slug:"olea-europaea-subsp-africana-oleaceae-",totalDownloads:2521,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Background: Medicinal plants have been used as a key source for medication and they remain to provide new therapeutic remedies to date. Extracts of Olea europaea subsp. africana Oleaceae (leaf, bark and root) are used extensively in Africa to treat various diseases traditionally. Phytochemistry has identified phenols, terpenoids and coumarins in different parts of the plant. However, little pharmacological studies have been done on Olea europaea subsp. africana. The present review aims to compile available information on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Olea africana.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Nontokozo Z. Msomi and Mthokozisi. B. C Simelane",authors:[{id:"193091",title:"Dr.",name:"Mthokozisi",middleName:null,surname:"Simelane",slug:"mthokozisi-simelane",fullName:"Mthokozisi Simelane"},{id:"195504",title:"Ms.",name:"Nontokozo",middleName:null,surname:"Msomi",slug:"nontokozo-msomi",fullName:"Nontokozo Msomi"}]},{id:"53145",doi:"10.5772/66220",title:"Investigation of Campomanesia Components: A Fruit of Brazilian Cerrado",slug:"investigation-of-campomanesia-components-a-fruit-of-brazilian-cerrado",totalDownloads:1964,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"A survey of chemical composition of the fruit of Campomanesia adamantium used by rural and urban inhabitants of the cities of the Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil, was carried out by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) aiming at the detection of minerals. Fifteen minerals were detected in the peel, pulp, and seeds of plant. The concentrations of elements K, Ca, Na, and P are found to be present at the major level in peel, pulp, and seeds of fruit. The zinc concentration is very low compared to other detected elements. The levels of some chemical elements in the fruit do not exceed the limits established by international legislation. Animal studies should be performed. The knowledge of the chemical elements in plants has economic interest, and involves global health problem.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Nayara Vieira de Lima, Daniela Granja Arakaki, Paula F. Saldanha\nTschinkel, Anderson Fernandes da Silva, Rita de Cássia Avellaneda\nGuimarães, Priscila Aiko Hiane and Valter Aragão do Nascimento",authors:[{id:"193805",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita De Cássia",middleName:null,surname:"Avellaneda Guimarães",slug:"rita-de-cassia-avellaneda-guimaraes",fullName:"Rita De Cássia Avellaneda Guimarães"},{id:"195948",title:"MSc.",name:"Nayara",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira De Lima",slug:"nayara-vieira-de-lima",fullName:"Nayara Vieira De Lima"},{id:"195949",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Granja Arakaki",slug:"daniela-granja-arakaki",fullName:"Daniela Granja Arakaki"},{id:"195950",title:"MSc.",name:"Paula Fabiana",middleName:null,surname:"Saldanha Tschinkel",slug:"paula-fabiana-saldanha-tschinkel",fullName:"Paula Fabiana Saldanha Tschinkel"},{id:"195951",title:"MSc.",name:"Anderson",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes Da Silva",slug:"anderson-fernandes-da-silva",fullName:"Anderson Fernandes Da Silva"},{id:"195952",title:"Dr.",name:"Priscila Aiko",middleName:null,surname:"Hiane",slug:"priscila-aiko-hiane",fullName:"Priscila Aiko Hiane"},{id:"195953",title:"Dr.",name:"Valter",middleName:null,surname:"Aragão Do Nascimento",slug:"valter-aragao-do-nascimento",fullName:"Valter Aragão Do Nascimento"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53418",title:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.): An Important Medicinal and Aromatic Crop",slug:"fenugreek-trigonella-foenum-graecum-l-an-important-medicinal-and-aromatic-crop",totalDownloads:3596,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual forage legume and a traditional spice and aromatic crop that has been grown for centuries across the Indian subcontinent. In addition to South Asia, the crop is also grown in some parts of North Africa, Middle East, Mediterranean Europe, China, South East (SE) Asia, Australia, the USA, Argentina and Canada. The plant has been used traditionally in Indian Ayurvedic medicines as well as in traditional Tibetan and Chinese medication for several centuries. Modern research has also demonstrated that fenugreek seed and leaves are useful in the treatment of a number of diseases including successfully reducing blood sugar and blood cholesterol levels in both animals and humans. The plant has recently attracted great interest in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and functional food industries due to its rich medicinal properties.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Peiman Zandi, Saikat Kumar Basu, William Cetzal-Ix, Mojtaba\nKordrostami, Shahram Khademi Chalaras and Leila Bazrkar Khatibai",authors:[{id:"193070",title:"Dr.",name:"Peiman",middleName:null,surname:"Zandi",slug:"peiman-zandi",fullName:"Peiman Zandi"},{id:"196977",title:"Dr.",name:"Saikat",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Basu",slug:"saikat-kumar-basu",fullName:"Saikat Kumar Basu"},{id:"196978",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Cetzal-Ix",slug:"william-cetzal-ix",fullName:"William Cetzal-Ix"},{id:"196979",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kordrostami",slug:"mojtaba-kordrostami",fullName:"Mojtaba Kordrostami"},{id:"196980",title:"MSc.",name:"Shahram",middleName:null,surname:"Khademi Chalaras",slug:"shahram-khademi-chalaras",fullName:"Shahram Khademi Chalaras"},{id:"196981",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Bazrkar Khatibai",slug:"leila-bazrkar-khatibai",fullName:"Leila Bazrkar Khatibai"}]},{id:"53045",title:"Chemical Structure, Quality Indices and Bioactivity of Essential Oil Constituents",slug:"chemical-structure-quality-indices-and-bioactivity-of-essential-oil-constituents",totalDownloads:4421,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Essential oil (EO) is a mixture of low molecular weight constituents that are responsible for its characteristic aroma. These constituents include terpenoid and non‐terpenoid hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives. This chapter focuses on the heterogeneous composition of the essential oils. It discusses the usage of essential oil constituents as a key marker of the oil quality, freshness and unique characteristics. It describes the biological activity and synergistic effect of the essential oil constituents as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer agents.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",authors:[{id:"193168",title:"Prof.",name:"Nashwa",middleName:null,surname:"Fathy Sayed Morsy",slug:"nashwa-fathy-sayed-morsy",fullName:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy"}]},{id:"53291",title:"Aromatherapeutic Textiles",slug:"aromatherapeutic-textiles",totalDownloads:2937,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Only innovative products will be sustainable to open up new markets and new horizons for textile industry. As a response to consumer demand, in recent years textile manufacturers are demonstrating increasing interest in added value products by getting the insect repellents, cosmetics, antimicrobials, phase-change materials, fire retardants, counterfeiting, polychromic and thermochromic effects. Aromatherapy application in textile industry led to a series of value-added products that give besides comfort a number of other properties (anti-acne, antimicrobial, fragrance, anti-inflammatory sedation, or soothing properties). In recent years, aromatherapeutic textiles were applied in many fields such as food, cosmetics, medicine, tobacco, textiles, leather, papermaking and pharmaceutical industries. The purpose of this chapter was to present the essential oils used in textile finishing, textile supports used for aroma finishing, embedding methods and the controlled release of essential oils.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Angela Cerempei",authors:[{id:"193622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Cerempei",slug:"angela-cerempei",fullName:"Angela Cerempei"}]},{id:"53463",title:"Thymus Plants: A Review—Micropropagation, Molecular and Antifungal Activity",slug:"thymus-plants-a-review-micropropagation-molecular-and-antifungal-activity",totalDownloads:2483,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Medicinal and aromatic plants are important sources for plant secondary metabolites. The genetic manipulation of plants associated with in vitro plant regeneration systems facilitates efforts to engineer secondary product metabolic pathways. The fungal infections have been increasing in recent years due to several factors, namely, the increased incidence of high-risk patients, particularly immunocompromised hosts. Aromatic plants have been empirically used as antimicrobial agents, but the mechanisms of action are still unknown. Thyme has a great interest due to the possibility of its use in different applications, in medicine, in the cosmetic industry, or as food additives. Several studies have shown that thyme oils possess antimicrobial activity. Increasingly, plant breeding has taken advantage of molecular biology developments in order to genotype the species of interest to accelerate their selection. These approaches consist in choosing desired genotypes based on molecular markers or the knowledge of the genes involved in a particular trait. The in vitro culture techniques can be used to multiply plants selected after molecular and antifungal studies. The course of the investigation and the current state in relation to micropropagation, molecular studies, and antifungal action of the Thymus genus plants will be presented.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fernanda Leal, Meriem Taghouti, Fernando Nunes, Amélia Silva,\nAna Cláudia Coelho and Manuela Matos",authors:[{id:"66270",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Leal",slug:"fernanda-leal",fullName:"Fernanda Leal"}]},{id:"53277",title:"Medicinal Plants of the Indigenous Tribes in Peninsular Malaysia: Current and Future Perspectives",slug:"medicinal-plants-of-the-indigenous-tribes-in-peninsular-malaysia-current-and-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:2589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The main aim of this paper is to compile information on plant that is known to be medicinal to the indigenous tribes in Peninsular Malaysia. Information is compiled from various sources. Current trends on studies of medicinal plants of the indigenous tribes and threats to the sustainability of the plants are also discussed. Focus of future studies on medicinal plants utilized by the indigenous tribes will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6026",slug:"active-ingredients-from-aromatic-and-medicinal-plants",title:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Active Ingredients from Aromatic and Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Pozi Milow, Sorayya Malek and Raznan Mohd. 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He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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