\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9407",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",subtitle:"Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials provides an overview of biochemical contamination, nanomaterials and toxic metals, and measurement techniques. It explains and clarifies important studies and compares and develops new and groundbreaking measurement techniques in the fields of organic and inorganic pollution and nanoscience. It is highly recommended for professionals and readers interested in the environment and human health.",isbn:"978-1-78984-697-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-696-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-921-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85340",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",numberOfPages:230,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"892372c885d7a41fc85666f573c7a32b",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince, Olcay Kaplan Ince and Gabrijel Ondrasek",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9407.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12774,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:72,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:110,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 9th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 8th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 26th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258431/images/system/258431.jpg",biography:"Professor Muharrem Ince received his Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from Firat University, Turkey, in 2008. From 2009 to 2012, he worked as a research analytical chemist at Mus Alparslan University, Turkey. He is currently a professor at Munzur University. From 2013 to 2016, he served as head of the Department of Chemical Engineering, Munzur University. He is an editorial board member of several international journals as well as an author and co-author of more than forty papers published in respectable international journals. His expertise is in analytical method development, spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques, environmental sciences, water pollution identification and prevention, food analysis and toxicology, green and sustainable chemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Munzur University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Munzur University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/266549/images/system/266549.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Olcay Kaplan Ince received a BS from Hacettepe University, Turkey, and a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from Firat University, Turkey, in 2008. She is a research analytical chemist and previous head of the Food Engineering Department, Munzur University, Turkey. She serves as editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. She is the author of more than forty papers published in respectable journals. Her research interests include trace and toxic element analysis, analytical chemistry, instrumental analysis, problem-solving in analytical chemistry, food science and chromatography, nanoscience and cytotoxicity, and deep eutectic solvents.",institutionString:"Munzur University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Munzur University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",middleName:null,surname:"Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/46939/images/system/46939.jpg",biography:"Gabrijel Ondrasek, PhD, is employed at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Croatia, as a full professor at the Department of Soil Amelioration. His academic and scientific opus is orientated towards sustainable management of natural resources (water, soils) in the agro-environment, notably exposed to disturbed water balance on the soil–plant route, excessive salinity, metal contamination, and their environmental implications.",institutionString:"University of Zagreb",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1206",title:"Environmental Toxicology",slug:"environmental-toxicology"}],chapters:[{id:"68822",title:"Heavy Metal Removal Techniques Using Response Surface Methodology: Water/Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88915",slug:"heavy-metal-removal-techniques-using-response-surface-methodology-water-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:2185,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced water/wastewater treatment techniques including ion exchange separation, filtration separation, and adsorption are essential in the removal of nonbiodegradable toxic wastes from water. In the current study, removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater and the use of response surface methodology (RSM) for experimental optimization were examined thoroughly. The objective of this work was to summarize the removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater using various chemical techniques and to emphasize the superiority of RSM in these studies.",signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68822",authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",surname:"Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince"}],corrections:null},{id:"67798",title:"Ecotoxicology of Glyphosate-Based Herbicides on Aquatic Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85157",slug:"ecotoxicology-of-glyphosate-based-herbicides-on-aquatic-environment",totalDownloads:1187,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBHs) are chemicals developed to control unwanted plants such as weeds or algae. These chemicals act on EPSPS enzyme that blocks the production of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan amino acids causing plant death. This biochemical pathway exists only in plant organisms. Despite the target use, GBHs have been related to toxic effects on nonplant organisms, such as invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans. This chapter is focused on ecotoxicological effects of GBHs on aquatic environment, showing a perspective of studies since this kind of product was developed until nowadays, an analysis of how many studies for each taxonomic group. Furthermore, we analyzed specifically the toxic effect of GBHs on each taxon, and finally, we discuss future perspectives and suggestions for a better regulation and application for this chemical.",signatures:"Bruno Bastos Gonçalves, Percilia Cardoso Giaquinto, Douglas dos Santos Silva, Carlos de Melo e Silva Neto, Amanda Alves de Lima, Adriano Antonio Brito Darosci, Jorge Laço Portinho, Wanessa Fernandes Carvalho and Thiago Lopes Rocha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67798",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67798",authors:[{id:"207211",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"de Melo e Silva Neto",slug:"carlos-de-melo-e-silva-neto",fullName:"Carlos de Melo e Silva Neto"},{id:"262395",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno Bastos",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"bruno-bastos-goncalves",fullName:"Bruno Bastos Gonçalves"},{id:"262400",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Lopes",surname:"Rocha",slug:"thiago-lopes-rocha",fullName:"Thiago Lopes Rocha"},{id:"262402",title:"Dr.",name:"Percilia Cardoso",surname:"Giaquinto",slug:"percilia-cardoso-giaquinto",fullName:"Percilia Cardoso Giaquinto"},{id:"262403",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Laço",surname:"Portinho",slug:"jorge-laco-portinho",fullName:"Jorge Laço Portinho"},{id:"286563",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",surname:"dos Santos Silva",slug:"douglas-dos-santos-silva",fullName:"Douglas dos Santos Silva"},{id:"286564",title:"BSc.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Alves de Lima",slug:"amanda-alves-de-lima",fullName:"Amanda Alves de Lima"},{id:"286565",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriano Antonio Brito",surname:"Darosci",slug:"adriano-antonio-brito-darosci",fullName:"Adriano Antonio Brito Darosci"},{id:"286566",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanessa Fernandes",surname:"Carvalho",slug:"wanessa-fernandes-carvalho",fullName:"Wanessa Fernandes Carvalho"}],corrections:null},{id:"66089",title:"Water Resource Pollution by Herbicide Residues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85159",slug:"water-resource-pollution-by-herbicide-residues",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Herbicides are frequently used in the chemical control of weeds in various crops in Brazil and worldwide, so they are more frequently detected outside the application areas, contributing to the risk of environmental contamination. The importance of knowledge of the physicochemical properties of the environment and the pesticide used in the agricultural area is in order to understand its effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and the search for the prevention of future bioaccumulation potentials (bioconcentration and/or biomagnification) of molecules of pesticides in living nontarget organisms, minimizing their negative effects on the environment. The understanding of analytical techniques for measuring the quality of water resources as well as techniques for the remediation of contaminated water is essential to minimize the possible impacts caused by the application of pesticides to the environment.",signatures:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Ana Paula Justiniano Régo, Vanessa Takeshita and Valdemar Luiz Tornisielo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66089",authors:[{id:"162791",title:"Prof.",name:"Valdemar",surname:"Tornisielo",slug:"valdemar-tornisielo",fullName:"Valdemar Tornisielo"},{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"},{id:"258779",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula",surname:"Justiniano Régo",slug:"ana-paula-justiniano-rego",fullName:"Ana Paula Justiniano Régo"},{id:"277330",title:"MSc.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Takeshita",slug:"vanessa-takeshita",fullName:"Vanessa Takeshita"}],corrections:null},{id:"70500",title:"Challenges for Assessing Toxicity of Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89601",slug:"challenges-for-assessing-toxicity-of-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"On the development of nano-world, nanotechnology provides enormous opportunities in daily routine products and further future sustainable innovations. The nanotechnology extends its benefits to various fields such as engineering, medical, biological, environmental, and communication. However, the exponential growth of nanomaterials production would lead to severe complications related to their hazardous effects to the human health and environment. Moreover, negative impact of nanomaterials toxicity on human health is one of the significant issues on exhausting nano-products. The most vulnerable situation is associated with the use of nanomaterials in the biomedical application. The several efforts have been ongoing to study the nanotoxicity and its interaction with the biomolecules. Nevertheless, it is hard to assess and validate the nanotoxicity in a biological system. This chapter aims to study the challenges in determining the toxicity of nanomaterials. The toxicity assessment and hurdles in determining the impact on biological systems are epoch making. In-vitro, in-vivo, and in-silico studies are summarized in this chapter in assessing the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials. The different approaches of toxicity assessment have their difficulties faced by researchers while characterizing nanomaterials in powder form, solution-based, and interacting with biological systems. The assessment tools and characterization techniques play a vital role in overcoming the challenges, while the cytotoxic assays involve nanoparticle shape, morphology, and size consideration.",signatures:"Akanksha Gupta, Sanjay Kumar and Vinod Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70500",authors:[{id:"309802",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinod",surname:"Kumar",slug:"vinod-kumar",fullName:"Vinod Kumar"},{id:"311316",title:"Dr.",name:"Akanksha",surname:"Gupta",slug:"akanksha-gupta",fullName:"Akanksha Gupta"},{id:"311317",title:"Mr.",name:"Sanjay",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sanjay-kumar",fullName:"Sanjay Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"65983",title:"Residue of Selected Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Soil of Some Areas in Vietnam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84918",slug:"residue-of-selected-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-soil-of-some-areas-in-vietnam",totalDownloads:849,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter evaluates the contamination of selected persistent organic pollutants (S-POPs) in soil of some typical areas in Vietnam (mangrove forest, industrial, and urban areas in northern part). S-POPs are composed of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The collected data and analyzed results indicated the wide occurrence of significant S-POPs residues in study areas. The main sources of S-POPs are discussed by using composition analyses and diagnostic ratios of S-POPs indicator. Risk assessment of S-POPs in soil is assessed by using the guidance of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The obtained results have contributed to assess the S-POPs fate in the soil environment in Vietnam.",signatures:"Toan Vu Duc, Chi Do Thi Lan and Mai Ngo Tra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65983",authors:[{id:"209088",title:"Prof.",name:"Toan",surname:"Vu Duc",slug:"toan-vu-duc",fullName:"Toan Vu Duc"},{id:"209091",title:"Dr.",name:"Mai",surname:"Ngo Tra",slug:"mai-ngo-tra",fullName:"Mai Ngo Tra"},{id:"279762",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi",surname:"Do Thi Lan",slug:"chi-do-thi-lan",fullName:"Chi Do Thi Lan"}],corrections:null},{id:"69211",title:"Formaldehyde Advantages and Disadvantages: Usage Areas and Harmful Effects on Human Beings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89299",slug:"formaldehyde-advantages-and-disadvantages-usage-areas-and-harmful-effects-on-human-beings",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Formaldehyde, a simple but important member of aldehydes, is highly reactive due to its strong electrophilic properties. It is a colorless, pungent, low molecular weight poisonous gas that can rapidly pass into gaseous phase at room temperature, can burn, and can dissolve very well in water. Formaldehyde, which is found in the natural structure of the organism, is used in many places from industrial areas to household materials and from the production of coatings in dentistry to the determination of cadavers in laboratories. In addition to having such a wide range of uses, it has harmful effects on human health as it can react spontaneously with various cellular elements. In this review, which is based on various sources, detailed information about the definition, properties, usage areas, and harmful effects of formaldehyde will be given.",signatures:"Nuriye Tuna Subasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69211",authors:[{id:"279801",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuriye Tuna",surname:"Subaşı",slug:"nuriye-tuna-subasi",fullName:"Nuriye Tuna Subaşı"}],corrections:null},{id:"69512",title:"Biomedical Applications of Nanomaterials: Nanotubes and Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89626",slug:"biomedical-applications-of-nanomaterials-nanotubes-and-metal-organic-frameworks-mofs-",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanomedicine plays an important role in the diagnosis, treatment, monitoring and control of biological systems in the area of nanotechnology and has been referred by the National Institute of Health (NIH) as an emergent way of medicine. Nanoparticles are new delivery vehicles with the ability to release drugs to a specific cell type or tissue, which may also improve the pharmacological activity of those drugs by controlling their release, as well as prolonging their short half-lives in blood. The aim of this review is to gather several options of MOFs and nanotubes synthesised with different nanoparticles and processes, some including compound loading and release studies, with particular focus on 13 anti-cancer compounds e.g. doxorubicin, curcumin, methotrexate, etc.; 3 anti-inflammatory compounds, namely ibuprofen, salicylic acid and chlorogenic acid; and with 5 miscellaneous bioactive compounds, including rifampicin, griseofulvin, enoxacin, etc. Finally, other biomedical applications for these composites are shown, like being enzyme immobilisation agents, for water treatment e.g. in swimming pools, and other becoming support to carry & secure integrity of drugs.",signatures:"Miguel Martell-Mendoza, Cuauhtémoc Pérez-González, Hiram I. Beltrán, Roberto Serrano-Vega and Carlos Alberto Méndez-Cuesta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69512",authors:[{id:"287822",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto José",surname:"Serrano-Vega",slug:"roberto-jose-serrano-vega",fullName:"Roberto José Serrano-Vega"},{id:"287825",title:"Dr.",name:"Cuauhtemoc",surname:"Pérez-González",slug:"cuauhtemoc-perez-gonzalez",fullName:"Cuauhtemoc Pérez-González"},{id:"300158",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",surname:"Méndez-Cuesta",slug:"carlos-alberto-mendez-cuesta",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Méndez-Cuesta"},{id:"300160",title:"Mr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Martell-Mendoza",slug:"miguel-martell-mendoza",fullName:"Miguel Martell-Mendoza"},{id:"308388",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiram Isaac",surname:"Beltrán",slug:"hiram-isaac-beltran",fullName:"Hiram Isaac Beltrán"}],corrections:null},{id:"71555",title:"Biochemical Toxicology: Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90928",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:698,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The synthesis and application of nanoparticles have been actively studied in the modern era as it holds promises for effective and targeted strategies to deliver drugs inside the human body. Nanoparticles (NPs) play a big role in cancer diagnosis and have various advantages over other conventional chemotherapeutic drug delivery systems. But, the application of emerging engineered NPs to heavy toxic metals such as zinc, cobalt, and iron has resulted in a major source of toxicity. The toxicity of nanomaterials is majorly determined by their physical and chemical properties such as size, charge, and surface area. Also, the mechanism of nanotoxicity is majorly via the production of reactive oxygen species that create oxidative stress, thereby activating inflammatory cytokines and the mechanism of DNA damage that ultimately results in the cell death. So, mechanistic study needs to be done on nanomaterials to elucidate the mechanism involved in nanotoxicity and to generate less toxic and efficient nanomaterials.",signatures:"Sibi Raj and Dhruv Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71555",authors:[{id:"312126",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhruv",surname:"Kumar",slug:"dhruv-kumar",fullName:"Dhruv Kumar"},{id:"312212",title:"Ms.",name:"Sibi",surname:"Raj",slug:"sibi-raj",fullName:"Sibi Raj"}],corrections:null},{id:"70615",title:"Few-Layered Hexagonal Boron Nitride: Functionalization, Nanocomposites, and Physicochemical and Biological Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90528",slug:"few-layered-hexagonal-boron-nitride-functionalization-nanocomposites-and-physicochemical-and-biologi",totalDownloads:947,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) is an analogue of graphite called “white graphene.” In the structure of h-BN, B and N atoms substitute C atoms. The boron and nitrogen atoms are linked via strong B-N covalent bonds and form interlocking hexagonal rings. h-BN is used in different areas due to its interesting physical and chemical properties, e.g., in electronics as an insulator and in ceramics, resins, plastics, and paints. Therefore, boron nitride (BN) is also a popular inorganic compound in cosmetic industry (the highest BN concentration up to 25% can be found in eye shadow formulation). It is also widely used in dental cement production (for dental and orthodontic applications). Boron nitride seems to be suitable for biomedical applications; therefore, the cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo observations of h-BN nanoplates and novel few-layered h-BN-based nanocomposites are still needed. The short-time studies confirm their low cytotoxicity and suggest that BN can be used as a novel drug delivery system; however, medical application needs additional verification in long-term studies.",signatures:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka, Martyna Trukawka, Katarzyna Piotrowska and Ewa Mijowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70615",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70615",authors:[{id:"186478",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Jedrzejczak-Silicka",slug:"magdalena-jedrzejczak-silicka",fullName:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka"},{id:"231014",title:"Prof.",name:"Ewa",surname:"Mijowska",slug:"ewa-mijowska",fullName:"Ewa Mijowska"},{id:"312078",title:"MSc.",name:"Martyna",surname:"Trukawka",slug:"martyna-trukawka",fullName:"Martyna Trukawka"},{id:"312079",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Piotrowska",slug:"katarzyna-piotrowska",fullName:"Katarzyna Piotrowska"}],corrections:null},{id:"71950",title:"Nanosafety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92290",slug:"nanosafety",totalDownloads:472,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The nanomaterials resembling nanotubes, nanospheres, nanofertilizer, nanoherbicide, nanoinsecticide, and nanosheets have the physical, chemical, biological, mechanical, electrical and thermal properties. Still, the nanoparticles have very minute dimensions, enormous area and high reactivity they need the potential ability to penetrate in living cells quite rapidly. The petite size nanoparticles contain lofty surface area may cause higher reactivity with nearby particles. It is broadly predictable that there is a critical need for more information and facts about the implications of manufactured nanomaterials on personal fitness and surroundings. Concerns about potential risks to health that may arise during the making, management, use, and discarding of these nanomaterials have been spoken over the past few years. Consequently, strong research action is being undertaken in various institutions, and industries across the world to appraise their toxicity and spread of nanoparticle.",signatures:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj, Venkatesan Yuvaraj, Venugopal Arunkumar, Muthaiyan Pandiyan and Kizhaeral Sevathapandian Subramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71950",authors:[{id:"280193",title:"Dr.",name:"Muthuraman",surname:"Yuvaraj",slug:"muthuraman-yuvaraj",fullName:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj"},{id:"280247",title:"Prof.",name:"Kizhaeral Sevanthiyppan",surname:"Subramanian",slug:"kizhaeral-sevanthiyppan-subramanian",fullName:"Kizhaeral Sevanthiyppan Subramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"70717",title:"Biological Role of Withania somnifera against Promiscuity of Zinc Oxide Nano Particles and Its Interaction with Macrophages",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90128",slug:"biological-role-of-em-withania-somnifera-em-against-promiscuity-of-zinc-oxide-nano-particles-and-its",totalDownloads:747,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In agriculture and food industry, nanotechnology can be utilized to improve crop yield, food quality, shelf life, safety, cost and nutritional benefits. Zinc is a trace element and its deficiency causes health problems in human beings and animals. The use of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) is growing exponentially in food industry, biomedicine and nanofertilizer segment. A remarkable presence of nanomaterials in ecosystem and consumer products can cause adverse effects. Hence, it is an important challenge for the use of nanoparticles in agriculture as fertilizer to enhance plant yield on one hand and their interaction with the cells of the innate immune system in animals on the other hand. So, public concern about their potential toxicity is increasing. ZnO NPs interact with cells and produce harmful effects in a dose dependent manner. The reactive oxygen species generation might be a reason for the toxicity of ZnO NPs. The toxicity is caused due to dissolved Zn++ ions by absorption which causes adverse effect on phagocytosis and oxidative stress by free radical while Withania somnifera induced the phagocytosis activity by antioxidant mechanism thus having protective effects. It is emphasized that further research is needed on the use of nanoparticles in agriculture, animal husbandry, and human health sector so that their safer levels for use could be ascertained.",signatures:"Jitendra Kumar, Chander Datt, Surya Kant Verma and Kavita Rani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70717",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70717",authors:[{id:"265132",title:"Mr.",name:"Surya Kant",surname:"Verma",slug:"surya-kant-verma",fullName:"Surya Kant Verma"},{id:"308252",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"},{id:"311940",title:"Dr.",name:"Chander",surname:"Datt",slug:"chander-datt",fullName:"Chander Datt"},{id:"316899",title:"Ms.",name:"Kavita",surname:"Rani",slug:"kavita-rani",fullName:"Kavita Rani"}],corrections:null},{id:"67269",title:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Their Influence to Some Aquatic Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86213",slug:"polycyclic-aromatic-hydrocarbons-pahs-and-their-influence-to-some-aquatic-species",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants generated primarily during the incomplete combustion of organic materials (e.g., coal, oil, petrol, and wood). Many PAHs have toxic, mutagenic, and/or carcinogenic functions. PAHs are highly lipid soluble which lead to a fast absorption by the gastrointestinal tract of marine mammals. They are immediately distributed in a vast variety of tissues with a notable tendency for localization in body fat. Metabolism of PAHs is obtained via the cytochrome P450-mediated mixed function oxidase system with oxidation or hydroxylation as the first step. PAHs are environmental contaminants that pose significant risk to health of fish. The effect of PAHs on fish is a topic of rising attention in a lot of countries. Different studies using the bile metabolites separated by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection were presented. The aim is to compare the levels of PAH metabolites in fish from different areas and fish species. The major metabolite present in all fish was 1-hydroxypyrene. The data confirm the importance of 1-hydroxypyrene as the key PAH metabolite in fish bile and suggest that the European eel is an ideal species for monitoring PAHs.",signatures:"Ayoub Baali and Ahmed Yahyaoui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67269",authors:[{id:"288629",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ayoub",surname:"Baali",slug:"ayoub-baali",fullName:"Ayoub Baali"},{id:"293206",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Yahyaoui",slug:"ahmed-yahyaoui",fullName:"Ahmed Yahyaoui"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8637",title:"Recent Advances in Analytical Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9d61b693f14e24d81342f6c36fc5ba32",slug:"recent-advances-in-analytical-chemistry",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8637.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8863",title:"Hydrocarbon Pollution and its Effect on the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"25243b6684e6a441a6bf1f854d49f9e8",slug:"hydrocarbon-pollution-and-its-effect-on-the-environment",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8863.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10389",title:"Osmotically Driven Membrane Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5bb1865e5a17251d299b5c1ada3f5c0",slug:"osmotically-driven-membrane-processes",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10389.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tIn the past few years, electrochemical sensing interfaces have become substantial, easy, and bonafide techniques to evaluate food quality, neurotransmitters, toxic chemicals, and various bioactive compounds. The present book aims to determine such compounds using various nanomaterials, nanocomposites, surfactants, organic materials, etc. as modifiers using various voltammetric methods like cyclic voltammetry, linear sweep voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and square wave voltammetry (SWV). It also emphasizes the corrosion-resistant properties of various metals and alloys using voltammetric methods. The recent advancements in sensor innovations like miniaturization of electrochemical cells, use of multi-sensor arrangements, an extension of sensor application regarding temperature, pressure, and aggressive media at both experimental and theoretical aspects will also be included. Currently, the electrical and supercapacitor applications of nanomaterials are the focus of material scientists all over the world. The potential applications of hybrid nanostructures in the area of the supercapacitor, dielectric materials, superconductors, transistors, etc. will also be added in the book followed by the challenges in commercializing voltammetric sensors.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-447-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-446-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-448-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fc53a7599a61ed04a0672a7bca81e9c2",bookSignature:"Dr. Rajendrachari Shashanka, Dr. Kiran Kenchappa Somashekharappa, Dr. Sharath Peramenahalli Chikkegouda and Dr. Shamanth Vasanth",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11910.jpg",keywords:"History of Voltammetry, Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Differential Pulse Voltammetry, Neurotransmitters, Redox, Corrosion, Oxidation, Differential Pulse Voltammetry, Cyclic Voltammetry, Superconductor, Dielectrics, Selectivity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rajendrachari has a strong interdisciplinary academic and research background (Electrochemical sensors, Nanomaterials, Corrosion, Powder metallurgy) and, his name was listed in the top 2% best scientists of the world for the year 2020 as reported by Stanford University, USA. Dr. Rajendrachari has won numerous awards and is currently serving as guest editor and editorial member of various International Journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Kiran is currently doing research in photocatalysis, electrochemical sensors, nanomaterials and working as a faculty in the Dept. of Chemistry at Govt. First Grade College, Shivamogga, Karnataka, India. He has published six research articles and one book chapter in various International Journals.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Sharath P.C. has published 18 research articles and 4 book chapters in various International Journals. Dr. Sharath P.C. is currently doing research in metal forming, powder metallurgy, and electrochemical sensors. He has received several research awards in various conferences and currently has one research grant to his credit.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Vasanth has a very good Interdisciplinary academic and research background (Additive Manufacturing, Heat Treatment of Steels, Material Characterization), Electrochemical sensors. He has published 2 book chapters and 17 international research publications. His current research is Synthesis of High Strength and Corrosion Resistant Nanostructured Stainless Steels by Selective Laser Melting, which is financed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) Government of India.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"246025",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashanka",middleName:null,surname:"Rajendrachari",slug:"shashanka-rajendrachari",fullName:"Shashanka Rajendrachari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246025/images/system/246025.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shashanka Rajendrachari is Assistant Professor at the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Bartin University, Turkey. He obtained his Ph.D. from the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering at NIT Rourkela, Odisha, India. Dr. Rajendrachari has a very good Interdisciplinary academic and research background (Electrochemical sensors, Nanomaterials, Corrosion, Powder metallurgy) and, his name was listed in the top 2% best scientists of the world for the year 2020 as reported by Stanford University, USA and published by Elsevier. He completed his M.Sc (Industrial Chemistry) and M.Tech (Nanoscience and Technology) from Kuvempu University, Shimoga, India. He has published 5 book chapters, 4 books, and 41 international research publications. Dr. Rajendrachari was awarded the Grand Powder Metallurgy student of the year-2015 award from the Powder Metallurgy Association of India at IIT Bombay. Recently, he was won the prestigious 'Young Scientist-2020” award at the 4th International Scientist Awards ceremony on Engineering, Science and Medicine held in Chennai, India. He was also awarded the 'Young Achiever of the Year-2020” award by DHS Foundation, New Delhi, India, and CAMPBELL University, North Carolina, USA at PERFICIO AWARDS-2020, New Delhi, India. 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He pursued Ph.D., from the Department of Applied Sciences (Nanotechnology) at Visvesvaraya Technological University, Center for PG studies-Bangalore Region, Muddenahalli, Chikkaballapura (D), India. He studied B.Sc., (Ic. C. P) from Sahyadri Science College, Shivamogga, and M.Sc., in Chemistry from Govt. Science College, Chitradurga, Kuvempu University, Karnataka, India. He has a good academic career and research knowledge such as Synthesis of Nanomaterials with different morphology, with different methods and their characterizations and application in the field of catalysis, photocatalysis, sensors, and so on. He worked as a Project Assistant for the project entitled “Synthesis, Characterization of Novel Titanate and Niobate Nanotubes/Nanorods and their Applications” sanctioned by Science and Engineering Research Board, Dept. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi. \nHe has published research work in many peer reviewed journals like American Chemical Society, Elsevier, Springer, etc., and also bagged the Best Paper Awards in International Conferences such as International Conference on Nano Engineering Science and Research Advances (NESARA-2019) and International Conference on NANOTECHNOLOGY-2019 “Opportunities and Challenges”. He has presented, participated in many International, National Conferences/Symposiums, and obtained Travel Grant to visit Aryabhatta Knowledge University, Patna, Bihar under Knowledge Exchange Program as a Visiting Scholar visited by Visvesvaraya Technological University. He is a member/ life member of some professional bodies such as Associate Member of Institute of Chemists India, Kolkata, Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA), Kolkata, Society for Materials Chemistry, BARC, Mumbai, Materials Research Society, Warrendale, USA, and American Chemical Society Community Member, Washington, USA.",institutionString:"Govt. First Grade College, Shivamogga",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"299842",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharath",middleName:null,surname:"Peramenahalli Chikkegouda",slug:"sharath-peramenahalli-chikkegouda",fullName:"Sharath Peramenahalli Chikkegouda",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002ktfgxQAA/Profile_Picture_1644917887295",biography:"Dr. Sharath P.C. is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Dept. of Metallurgical and materials engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Jain University, Bengaluru, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering and M.Tech in Process Metallurgy from the National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, India. He has published 18 research articles and 4 book chapters in various International Journals. Dr. Sharath P.C. is currently doing research in metal forming, powder metallurgy, and electrochemical sensors. He has received several research awards in various conferences and currently has one research grant to his credit.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"257201",title:"Dr.",name:"Shamanth",middleName:null,surname:"Vasanth",slug:"shamanth-vasanth",fullName:"Shamanth Vasanth",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX3jQAG/Profile_Picture_1644917948582",biography:"Dr. Shamanth Vasanth is currently working as an Associate Professor at the School of Mechanical Engineering, REVA University, Bangalore, India. He obtained his Ph.D. from the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering at NITK Surathkal, Karnataka, India. Dr. Vasanth has a very good Interdisciplinary academic and research background (Additive Manufacturing, Heat Treatment of Steels, Material Characterization), Electrochemical sensors. He completed his BE (Mechanical Engineering) and M.Tech (Manufacturing Science and Engineering) from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India. So far, he has published 2 book chapters and 17 international research publications. His current research is Synthesis of High Strength and Corrosion Resistant Nanostructured Stainless Steels by Selective Laser Melting, which is financed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) Government of India.",institutionString:"REVA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"REVA University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"45641",title:"Magnetic Responsive Cellulose Nanocomposites and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/53884",slug:"magnetic-responsive-cellulose-nanocomposites-and-their-applications",body:'Magnetically responsive cellulose materials are specific subset of smart materials, in which magnetic nanoparticles are embedded in the polymer matrix, which can adaptively change their physical properties due to an external magnetic field. These kind of materials are expected to exhibit interesting magnetic field-dependent mechanical behavior with a wide range of potential applications, such as fibers and fabrics for protective clothing for military use (Raymond et al., 1994), magnetic filters (Pinchuk et al., 1995), sensors (Epstein & Miller, 1996), information storage, static and low frequency magnetic shielding (Dikeakos et al., 2003) and health care or biomedical products (Wang et al., 2004). In general, magnetic cellulose materials can be prepared with different morphologies, such as films, fibers, microspheres, hydrogels and aerogels, and they respond differently to externally applied magnetic field because of the different natures and structures. The main purpose of the present review is to overview on recent advances in the development of magnetic field-responsive cellulose composites with emphasis on the fabrication, properties and possible applications.
Natural cellulose fibers are composed of microfibrils of 10-30nm width and three-dimensionally connected with each other (Mark & Kroschwitz, 1985). The surface of the fiber is rough and consists of pores with diameter of 30-70 nm, with specific surface area of 30-55 m2 g-1 (Kaewprasit et al., 1998). These nanopores may allow guest molecules to penetrate into their inner spaces. The preparation of magnetically responsive fibers based on cellulose and magnetic nanoparticles has been investigated by several approaches. In the past 2 to 3 decades, magnetically responsive cellulose fibers have been prepared by vigorously agitation of cellulose pulp in a concentrated suspension of iron oxide particles such as magnetite and maghemite particles, followed by a mild washing step to remove all the unbound-magnetic particles. This preparation process is called lumen-loading (Chia et al., 2009; Rioux et al., 1992). The process proceeds in three stages. Firstly, a short initial stage with an advancing diffusion front penetrating the lumen with negligible deposition of filler particles on the internal surface. Secondly, a quasi-steady state regime (the main stage) in which the number of fillers particles entering the lumen equals the number being deposited on the lumen wall, and for which the concentration of filler particles suspended in the lumen is approximately constant, and finally the rate determining step switches from being the rate at which particles can enter into the lumen, and particle deposition occurs on the remaining empty spots of the lumen. The lumen-loading is a physical approach, and the diffusion kinetics of the method is mainly limited by the transport of filler particles through the pit apertures in the fiber walls (Zakaria et al., 2004 a, 2004b). It often results in a heterogeneous composite with deleterious particle dispersion, aggregation and therefore inferior performance. In contrast, the latter co-deposits both matrices and particles simultaneously from a premixed precursor offer more homogeneous and uniform composites. One common procedure is the integrating of pre-synthesized Fe3O4 particles into the lumens of disintegrated cellulose fibers with the aid of certain retention agent (Chia et al., 2006; Zakaria et al., 2005). After impregnation with an agitation and washing step to remove the unwanted particles, the filler particles are introduced exclusively into the lumen of the fibers while leaving the external surfaces free of filler. The filler is protected by the cell wall from dislodgement and the particles do not interfere with interfiber bonding. In addition, the resultant material shows relatively higher saturation magnetization and coercivity. However, the particles are spatially aggregated presumably due to the effect of the magnetic dipole within the short range. This represents a phenomenon commonly encountered in particle nanocomposite. Moreover, this morphology also lowers the mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and results in brittle material as compared to the host matrix (Zakaria et al., 2004; Middleton & Scallan, 1989).
To circumvent these problems, a modified pathway has been performed by using surface coating method. In this process, a colloidal suspension of magnetic nanoparticles is prepared firstly, and then cellulose fibers are dispersed in it and stirred vigorously. After successive washing and sonication, the particles remain bonded to the surface of the fibers. One significant finding is that, a new bonding phase of α-FeOOH is formed at the interface between the Fe3O4 particles and cellulose fibers. The formation of such a bridge is crucial to the integrity of heterogonous hybrid materials in processing and practical applications. In the meanwhile, it allows the inherent properties of the fiber, e.g. tensile strength and flexibility, to be retained while enabling the magnetic properties to the matrix. In addition, the surface of the fibers is completely and uniformly encapsulated by the nanoparticles (Small & Johaston, 2009).
Another approach to prepare magnetically responsive cellulose fibers involves synthesis of iron oxide particles within the cellulosic matrix itself by vigorously agitation of cellulose pulp in iron ion solution, and then iron ions are converted to iron oxide particles within cellulosic matrix by the addition of an excess NaOH solution. This preparation method is called in situ co-precipitation method. This method offers better control of both the magnetic properties and the variety of magnetic particles that are incorporated into the final product than the lumen-loaded method (Marchessault et al., 1992a, 1992b). This method is widely used for the preparation of magnetic cellulose materials. Recently, a modification of the in situ co-precipitation method has been carried out. In this method, bacterial cellulose pellicles are firstly dipped in a solution of FeCl2•4H2O, followed by dipping in a fresh solution of NaOH. The suspension is then heated in a water bath at 65 oC, followed by adding H2O2 solutions. Finally, samples are washed with distilled water. By using this method, the individual reaction is exclusively occurred step by step inside the bacterial cellulose. However, this stepwise dipping process still has some drawbacks. The obtained samples show the non-uniform dispersion of the precipitated nanoparticles across the cross-sectional area of bacterial cellulose. Formation of the darker skin at the surface results from the predominant forming of ferrites at the surface of the processed bacterial cellulose. Moreover, the dipping process is done under ambient condition. As a result, the presence of oxygen gas in the atmospheric air promotes the formation of maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and hematite (α-Fe2O3). In order to make homogeneous dispersion and control the crystalline phase of magnetic nanoparticles in cellulose matrix, ammonia gas-enhancing in co-precipitation method operated in a closed system without oxygen has been used (Katepetch & Rujiravanit, 2011). The use of ammonia gas, instead of conventional aqueous basic solutions, can prevent the magnetic particles from accumulation at the surface of cellulose fibers, resulting in the homogeneous dispersion of the magnetic nanoparticles throughout the cellulose matrix. Accordingly, the as-prepared magnetic nanoparticles-incorporated cellulose sheet exhibits the uniform magnetic properties throughout the cellulose matrix. Moreover, the homogeneous dispersion of the magnetic nanoparticles throughout the cellulose matrix can enhance the percent incorporation of magnetic nanoparticles into cellulose samples, leading to high and uniform magnetic properties throughout the matrix of cellulose. Regarding to the use of cellulose pellicle and ammonia gas-enhancing in situ co-precipitation method, magnetic particles in the crystal form of magnetite (Fe3O4) are obtained and the diameter of the as-synthesized magnetic particles are ranged in nanoscale. The average particle size of the magnetic nanoparticles is in the range of 20–39 nm. The particle size and particle size distribution of magnetic nanoparticles are controllable by adjusting the concentration of aqueous iron ion solution. The saturation magnetization of the magnetic nanoparticle-incorporated cellulose sheet ranges from 1.92 to 26.20 emu•g-1 with very low remnant magnetization (0.15–2.67 emu•g-1) and coercive field (40–65 G) at room temperature. Moreover, the responsiveness to an externally applied magnetic field of the magnetic nanoparticle-incorporated bacterial cellulose sheet is exhibited by its deflection in the direction of increasing magnetic field.
Magnetic cellulose fibers can also be obtained by adding ferro-magnetic powders into the cellulose solution, and then spun into fibers. This technique is one of the most effective methods of imparting new features to fibers as it guarantees stability of their properties, due to the fact that the stabile magnetic modifier is firmly integrated in the polymer matrix, and its percentage content does not change while using the fibers. N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide hydrate (NMMO) is a direct solvent for cellulose, a ferromagnetic compound can be added into the solution, and magnetic cellulose fibers can be spun directly from the mixed solution (Rubacha et al., 2007). The obtained composite fibers can be used to build textile magnetic coils with a textile core. The magnetic properties of the composite fibers depend on the kind of implemented magnetic filler and the percentage content by volume in the fiber matter, and the composite fibers have an increase in the efficiency of shielding the magnetic field. However, mechanical mixing magnetic fills into dissolved cellulose solution often results in an inhomogeneous dispersion of particles in the cellulose matrix, thus considerable attention has been paid to the in situ chemical synthesis of metal nanoparticles in polymer matrices. In our previous works, 7wt% NaOH/12wt% urea aqueous solvent at low temperature is used for cellulose dissolving, and regenerated cellulose fibers can be spun from this solution (Chen et al., 2006; Mao et al., 2008). The cellulose fiber at swollen state exhibits an interpenetrating macroporous structure with a mean pore diameter of about 150 nm. This unique structure makes the porous structured cellulose fibers can be used as reacting sites for the in situ synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles. Magnetic Fe2O3 nanoparticles can be synthesized in situ in the cellulose fibers for the preparation of magnetic cellulose fibers (Liu et al., 2008a, 2008b), as it is shown in Fig. 1. The synthesized Fe2O3 nanoparticles with a mean diameter of 18 nm are uniformly dispersed in the cellulose matrix. There has strong interaction between Fe2O3 nanoparticles and cellulose matrix, the composite fibers are kept in water for a long time, and the Fe2O3 nanoparticles can hardly move out from the composite fibers. The composite fibers exhibit improved mechanical strength and a strong capability to absorb UV rays, superparamagnetic properties, as well as a relatively high dielectric constant; it indicated that the composite fibers can be used as protective materials for low frequency magnetic shielding.
SEM images of surface (a) and cross section (b) for a single swollen RC (regenerated cellulose) fiber (insert is its enlarged image and the scale bar is 1 μm), as well as photographs of the composite fibers F001(FeCl3, 0.01M) (c), F01 (FeCl3, 0.1M) (d), and F05(FeCl3, 0.5M) (e), respectively.
Cellulose products are used traditionally in paper, packagings and artificial fibers, but technologies such as magnetic nanopapers open up opportunities for entirely new product areas. By using the lumen-loading technology, commercially available magnetic pigments can be introduced into the lumens of softwood fibers from which magnetic paper may be prepared. Lumen-loaded fibers act as magnetic dipoles allowing manipulation of fiber orientation in papermaking (Marchessault et al., 1992b). Another classic mixing of magnetic nanoparticles in the cellulose solution often results in the aggregation of magnetic nanoparticles in the composite films, because of the interparticle dipolar forces worsens their dispersion, which often decreases the properties of the composites and the single function of the magnetic nanomaterials. Precipitation of nano-sized ferrite (Fe3O4 and CoFe2O4) particles with the presence of cellulose fibers has also been used to produce films with good magnetic properties (Chia et al., 2008). The magnetic properties of the films increased with the loading of the magnetic particles. The coercivity of the magnetic films prepared with CoFe2O4 is higher than that with Fe3O4, and the thermal stability of the magnetic film depends on the degree of crystallinity of the precipitated particles. The magnetic particles deposited on the surface of the fibers have detrimental effects on the film strength. However, it is difficult to control the dispersion or particles size of the loaded magnetic particles for the above mentioned methods.
An interesting advance in the development of nanofibril cellulose (NFC) template materials may further enable nanocomposites to have tunable properties and open up many new multifunctional utilities. In-situ precipitation of the magnetic nanoparticles onto the individual cellulose nanofibrils has been used for the preparation of magnetic cellulose films (Galland, 2012). In this process, aqueous nanofibril suspension is used for magnetic functionalization. This method is based on aqueous co-precipitation of cobalt and iron species by forced hydrolysis to form cobalt-ferrite (CoFe2O4) magnetic nanoparticles. The stable suspension of NFC is favorable for the black suspension of magnetic NFC, and it is then used for membrane formation by a suitable vacuum filtration procedure. In the magnetically functionalized cellulose nanofibril networks, the processing conditions have a major effect on size distribution of magnetic nanoparticles, with the interesting observation that presence of NFC during precipitation results in smaller particle formation. In turn, this directly has an influence on magnetic properties of the material, with e.g. reduced coercivity for materials with smaller nanoparticles. The introduction of nanoparticles results in increased porosity and reduced interaction between fibers, which acts negatively on stiffness and strength of the magnetic nanopaper membranes. But ductility is preserved leading to remarkable tough nanocomposite materials.
Another alternative method is the in situ co-precipitation method by using the porous structured cellulose films as reacting sites. The cellulose hydrogel films prepared from LiOH/urea and NaOH/urea aqueous solution have unique fibrous network structure. The fibrous network structure, apart from providing high mechanical strength, offers macro/mesoporous spaces which can be used as reaction chambers for precipitation of nanoparticles with the fibers providing a support structure to hold the particles. (Liu et al., 2006, 2011a, 2012a). In this method, cellulose films are immersed into FeCl2 or FeCl3 solution firstly and metal ions can be readily impregnated into the cellulose films through the pores. The incorporated Fe2+ ions can be bound to cellulose macromolecules via electrostatic interaction, because the electron-rich oxygen atoms of polar hydroxyl of cellulose are expected to interact with electropositive transition metal cations. When the films are treated with aqueous NaOH solution, Fe2O3 nanoparticles can be synthesized in the cellulose scaffolds in situ. The obtained Fe2O3 nanoparticles in the composite films prepared from FeCl2 or FeCl3 solution are γ-Fe2O3. The Fe2O3 nanoparticles are plate-like, and distribute randomly in the cellulose matrix before drying. It is different from those reported works about in situ synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles in a polymer matrix. In order to clarify the mechanism for the formation of the plate-like inorganic nanoparticles, Fe3O4, CdS, Co(OH)2 nanoparticles have been synthesized from different precursors through the same pathway (Liu et al., 2011b, 2011c; Zhou et al., 2009). It indicates that the prepared nanoparticles are irregular particles and are homogeneously dispersed in the cellulose matrix. The possible mechanism for the formation of plate-like magnetic nanoparticles is ascribed to the non-negligible magnetic dipole-dipole interactions between the magnetic nanoparticles, transforming from Fe(OH)3 or Fe(OH)2 to Fe2O3. The cellulose films that immersed into FeCl2 or FeCl3 solution and Fe2+-cellulose or Fe3+-cellulose are formed, when treated with NaOH. Fe(OH)3 or Fe(OH)2 are obtained in the cellulose matrix firstly. After drying, they transform into Fe2O3 nanoparticles. During this process, there is an anisotropic growth happens to the nanoparticles. While for the preparation of Fe3O4/cellulose films, Fe3O4 nanoparticles are directly formed in the cellulose matrix when treated with NaOH solution, therefore, the morphology of the magnetic nanoparticles is irregular particles, which agrees well with the reported works about the preparation of inorganic nanoparticles in polymer matrix from one-step method. The concentration of FeCl2 or FeCl3 solution has little influence on the crystal structure and morphology of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles, but had an obvious influence on the content of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose films. The Fe2O3 nanoparticles in composite films that dried at ambient conditions distribute in a regular way, and the composite films have an obvious magnetic anisotropy property, while for the freeze-dried composite films, the Fe2O3 nanoparticles distribute randomly, and the resulting composite films displayed superparamagnetic properties without magnetic anisotropy. This interesting phenomenon may be ascribed to the shrinkage of the composite films during drying process and the magnetic dipolar-dipolar interactions between the magnetic nanoparticles. The size of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles is far smaller than that of the macropores of the wet cellulose film. Magnetic nanoparticles can rotate freely, and randomly align within the pores at wet state. When it is fixed and dried in air, the composite films only shrink in the longitudinal direction from 300 μm in wet state to about 30 μm in dry state. Furthermore, there is non-negligible magnetic dipole-dipole interaction between the magnetic nanoparticles, leading to the regulative distribution of the nanoparticles. In order to clarify the regular distribution behavior of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in the cellulose matrix, an exo-magnetic field (static and dynamic magnetic field) is applied during the drying process of the composite films at ambient conditions. The regular distribution of Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix has been destroyed in the exo-magnetic field, and the dynamic exo-magnetic field has a more obvious effect on the distribution of Fe2O3 nanoparticles than that of static exo-magnetic field. The composite films prepared from static-magnetic field have weak ferromagnetic properties, while the composite films prepared from dynamic exo-magnetic field display superparamagnetic properties without magnetic anisotropy, which indicates that magnetic filed has an influence on the distribution of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix. The effects of different forces on the distribution of the magnetic nanoparticles in cellulose matrix are characterized by using TEM, as it is shown in Fig. 2. Moreover, the influence of uniaxial drawing on the distribution of Fe2O3 nanoparticles has been investigated. Interestingly, there is no rearrangement of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix happened after being drawing, and the distribution of Fe2O3 nanoparticles are destroyed, as it is shown in Fig. 3. With an increase of the draw ratio, the irregularity of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix is increased, and the magnetic anisotropy of the resulting composite films is decreased. The porous structure of the regenerated cellulose filmsare destroyed by uniaxial drawing, therefore, the rotation of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in the pores of cellulose films is hindered, leading to the irregular distribution of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix. These results support that a transformation process took place in the synthesized Fe2O3 from Fe(OH)3 or Fe(OH)2. The magnetic dipole-dipole interaction between the Fe2O3 nanoparticles is the important factor of the regular distribution of the Fe2O3 nanoparticles in cellulose matrix.
Bacterial cellulose also can be used for the preparation of magnetic cellulose films. Bacterial cellulose is synthesized in the form of fibrous structure which constitutes a three-dimensional non-woven network of nanofibers with diameters less than 100 nm, and it is much smaller than the diameter of typical plant cellulose bundles (ca. 100nm). Bacterial cellulose fiber has the same chemical structure as plant cellulose, but has higher specific surface area than the cellulose nanofibers, indicating that bacterial cellulose has much more surface hydroxyl and ether groups than plant cellulose. These hydroxyl groups make up of active sites for metal ion adsorption (Li et al., 2009). Moreover, the porous structure of nanofibrous bacterial cellulose provides large amount of sub-micron pores. The precipitated metal nanoparticles are stabilized by the sub-micron pores of the bacterial cellulose, leading to good dispersion of the as-synthesized nanoparticles (Zhang et al., 2011), the detail preparation process is shown in Fig. 4. Magnetic ferrite nanoparticles loaded bacterial cellulose (BC) membranes have been synthesized earlier. The size of the ferrite particles varies from ~2 to 20 nm with the particles existing both individually and as aggregates in the matrix. These magnetic BC membranes are superparamagnetic at room temperature with no coercivity or remanence (Raymond et al., 1994, 1995; Sourty et al., 1998; Small & Johnston, 2009).
The precipitation reaction method of loading magnetic particles in the BC matrix does not allow complete control of particles formation-nucleation, growth, aggregation, and density, if surfactant molecules which cap the metal particles are not used. As a result, the synthesized particles may have a broad distribution of sizes and different interparticle distances. Recently, metallic magnetic particles have also been loaded into BC by precipitating from the respective salt solutions using NaBH4, KH2PO2, and NaH2PO2 as reducing agents. The reaction conditions, type of reducing agent and the reduction medium are found to influence the chemical composition, crystallinity, and size of the metal particles. The saturation magnetization of Ni impregnated cellulose at room temperature is found to be very small compared with that of bulk due to P and B contamination in Ni as well as lack of crystallinity, amorphous structure. The amorphous Ni transforms into crystalline Ni on heat treatment. In the case of Co, NaH2PO2 reduction is found to result in the formation of ordered crystals with size of 5-6 nm and aggregates with micron size. The Co loaded cellulose is found to be ferromagnetic at room temperature with obvious coercivity (Pirkkalainen et al., 2007, 2008). The room temperature reduction in an aqueous environment is also an effective method for the controlling synthesis of magnetic nanoparticle with small particle size (Vitta et al., 2010). The formation of crystalline Ni nanoparticles with controlled particle size inside the bacterial cellulose along with Ni(OH)2 has been performed. The nanocrystals have an equiaxed shape and are found both as individual particles as well as small aggregates depending on the porous network structure of cellulose matrix. The bacterial cellulose does not undergo any change and retains its crystal structure even after chemical reduction reaction. The Ni loaded bacterial cellulose is found to be ferromagnetic at room temperature with a saturation magnetization of 2.81 emu•g−1 which increases by an order of magnitude to 21.8 emu•g−1 at 1.8 K. The coercive field also increases by two orders of magnitude from 28 G at 300 K to 2900 G at 1.8 K. The zero field cooled magnetization however exhibits a superparamagnetic behavior with a peak at 20 K, the blocking temperature and this behavior is observed even in ac magnetization. The magnetization decreases with the increase of temperature up to 400 K, when extrapolated to high temperature using a power law indicates a Curie transition at 500 K, which is much lower than the Curie temperature of bulk Ni. The fraction of isolated superparamagnetic nanoparticles present in the composite is estimated from the saturation magnetization and is found to be ~88%. These results clearly highlight the presence of two separate magnetic phases, superparamagnetic, and ferromagnetic, and the role of various magnetic interactions in the collective magnetic behavior of Ni nanoparticles in the composite structure. Freeze-dried bacterial cellulose nanofibers can form porous structured scaffolds, which can also be used as a template for in-situ chemical reactions to form Co nanoparticles for the generation of a tunable multifunctional nanocomposite film. In this process, an extremely porous so-called aerogel which consists of only 2% cellulose fibrils and 98% pores is obtained, and then dip the porous cellulose aerogel into a saline solution and create the magnetic particles. The magnetic particles are 40 nm large and consist of cobalt ferrite. The particles bind very strongly with the cellulose. During the production process, it is possible to control the amount of magnetic particles that are formed. The porous nanopaper can also be compressed to different levels of porosity, due to obtain the required strength and the flexibility.
TEM images of the composite film prepared by freeze-dried (a, b) and being dried at ambient conditions (c, d); (a, c), the slice was parallel to the film plane; (b, d), the slice was perpendicular to the film plane, and the composite film fixed on a PMMA plate with a static magnetic field and air-dried. (e), the slice was parallel to the film plane; (f), the slice was perpendicular to the film plane, and the composite film dried on a rotating magnetic field at room temperature. (g), the slice was parallel to the film plane; (h), the slice was perpendicular to the film plane.
TEM images of the composite films with draw ratios different from 1.04 to 1.22: a, b, c are the slices that perpendicular to the surface of the films, e, f, g are the slices that parallel to the surface of the films, d and e were HRTEM images of c and g, respectively.
Schematic illustration for the flexible magnetic nanohybrid membrane from bacterial cellulose nanofibers.
The use of superparamagnetic microspheres (SM) has been widely reported in various applications, such as biomedical research and technology (Šafařĭk & Šafařĭková, 1999) and environmental protection (Yang et al., 2008; Atia et al., 2009), due to their remote responses to external magnetic fields. Ideal magnetic polymer microspheres must have high specific saturation magnetization, small size, narrow particle size distribution, biocompatibility, biodegradable, good chemical stability, rich functional groups on surface and simple process in preparation, cheap as shell. Cellulose, with high biocompatibility, good hydrophilic properties, and biodegradable natures, is a good candidate for magnetic nanocomposite.
Encapsulation of magnetic particles with cellulose polymers is the simple and classical method to prepare magnetic cellulose particles (Luo & Zhang, 2009). In our previous works, maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles are prepared. Subsequently, by blending it with cellulose solution and then millimeter-scale magnetic cellulose beads can be prepared via an optimal dropping technology. In this method, other fillers, such as activated carbon (AC) can be added into the mixed solution for the preparation of composite cellulose beads with improved properties. The cellulose beads containing Fe2O3 nanoparticles exhibit sensitive magnetic response, and their recovery can be facilitated by applying a magnetic field. Dyes are adsorbed effectively by the AC/magnetic cellulose beads. The Fe2O3 nanoparticles and AC in the AC/magnetic cellulose beads can play important roles in both the formation of spherical shape beads and the improvement of the adsorption capacity. Furthermore, the sorbent can be regenerated and used repeatedly. The magnetic properties of the beads allow the separation from the effluent by applying a magnetic field, leading to the development of a clean and safe process for water pollution remediation.
As for the magnetic cellulose microspheres (MCMS), most of the attentions are focused on the absorption performance. The absorption capacity of MCMS is important for the applications point of view. According to Langmuir theory, the smaller the MCMS, the larger the surface area, thereby the stronger the absorption capacity. However, the crystalline structure of cellulose, due to the hydrogen bonds between and within its chains and the high molecular weight, make the treatment of cellulose very difficult. On one hand cellulose exhibits zero solubility in water and common organic solvents, except for some solutions (Fischer et al., 2003; Ass et al., 2006; Yoshida et al., 2005). On the other hand an ionic solution of cellulose shows considerable viscosity, which causes great difficulty in the dispersal of material into small drops. Under conditions without protection from chemical cross-linking or contact, magnetic fluids dispersed in cellulose solution are impacted in their stability as liquid drops and will easily collapse or coalesce, if dispersing strength solutions are used. As a consequence, the average size distribution of MCMS is most often reported from dozens to hundreds of micrometers (Wolf, 1997; Guo & Chen, 2005). If a critical condition could be found in which the drops could maintain both the smallest diameter and stability, MCMS can be fabricated with the maximum absorption capability. A theory of “the smallest critical size”(SCS) is proposed and tested for the first time as a guideline for forming the desired MCMS (Tang et al., 2010). It indicates that the diameter of the SCS of MCMS is 5.82 μm, while the IgG absorption capability of the MCMS with SCS is 186.8 mg/mL. An innovative approach developed by us has shown that a more controlled nanostructured morphology and geometrical shape of the magnetic cellulose microspheres can be obtained (Luo et al., 2009a), and the incorporated magnetic nanoparticles has an obvious influence on the microstructure of the obtained magnetic microspheres, as it is shown in Fig. 5. In this study, cellulose drops in a precooled aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide and urea are utilized to form regenerated cellulose microspheres (RCS) using sol-gel process. These porous beads are then used as microreactors, which permits in situ co-precipitation of Fe3O4 nanoparticles into the cellulose pores of RCS in a solution mixture of FeCl3 and FeCl2 to finally form magnetic regenerated cellulose microspheres (MRCS). This process is able to create MRCS about 6 um in diameter with embedded nanoparticles with particle size of 20 nm. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) clearly shows that embedded Fe3O4 nanoparticles are dispersed uniformly inside MRCS matrix. These ideal nanostructures ensure that the micron-sized cellulose beads maintain the superparamagnetic property. Such beads can be magnetized and attracted to that field in the presence of an external magnetic field; however, they will not retain any magnetization when the external field is removed and can flow with the carrier medium like non-magnetic beads. As an embodiment, it demonstrates the magnetic-induced transference for targeting protein delivery and release using these nanocomposite beads.
SEM images of the surface of the regenerated cellulose microspheres (RCS) (a), M10 (mixtured solutions of FeCl3/FeCl2 with concentration of 10mmol/5.2mmol) (b), M20(mixtured solutions of FeCl3/FeCl2 with concentration of 20mmol/10.6mmol) (c) and M30(mixtured solutions of FeCl3/FeCl2 with concentration of 30mmol/15.9mmol) (d). The insert illustrates the morphology of RCS and magnetic regenerated cellulose microspheres (MRCS).
In recent research aiming at a biomedical application, magnetic carriers based on proteins immobilized onto magnetic cellulose microspheres (MCMS) have also been widely used. The biospecific connection using a specific binding between a protein and the biomatrices displays an excellent repertoire of advantages, including convenient and simple preparation, elimination of toxic compounds, and highly efficient antibody utilization (Luo & Zhang, 2010; Hornes & Korsnes, 1990). The resulting extraction of a pure target molecule by this technique is both convenient and efficient. A novel method has developed for immobilizing antibodies onto MCMS using a cellulose binding domain–protein A (CBD–ProA) linkage, which allows for a one-step isolation of mRNA from eukaryotic cells and tissues (Gao et al., 2009). The produced CBD–SA fusion proteins display binding activities for both cellulose and biotin, and are endowed with superior attributes in the linkage between the MCMS and biotinylated oligo(dT). Using SA–CBD–MCMS for this application allows efficient and rapid isolation of mRNA from eukaryotic cells and tissues and represents an improvement over conventional, available techniques. The stability of the particles, especially the bound CBD to MCMS has been evaluated (Cao et al., 2007).
Magnetic responsive gels have become an interesting subject of study for several research groups. Cellulose hydrogels can be made stimuli-responsive which makes their study more interesting. Preparation of magnetic cellulose gels is similar to that of other filler-loaded networks. One way is to prepare and characterize magnetic particles separately and then to mix them with polymers, and the cross-linking takes place after mixing the polymer solution and the magnetic sol (Haas et al., 1993), one can precipitate well-dispersed colloidalsized particles in the polymeric material. The in situ precipitation can be made before, during, and after the cross-linking reaction (Mark, 1985). As these gels respond to magnetic stimuli, it can be readily applied in the areas of biotechnology/biomedicine, health care, catalysis, magnetic resonance imaging, and so on. Chatterjee and coworkers have developed a two-step synthesis of magnetic gel (Chatterjee et al., 2004). In the first step, hydroxypropyl cellulose particles are formed with surfactant-modified maghemite by the emulsion method. In the second step, these particles are cross-linked by a commercial cross-linking agent Zirmel M to give a network structure. By this mechanism of network formation, it is possible to introduce a homogeneous distribution of maghemite into the polymer matrix. These magnetic gels have a network of nanoparticles of hydroxypropyl cellulose (30–100 nm) and a homogeneous distribution of nanosized maghemite (~7 nm). The magnetic gel has magnetic moment in an applied field, due to the size distribution in maghemite, single blocking temperature can not be obtained at temperatures below room temperature. Superparamagnetic behavior is observed for the gel. The magnetic gel does not show any unique behavior in terms of the magnetic property though there is a possibility for obtaining different magnetic properties due to the restricted motion (Chatterjee et al., 2003). In order to improve the magnetic properties of the magnetic gels, a modified method has been performed. In this process, HPC is mixed with hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) modified γ-Fe2O3 powder in sodium hydroxide solution (pH=12). The solution is then sonicated for 30s. When the solution become homogeneous, solid crushed pellets of NaOH are added to this solution and mixed thoroughly. A reddish brown gel is formed at pH 13 and can separate from the solution. With the decrease in pH (at pH 9), the gel break down and form a homogeneous dispersion of the HPC–γ-Fe2O3 complex. This brown dispersion again transformed into a gel with an increase in the pH to 13. The HPC can be loaded as much as 100% of its weight of iron oxide to form a complex structure. Therefore, a large value of magnetic moment is obtained from these gels. By this process of gelation with a magnetic material along with the cellulose polymer, heavy metals/metal oxides can be captured and separated with the help of an external magnet.
Cellulose aerogels, consisting of three-dimensional networks, are typically obtained by removing the liquid in cellulose gels under freeze drying or supercritical conditions (Li et al., 2011; Liebner et al., 2010; Kettunen et al., 2011). The unique properties like high internal surface, high porosity, low density, and with the additional advantages and characteristics of the renewable biopolymer cellulose makes the cellulose aerogel an interesting candidate for various applications. The combination of cellulose nanofibers and magnetic nanoparticles allows for the preparation of ultra-flexible porous magnetic aerogels. Strong cellulose nanofibrils derived from bacteria or wood can form ductile or tough networks that are suitable as functional materials. A bacterial cellulose hydrogel with a large measured surface area is first freeze-dried into a porous cellulose nanofibril aerogel. The dried aerogel template is then immersed in an aqueous FeSO4/CoCl2 solution at room temperature before heating the system to 90 oC to thermally precipitate the non-magnetic metal hydroxides/oxides on the template. Heating changes the color from transparent to translucent orange. The precipitated precursors are converted into ferrite crystal nanoparticles on immersion in NaOH/KNO3 solution at 90 oC, resulting in highly flexible magnetic aerogels that can sustain large deformations, as it is shown in Fig. 6. Micrographs of freeze-dried samples show that the nanoparticles are located on the bacterial cellulose nanofibril surfaces. Unlike solvent-swollen gels and ferrogels, the magnetic aerogel is dry, lightweight, porous (98%), flexible, and can be actuated by a small household magnet. Moreover, it can absorb water and release it upon compression. Owing to the flexibility, high porosity and surface area, these aerogels are expected to be useful in microfluidics devices and as electronic actuators (Olsson et al., 2010).
In our previous works, regenerated cellulose films that prepared from LiOH/urea or NaOH/urea aqueous solution also can be used as templates for the preparation of magnetic cellulose aerogels (Liu et al., 2012b). In this process, cellulose hydrogel films are immersed in freshly prepared aqueous solutions of FeCl3 and CoCl2 with a molar ratio of [Fe]/[Co] = 2 for 24 h, it allows a homogeneous distribution of the precursor solution obtained inside the cellulose networks. The hydrogel films contain precursor solution is subsequently treated with NaOH solution (2 mol•L-1). The color of the samples changes from red/orange to black immediately, and inorganic nanoparticles can be formed in the cellulose matrix. The composite cellulose films are washed with water to remove counter-ions, and then freeze-dried, and magnetic composite aerogels are obtained. The magnetic aerogels are light-weight, flexible. The porosities of the composite aerogels are ranged from 78 to 52%. The internal specific surface areas and densities of the aerogels are around 300–320 m2•g-1 and 0.25–0.39 g•cm-3, respectively. The content of the incorporated CoFe2O4 nanoparticles increases with the increase of the CoFe2O4 precursor concentration, but the particle size change hardly. The incorporated CoFe2O4 nanoparticles changed the microstructure of the cellulose aerogels obviously, making them different to those of the composite aerogels. The hybrid aerogels show superparamagnetic behaviors, improved mechanical properties with respect to the corresponding inorganic aerogel. Because the concepts of the process are simple and cellulose is sustainable and readily available in large quantities from plants (wood). Thus the suggested route is suitable for industrial-scale production and may be used with many types of nanoparticles, which will open up the new application fields of cellulose based functional materials.
Synthesis of elastic aerogel magnets and stiff magnetic nanopaper. a, Schematic showing the synthetic steps. 1, Bacterial cellulose hydrogel (1 vol%) is produced by Acetobacter xylinum FF-88. 2, Photograph, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image and schematic of a cellulose aerogel after freeze-drying. 3, Immersion of the dry aerogel in aqueous FeSO4/CoCl2 solution for 15 min followed by heating to 90 oC for 3 h transforms soluble Fe/Co hydroxides into insoluble complexes. 4, Cellulose networks subjected to NaOH/KNO3 solutions at 90 oC immediately change in colour from red to orange to black as nanoparticles precipitate on the cellulose nanofibrils. b, Representative SEM image of a 98% porous magnetic aerogel containing cobalt ferrite nanoparticles after freeze-drying. Right inset: nanoparticles surrounding the nanofibrils. Left insets: photograph and schematic of the aerogel. c, SEM image of a stiff magnetic nanopaper obtained after drying and compression. Inset: higher magnification image.
The magnetic cellulose composites hold great promise in offering both multiple functionalities and economic functions. Cellulose is not only abundant, renewable, biodegradable, but also the production process is simple. Thus it is very likely to become an economically viable technology, in addition to having profound benefits to sustainable technology and also to our environment. With the versatile properties and a large variety of potential applications revealed in early developments, these new materials have the potential to impact many advanced multifunctional areas such as electromagnetically driven printing, “smart” magnetic biochips, novel localized drug delivery and other applications yet to be envisioned. Furthermore, this research area is expected to grow rapidly, and dramatic improvements in materials’ functions will be achieved in the years to come, especially in furthering advanced applications as well as the pursuit of environmental friendly green technologies worldwide.
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (51003043).
Unitary multiset grammars (UMG) and multimetagrammars (UMMG) are knowledge representation model, providing convergence of classical operations research and modern knowledge engineering. The main area of UMG/UMMG application is assessment and optimization of large-scale sociotechnical systems (STS). Syntax and semantics of multigrammars are described in the first part of this work, being separate chapter of this book. Section 2 of this chapter contains primary description of UMG/UMMG-improved algorithmics, providing generation of terminal multisets (TMS), reduced by unperspective branches cutoff at the maximal early steps of generation. Such branches do not lead to the TMS, satisfying all conditions, entering filter of UMG/UMMG. Section 3 is dedicated to UMG/UMMG application to some actual problems from the STS assessment area (estimation of producing STS capabilities and resources, necessary to such systems for various orders completion, as well as assessment of STS sustainability and vulnerability to various destructive impacts, such as natural disasters, technogenic catastrophes, mutual sanctions, etc.). In Section 4, optimization problems, related to STS, are considered (their profit maximization and works’ optimal distribution among non-antagonistic competing STS in the market economy). Conclusion contains list of directions of further development of multigrammatical approach.
\nLet us begin from
From the computational complexity point of view, definition (58) from the first part of this work may be without loss of generated TMS transformed to
\nwhere \n
As may be seen, sufficiently valuable part of multisets, generated by FUMG unitary rules (UR) application, may be eliminated after few generation steps, because all the following steps do not lead to TMS, satisfying FUMG filter boundary conditions, or have no opportunity for further optimization over terminal multisets, generated earlier, if concerning optimizing conditions. So essence of general approach, which is described further, is to apply filter to every new generated multiset (not only terminal) and to cut off those multisets, which are not perspective in the aforementioned sense. Thus we apply well known and widely used in operations research “branches and bounds” scheme to TMS generation. Of course, filter application to generated nonterminal multisets cannot be identical to filter application to terminal multisets; that is why some additional considerations are necessary.
\nLet us take the definition of TMS generation logic (57)–(61) from the first part of the work as a basis and construct rather simple and transparent procedure-function terminal multisets generation (
We shall use the following variables in the
Couples <
In
\n
/* initial values of optimized multiplicities settings */
\n
{\n
max :
};
\n
/*main part: generation function
/*function
/*
/* branch is perspective, so new multisets are generated */
\n
/* correction min/max values by new terminal multiset*/
\n \n
\n
Let us comment on the represented procedure-function
As seen, it contains prefix, which provides
Procedure
First section corresponds to that case, when
If
If in terminal multiobject \n
If mentioned multiplicity is greater than value
(There may be more sophisticated and efficient criteria for earlier recognition and cutting off unperspective generation branches [2, 3], but chapter volume limits make their description impossible). If one of the checked conditions is not satisfied, further generation from multiset
The third section of
Function
As seen, the described algorithm due to its simplicity may be implemented easily on every available software/hardware environment. Correctness of this algorithm is confirmed by the following statement [2, 3].
\n(Note
Let us describe now the main idea of
As shown in [2, 3], all multisets, generated by any UMMG, have form
\nwhere every \n
where \n
If filter
as well as optimizing conditions
\nthey induce
and
Domain of every variable \n
As seen from (3)–(9), set of terminal multisets, generated in the UMMG case, corresponds to set of solutions of multicriterial problem of discrete polynomial programming. There are well-known approaches to such problems’ consideration [4, 5], but their common feature is they provide search of any one of the solutions, not all multi-element solutions set, if it exists. Proposed UMMG TMS generation algorithmics [2, 3] is initially oriented to UMMG semantic precise implementation and combines mixed computation and interval analysis techniques [6, 7, 8, 9] with global optimization based on theory [10, 11, 12, 13]. Aforementioned algorithmics provides multidirectional reduction of redundant generation branches by procedure, similar to
As
VCM generation is based on unified representation of polynoms in (4) form as sets of multisets: \n
where \n
is represented by multiset
\nThis representation is sufficiently flexible, and it is the basis of implementation of mixed computation in the multisets case; the core of this implementation is polynoms multiplication and addition.
\nMore detailed description of algorithmics, providing efficient generation of sets of terminal multisets, defined by unitary multimetagrammars, needs separate survey.
\nImplementation issues, related with the proposed knowledge representation model, are described in [1, 14].
\nHowever, presented formal definitions of syntax, semantics, and algorithmics of UMG/UMMG are, in our opinion, sufficient for consideration of their pragmatics, that is, their application to various practical problems.
\nMultigrammatical paradigm and UMG/UMMG toolkit are sufficiently general and simple to formalize and solve a lot of practical problems from various areas of operations research and systems analysis. Techniques, shortly described in Section 2 of the first part of this work, is one of the many possible to apply. Some more examples from hierarchical sociotechnical systems assessment and design concerned reader may find in [2, 3], where one may find also description of multigrammatical emulation of well-known classical problems of optimization theory: shortest path, traveling salesman, maximal flow, maximal pair matching, optimal assignments problems, and transport problem as well as integer linear programming problem. (Note that in [2, 3], there is also analysis of interconnections between multigrammars’ family and known computational models, such as Petri nets, vectors addition, substitution systems, etc.).
\nLower in this section, we shall consider problems, associated with the producing (manufacturing) STS, being most complicated for modeling.
\nLet us introduce the following
We shall understand UR
\nas follows: object \n
In turn,
Unitary multigrammars provide most natural “top-down” way of formal description of technological base of arbitrary producing STS, as well as deep structure of manufactured objects of any level of structural complexity (obviously, these two entities are interconnected closely). “Additivity” of multigrammatical knowledge bases (KB), being consequence of their “granularity” (due to unitary rules and metarules as knowledge representation atoms), provides creating and updating KB in near real time. Since now we shall use notations “multigrammatical knowledge base” and “scheme of UMG/UMMG” as synonyms.
\nAs it is easy to see, all terminal objects may become nonterminal after joining to this set of new URs, detailing them down to undivided spare parts. If to follow technological interpretation, then every UR reflects assembling operation, implemented by corresponding segment of manufacturing facility: one such segment is assembling car of the listed components, another segment - body, etc.
\nTo take into account cost of any operation executed (obviously, it is “
(rational multiplicities’ appearance along with integer ones, considered higher, does not bring any principal transformations and difficulties into MG semantics and algorithmics [2, 3]). Both cost and time may be defined in “compound” units, that is, UR body may contain three multiobjects, \n
Considering time intervals description in unitary rules, we must take into account that, unlike cost, time is not fully additive resource, because producing devices may operate in parallel. That’s why time is additive resource only regarding separate device, and typical form of “local time” description is multiobject \n
If we have knowledge base, prepared as shown above, then it may be used to estimate resources amounts, necessary to complete any order by means of technological base, defined by
which means customer needs \n
Then, as it is easy to see, resources collection, necessary to complete this order, is terminal multiset \n
(unitary rule, having place in (19), is in angle brackets for unambiguity). If unitary multigrammar \n
that is, order is to assemble three cars. According to (17)–(19),
\nThat means order completion requires spare parts from external suppliers as well as money and time for assembling segments of manufacturing facility in amounts, being multiplicities of corresponding objects, having places in \n
If it is necessary to evaluate (estimate) total cost of order completion, then it is sufficient to join to the KB
As seen, new UMG provides generation of one-element set
\nwhere
If multiobjects \n
In practice every STS, which is capable to complete input orders and manufacture some output production, possesses usually not only technological base but also resource base (RB). For this reason,
Let
that is, collection of resources, belonging to the STS, is sufficient for order
is its resource base. As may be seen, this resource base is not sufficient for order
After recognition of system’s inability to complete order
What amount of resources must be acquired by the system to complete the order?
What part of order may be completed, given resources, owned by STS?
The answer to the first question is obvious: if \n
The answer to the second question concerned reader may find in [1], where the so-called reverse multigrammars are used for this problem solution.
\nOne more area of useful application of UMG/UMMG is
Let \n
That is, despite impact there is at least one way of order completion. Otherwise, if there is no one TMS \n
Another important issue to be discussed here is
POPE is formulated as follows [15]. Let there be \n
To produce one unit of
where \n
This problem may be represented by unitary multiset metagrammar \n
where \n
where \n
where \n
along with
where \n
As may be seen, set of POPE solutions is
\nwhere
\nmeans that maximal profit is
so there may be \n
under restrictions
\nThat means STS is producing two products, which prices are 2 and 3, respectively, and there is resource base, containing 10 units of the first resource and 18 units of the second. To produce one unit of the first product, STS needs 3 units of the first resource and 5 units of the second, while producing of one unit of the second product needs 2 units of the first resource and 3 units of the second resource.
\nAccording to (26)–(30), scheme
as well as two URs:
\nFilter
one optimizing condition
\nas well as two variables declarations:
\nwhere 10 is maximal amount of any product, which may be produced by STS.
\nAs seen,
\nwhich means STS would get maximal profit of 10 units, producing 2 units of both products and, spending for that purpose, 10 units of the first resource and 16 units of the second resource.▪
\nLet us note that classical matrix–vector POPE modeling is limiting set of the considered cases to the simplest two-level structures of the manufactured objects (“object-component”), represented by unitary rules like (27). In practice, all such objects have much more complicated, multilevel heterogeneous hierarchical structure, that is clearly illustrated by the previous Examples 1–3, concerning car manufacturing.
\nUMMG application provides natural representation of the POPE problem in the most general formulation. Namely, it is sufficient to join to set of URs, describing technological base of the STS, the only UMR like (26). Similarly, to represent resource base of the STS, filter of the created UMMG would contain boundary conditions like (28); it is important that absence of some resource
To cut off generated TMS with nonpositive multiplicities of object
All the said higher in this section is very close to the Leontief model and other “input–output” models of mathematic economy, developed on the matrix–vector algebra basis [16]. As may be seen, transfer to the UMG/UMMG basis makes such modeling much more flexible and closer to the reality. That is why we consider multigrammatical paradigm as very perspective for the development of various issues in the future digital economy [17, 18], first of all, planning and scheduling in the cyberphysical industry, integrated with deeply robotized logistics [19, 20]. However, application of the described here approach to the core areas of digital economy (Industry 4.0) needs separate publications.
\nConcerning implementation issues, it would be aptly to say that multisets processing is very promising area for application of non-conventional computing paradigms [21, 22].
\nNow let us spend some place of this section for
The main tool of the last is the so-called variative unitary multigrammars and multimetagrammars, which schemes include unitary rules (metarules) with the same head and different bodies. UMG/UMMG variativity provides representation of coexistence of various subjects able to complete one and the same order. We assume these subjects are non-antagonistic, that is, they all are ready to execute any part of the total work.
\nThere may be at least three possible approaches to multigrammatical modeling of competitions:
“The winner takes it all.”
Splitting order among various subjects.
“The winner coalition takes it all” (combination of two previous).
Let us consider the
Let
where
Let \n
where multiobject \n
These URs being joined with URs, detailing nonterminal object
which corresponds to the choice of the third manufacturer. If \n
because no one of the possible order executors is optimal by time and cost simultaneously.▪
\nAs it is well known from practice, approach, described higher, may be not rational from various points of view, especially, when capabilities of no one of the competitors (subjects \n
and unitary rules
\nas well as all URs, having place in the scheme, constructed higher by application of the first approach, excluding (34). Filter \n
which is directly induced by order \n
As seen, terminal multisets, generated by UMMG \n
where, according to (38)–(40),
\nand thus values \n
If order \n
which corresponds to splitting order
Let us underline once more that time is not additive resource in relation to parallel processes; it is additive only regarding one device (manufacturing unit). Consideration of multisets with time-containing multiobjects is separate direction of the multigrammatical approach and needs special tool, which is called temporal multiset grammars (TMG), announced in [1] . This branch concerns problems, addressed by the classical theory of scheduling [23, 24].
\nThe third possible case of competitions (“the winner coalition takes it all”) may be considered by the concerned reader on his (her) own.
\nPresented primary survey of multigrammatical knowledge representation along with brief consideration of its possible applications is, of course, only a background for future development, which most valuable directions may be:
MG/UMG/UMMG extension by features, necessary for “single-time-scale” modeling of manufacturing and logistical processes and their optimal control, that is critically needed for the developed digital economy (Industry 4.0)
Development of algorithmics for local correction of solutions (generated sets of TMS) while UMG/UMMG local correction in the sense [25], which is necessary for the aforementioned control in hard real-time and highly volatile environment
Further development of MG/UMG/UMMG improved algorithmics and its software/hardware implementation in high-parallel general-purpose computing environments
Development of specialized high-parallel computing environments, initially oriented to MG/UMG/UMMG algorithmics implementation
Development of quantum, neural and molecular algorithmics for MG/UMG/UMMG toolkit implementation in corresponding computer environments
MG/UMG/UMMG pragmatics expansion to new problem areas and convergence with other known knowledge/data engineering paradigms (first of all, multiagent systems [15, 26, 27])
Some of the listed directions are already developed by the author and his colleagues; some are waiting their time, being targeted to the creation of unified framework for the intellectual (knowledge-based) digital economy. This way is leading us to the Big Knowledge paradigm being generalization of the Big Data one, which is already everyday reality. The author will be glad, if this paper will be of any interest for some scholars working in the related areas.
\nThe author is grateful to Prof. Fred Roberts for useful discussions and support, and to Prof. Jeffrey Ullman, whose useful remarks on the primary version of this work contributed to its essential upgrade. A significant incentive for the development of the proposed approach was its positive assessment by Prof. Noam Chomsky, which early works on syntactic structures formed a conceptual background of the described mathematical toolkit.
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So as to demonstrate the achievability and adequacy of the framework, this chapter presents exploratory consequences of the vehicle following framework and a few encounters on handy executions.",book:{id:"9384",slug:"intelligent-system-and-computing",title:"Intelligent System and Computing",fullTitle:"Intelligent System and Computing"},signatures:"Sandesh Shrestha",authors:[{id:"310485",title:"Mr.",name:"Sandesh",middleName:null,surname:"Shrestha",slug:"sandesh-shrestha",fullName:"Sandesh Shrestha"}]},{id:"69374",title:"The Novel Applications of Deep Reservoir Computing in Cyber-Security and Wireless Communication",slug:"the-novel-applications-of-deep-reservoir-computing-in-cyber-security-and-wireless-communication",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter introduces the novel applications of deep reservoir computing (RC) systems in cyber-security and wireless communication. The RC systems are a new class of recurrent neural networks (RNNs). Traditional RNNs are very challenging to train due to vanishing/exploding gradients. However, the RC systems are easier to train and have shown similar or even better performances compared with traditional RNNs. It is very essential to study the spatio-temporal correlations in cyber-security and wireless communication domains. Therefore, RC models are good choices to explore the spatio-temporal correlations. In this chapter, we explore the applications and performance of delayed feedback reservoirs (DFRs), and echo state networks (ESNs) in the cyber-security of smart grids and symbol detection in MIMO-OFDM systems, respectively. DFRs and ESNs are two different types of RC models. We also introduce the spiking structure of DFRs as spiking artificial neural networks are more energy efficient and biologically plausible as well.",book:{id:"9384",slug:"intelligent-system-and-computing",title:"Intelligent System and Computing",fullTitle:"Intelligent System and Computing"},signatures:"Kian Hamedani, Zhou Zhou, Kangjun Bai and Lingjia Liu",authors:[{id:"245542",title:"Mr.",name:"Kangjun",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",slug:"kangjun-bai",fullName:"Kangjun Bai"},{id:"309770",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kian",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedani",slug:"kian-hamedani",fullName:"Kian Hamedani"},{id:"310622",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"zhou-zhou",fullName:"Zhou Zhou"},{id:"310623",title:"Prof.",name:"Lingjia",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"lingjia-liu",fullName:"Lingjia Liu"}]},{id:"69600",title:"Persuasion in Mobile Financial Service: A Case Study with a Bank Savings Mobile Application",slug:"persuasion-in-mobile-financial-service-a-case-study-with-a-bank-savings-mobile-application",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Financial institutions are undergoing a technology transformation. The digitization now drives the addition of new services and expectations. In this context, mobile has become a strategic channel to encourage users to adopt specific behaviors and change habits effortlessly. The research question underlying this study focuses on mobile banking applications and how they could support the adoption of savings behaviors. A qualitative study was conducted, in order to evaluate the persuasiveness embedded in a mobile bank saving app. Three experts in human-computer interaction (HCI) assessed the mobile app interfaces through a scientific grid of persuasive criteria to guide their heuristic inspection. Results confirm both a satisfactory level of persuasiveness of the mobile app and the dynamic application of persuasive criteria. The study shows that a mobile app involving certain specific features supports a positive banking customer’s experience related to savings. This study contributes to the user experience field, showing that mobile apps can support behavioral change when persuasiveness is embedded in the design process. Using a valid and reliable assessment method to establish the level of persuasiveness of a bank savings mobile app, this study confirms that the persuasion grid is applicable to mobile interfaces.",book:{id:"9384",slug:"intelligent-system-and-computing",title:"Intelligent System and Computing",fullTitle:"Intelligent System and Computing"},signatures:"Prom Tep Sandrine, Ruer Perrine and Nemery Alexandra",authors:[{id:"308744",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandrine",middleName:null,surname:"Prom Tep",slug:"sandrine-prom-tep",fullName:"Sandrine Prom Tep"},{id:"308746",title:"Prof.",name:"Perrine",middleName:null,surname:"Ruer",slug:"perrine-ruer",fullName:"Perrine Ruer"},{id:"311806",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Nemery",slug:"alexandra-nemery",fullName:"Alexandra Nemery"}]},{id:"69265",title:"Wax Deposition in Crude Oil Transport Lines and Wax Estimation Methods",slug:"wax-deposition-in-crude-oil-transport-lines-and-wax-estimation-methods",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Petroleum industry is one of the major industries serving the energy demands. Flow assurance is essential for providing continuous fuel supply. Wax deposition is the main issue that affects flow assurance or reduces the efficiency of transporting crude oil. As the maintenance cost of repairing and troubleshooting is very high, addressing issues related to flow assurance becomes critical in the petroleum industry. This chapter will explore methods used for reducing, cleaning, and monitoring deposition of wax. Wax dissolved in the crude oil gets crystallized causing accumulation across the pipe walls once the bulk temperature of the crude oil gets lower than wax appearance temperature (WAT). Mechanical, thermal, chemical, and microbial methods highlighting general practice in the industry are discussed in this chapter. Next, the direct techniques providing information about the numerical wax deposition models used along with scientific measurement techniques are emphasized. Later, the indirect measurement techniques are discussed providing information about the external probing and nondestructive techniques to obtain information about wax layer deposition inside the pipe. The role of artificial intelligence and use of fuzzy logic for effective wax prediction or in developing the existing wax numerical models are emphasized in the last section.",book:{id:"9384",slug:"intelligent-system-and-computing",title:"Intelligent System and Computing",fullTitle:"Intelligent System and Computing"},signatures:"Fadi Alnaimat, Mohammed Ziauddin and Bobby Mathew",authors:[{id:"151722",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadi",middleName:null,surname:"Alnaimat",slug:"fadi-alnaimat",fullName:"Fadi Alnaimat"},{id:"245338",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",middleName:null,surname:"Mathew",slug:"bobby-mathew",fullName:"Bobby Mathew"},{id:"307726",title:"MSc.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Ziauddin",slug:"mohammed-ziauddin",fullName:"Mohammed Ziauddin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"535",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hassan M.",surname:"Heshmati"}],book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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