Angles between <110> and [11w] directions (°)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8123",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Metals in Soil - Contamination and Remediation",title:"Metals in Soil",subtitle:"Contamination and Remediation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The anthropogenic input of metals into the atmosphere is estimated to be one-to-three orders of magnitude higher than natural fluxes. Soil acts as the primary sink for anthropogenic metals among the environmental spheres. Most metals show indefinite persistence in the ecosphere due to resistance against microbial or chemical-assisted degradation. This edited book is an attempt to compile reviews and case studies from different researchers focusing on different aspects of soil contamination by metals and its subsequent remediation. The book's contents will be useful for researchers and strategists interested in the environmental aspects of soil contamination.",isbn:"978-1-78985-776-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-775-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-091-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77986",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"metals-in-soil-contamination-and-remediation",numberOfPages:88,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5bf06fb97dff16934a2319d873089ec6",bookSignature:"Zinnat Ara Begum, Ismail M. M. Rahman and Hiroshi Hasegawa",publishedDate:"March 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8123.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7173,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:57,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"201022",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Hasegawa",slug:"hiroshi-hasegawa",fullName:"Hiroshi Hasegawa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201022/images/4967_n.jpg",biography:"Hiroshi Hasegawa received his D.Sc. Degree in 1997 from the Kyoto University, Japan. He is currently working as a Professor in the Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Japan.",institutionString:"Kanazawa University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"675",title:"Soil Chemistry",slug:"soil-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"65840",title:"Introductory Chapter: How to Assess Metal Contamination in Soils?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84979",slug:"introductory-chapter-how-to-assess-metal-contamination-in-soils-",totalDownloads:909,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ismail M.M. Rahman and Zinnat A. Begum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65840",authors:[{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum"},{id:"406345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"63832",title:"The Influence of Potentially Toxic Elements on Soil Biological and Chemical Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81348",slug:"the-influence-of-potentially-toxic-elements-on-soil-biological-and-chemical-properties",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil has been a source of wealth for humans for infinite years and it continues so at present. Both mineral and organic amendments have been applied to soil to slow down its progressive impoverishment. Biological activity, mainly microbial activity, plays a key role in the stability and fertility as well as in biogeochemical cycles. Effect of potentially toxic elements on soil microbial activity, the composition of soil microbial community, soil enzyme activities, and soil physiochemical properties have been reviewed in this work.",signatures:"Om Prakash Bansal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63832",authors:[{id:"176180",title:"Dr.",name:"Om",surname:"Bansal",slug:"om-bansal",fullName:"Om Bansal"}],corrections:null},{id:"65024",title:"Influence of Chemical Properties of Soil on the Corrosion Morphology of Carbon Steel Pipes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82770",slug:"influence-of-chemical-properties-of-soil-on-the-corrosion-morphology-of-carbon-steel-pipes",totalDownloads:1567,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Corrosive soils are responsible for the deterioration of buried underground utilities such as buried steel pipes. Frequent pipe failures are reported due to corrosive soil globally. Although soil’s corrosion phenomenon has been understood and identified long time ago, pipe failures due to corrosive soil are uncontrollable and unavoidable despite the use of protective coatings and techniques such as cathodic protection. Therefore, it is essential to review the causes of soil’s corrosivity for the protection of steel pipes. This chapter demonstrates the influence of varying moisture and chloride contents of soils on the corrosion of coated and uncoated steel pipes. Carbon steel specimens (coated and uncoated) were buried in soils of 20, 40, 60, and 80 wt.% moisture content, respectively, while the chloride concentration introduced in soil was 0, 5, and 10 wt.%, respectively. Through the analysis of experiments, it is revealed that the corrosion rate of pipes buried in soil increases with increase in moisture content up to critical moisture and chloride values. The influence of soil’s moisture and chloride on the corrosion products formed on steel pipes was investigated and comprehensively explained in this chapter. Authors believe that the knowledge presented in this chapter can be applied to other structures or utilities buried in corrosive soils.",signatures:"Muhammad Wasim and Shahrukh Shoaib",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65024",authors:[{id:"257667",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Wasim",slug:"muhammad-wasim",fullName:"Muhammad Wasim"},{id:"271218",title:"Mr.",name:"Shahrukh",surname:"Shoaib",slug:"shahrukh-shoaib",fullName:"Shahrukh Shoaib"}],corrections:null},{id:"64693",title:"Radioactive Isotopes in Soils and Their Impact on Plant Growth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81881",slug:"radioactive-isotopes-in-soils-and-their-impact-on-plant-growth",totalDownloads:1383,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 1999, Serbia was bombarded by NATO. One of the cities most affected by the consequences of bombardment with uranium is the city of Vranje, where the consequences are felt even today. Due to the influence of uranium, the mortality rate has increased. This paper presents the effects of some of the radionuclides that have contaminated the soil, as well as the connection between soil and plants that grow on that soil. The performed measurements of radionuclides (226Ra, 40K, 232Th, 238U, and 235U). The results show that the content of each of these radionuclides has different concentrations, but what is important is that some values are even below the detection limit, corn <0.06 235U on the location Korbevac and wheat <0.04 235U on the location Bujkovac. On the three and all of these gated locations, the calculated values of the transfer factors for 40K were in the range of 0.144–0.392, while in the case of 226Ra, the transfer factors ranged from 0.008 to 0.074. Only one value (0.051) was obtained for the transfer factor of 232Th. Specific activities of 137Cs, as well as uranium isotopes, in all the investigated cereal samples, were below minimal detectable activity concentrations. The ratio of radionuclides in soil and plants is of great importance for human nutrition.",signatures:"Jelena Markovic and Svetlana Stevovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64693",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64693",authors:[{id:"260360",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jelena",surname:"Markovic",slug:"jelena-markovic",fullName:"Jelena Markovic"},{id:"264294",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Stevovic",slug:"svetlana-stevovic",fullName:"Svetlana Stevovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"64054",title:"Metal-Contaminated Soil Remediation: Phytoremediation, Chemical Leaching and Electrochemical Remediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81223",slug:"metal-contaminated-soil-remediation-phytoremediation-chemical-leaching-and-electrochemical-remediati",totalDownloads:2005,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil contamination has led to serious land tenure problems, reduction in land usability for agricultural production; as a consequence, food insecurity is nowadays a global challenge. Indeed, with rapid population growth across the world, the food demand for consumption has drastically increased and traditional ways of producing food cannot meet with the actual demand. Industrialization has been acknowledged as a way out to sustain humanity with food. Unfortunately, the later has further turn into a threat to the environment. In effect, several potentially toxic elements (PTE) are being released in the environment and soil systems; and arable or agricultural lands are getting restraint, limited and scarce. Nowadays, there is a consensus on remediating contaminated lands with PTE, mainly inorganic contaminants, metals. The state at which a metal is found in the soil greatly influences its bioavailability, interaction with plants and the level at which it will threaten (toxicity) the environment and thus human. It even defines the remediation approaches to be applied for the soil restoration. This chapter will provide an insight on the occurrence of PTE in the soil, bioavailability and remediation approaches namely phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrochemical remediation; and finally highlight the future research direction on this topic.",signatures:"Binessi Edouard Ifon, Alexis Crépin Finagnon Togbé,\nLyde Arsène Sewedo Tometin, Fidèle Suanon and Arouna Yessoufou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64054",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64054",authors:[{id:"257187",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidèle",surname:"Suanon",slug:"fidele-suanon",fullName:"Fidèle Suanon"},{id:"263966",title:"MSc.",name:"Binessi Edouard",surname:"Ifon",slug:"binessi-edouard-ifon",fullName:"Binessi Edouard Ifon"},{id:"263968",title:"Dr.",name:"Arouan",surname:"Yessoufou",slug:"arouan-yessoufou",fullName:"Arouan Yessoufou"},{id:"267945",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin",surname:"Togbe",slug:"alexis-finagnon-crepin-togbe",fullName:"Alexis Finagnon Crepin Togbe"},{id:"267946",title:"Dr.",name:"Lyde A.S.",surname:"Tomètin",slug:"lyde-a.s.-tometin",fullName:"Lyde A.S. Tomètin"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"23",label:"women in science book program"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6076",title:"Soil pH for Nutrient Availability and Crop Performance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"173305a5e0ae12b94fd56c04957acbdd",slug:"soil-ph-for-nutrient-availability-and-crop-performance",bookSignature:"Suarau Oshunsanya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6076.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175778",title:"Dr.",name:"Suarau",surname:"Oshunsanya",slug:"suarau-oshunsanya",fullName:"Suarau Oshunsanya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10590",title:"Humic Substances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85786eb36b3e13979aae664a4e046625",slug:"humic-substances",bookSignature:"Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9843",title:"Soil Contamination",subtitle:"Threats and Sustainable Solutions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b175b72cb10952220515885ac49598c",slug:"soil-contamination-threats-and-sustainable-solutions",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. 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\r\n\tNanorods have attracted extensive research interest in science and technology due to their extraordinary properties, and high aspect ratio. They can be synthesized from carbon and other metal-based materials. These nanorods have found applications in different fields such as aerospace and automobile industries, biomedical fields, biosensors, catalysis, lithium-ion batteries, EMI shielding, etc. Nanorods are used in biomedical applications in drug delivery and cancer therapy, but their toxic behavior and mechanism are still unclear. This book proposes novel, fundamental, and comprehensive updates on the advancement in nanorods' synthesis, properties, and applications. Nanorods' toxicity levels and measurements are essential due to their increasing toxic effects on living organisms. Therefore, the new mechanism-based toxicity strategies will also be covered in this book to determine the toxic effects of nanorods. This book aims to bring concisely and compiled information in the book chapters. This book can provide benefits to teachers, students, and researchers.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-903-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-902-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-904-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fb27f444442e8f039b560beae93e6873",bookSignature:"Prof. Tejendra Kumar Gupta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11757.jpg",keywords:"Nanorods, Carbon Nanorods, Silver Nitrate Nanorods, Tin Oxide Nanorods, Chemical Vapor Deposition, Ball Milling, Laser Ablation, Flame Synthesis, Sol-Gel, Microwave Plasma, Coprecipitation, Electrical Properties",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Gupta is a Researcher in Carbon-based nanomaterials and Polymer nanocomposites and an Assistant Professor at the Amity Institute of Applied Sciences. He has over 30 research publications in SCI-indexed journals, and over 15 presentations in conferences including Invited Lecture and book chapters to his credit.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345089",title:"Prof.",name:"Tejendra Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",slug:"tejendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Tejendra Kumar Gupta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345089/images/system/345089.jpg",biography:"Dr Tejendra Kumar Gupta is working as Assistant Professor in Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Amity University, Noida, India. He obtained his doctoral degree from Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (Institute of National Importance), CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India. Dr Gupta is a recipient of Dr D.S. Kothari Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Award from UGC, India and MI-MIT collaborated Postdoctoral Research Fellowship by Masdar Institute of Science and Technology (A part of Khalifa University of Science and Technology), Abu Dhabi, UAE. He is Editor and Reviewer of several International Journals of Materials Sciences, Polymer composites, Mechanical Engineering and Water Technology. Dr Gupta has over 30 research publications in SCI indexed journals, over 15 presentations in conferences including Invited Lecture and book chapters to his credit. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"42370",title:"Recrystallization Textures of Metals and Alloys",doi:"10.5772/54123",slug:"recrystallization-textures-of-metals-and-alloys",body:'Recrystallization (Rex) takes place through nucleation and growth. Nucleation during Rex can be defined as the formation of strain-free crystals, in a high energy matrix, that are able to grow under energy release by a movement of high-angle grain boundaries. The nucleus is in a thermodynamic equilibrium between energy released by the growth of the nucleus (given by the energy difference between deformed and recrystallized volume) and energy consumed by the increase in high angle grain boundary area. This means that a critical nucleus size or a critical grain boundary curvature exists, from which the newly formed crystal grows under energy release. This definition is so broad and obscure that crystallization of amorphous materials is called Rex by some people, and Rex can be confused with the abnormal grain growth when grains with minor texture components can grow at the expense of neighboring grains with main texture components because the minor-component grains can be taken as nuclei. Here we will present a theory which can determine whether grains survived during deformation act as nuclei and which orientation the deformed matrix is destined to assume after Rex. A lot of Rex textures will be explained by the theory.
Rex occurs by nucleation and growth. Therefore, the evolution of the Rex texture must be controlled by nucleation and growth. In the oriented nucleation theory (ON), the preferred activation of a special nucleus determines the final Rex texture [1]. In the oriented growth theory (OG), the only grains having a special relationship to the deformed matrix can preferably grow [2]. Recent computer simulation studies tend to advocate ON theory [3]. This comes from the presumption that the growth of nuclei is predominated by a difference in energy between the nucleus and the matrix, or the driving force. In addition to this, the weakness of the conventional OG theory is in much reliance on the grain boundary mobility.
One of the present authors (Lee) advanced a theory for the evolution of Rex textures [4] and elaborated later [5,6]. In the theory, the Rex texture is determined such that the absolute maximum stress direction (AMSD) due to dislocation array formed during fabrication and subsequent recovery is parallel to the minimum Young’s modulus direction (MYMD) in recrystallized (Rexed) grains and other conditions are met, whereby the strain energy release can be maximized. In the strain-energy-release-maximization theory (SERM), elastic anisotropy is importantly taken into account.
In what follows, SERM is briefly described. Rex occurs to reduce the energy stored during fabrication by a nucleation and growth process. The stored energy may include energies due to vacancies, dislocations, grain boundaries, surface, etc. The energy is not directional, but the texture is directional. No matter how high the energy may be, the defects cannot directly be related to the Rex texture, unless they give rise to some anisotropic characteristics. An effect of anisotropy of free surface energy due to differences in lattice surface energies can be neglected except in the case where the grain size is larger than the specimen thickness in vacuum or an inert atmosphere. Differences in the mobility and/or energy of grain boundaries must be important factors to consider in the texture change during grain growth. Vacancies do not seem to have an important effect on the Rex texture due to their relatively isotropic characteristics. The most important driving force for Rex (nucleation and growth) is known to be the stored energy due to dislocations. The dislocation density may be different from grain to grain. Even in a grain the dislocation density is not homogeneous. Grains with low dislocation densities can grow at the expanse of grains with high dislocation densities. This may be true for slightly deformed metals as in case of strain annealing. However, the differences in dislocation density and orientation between grains decrease with increasing deformation. Considering the fact that strong deformation textures give rise to strong Rex textures, the dislocation density difference cannot be a dominant factor for the evolution of Rex textures. Dislocations cannot be related to the Rex texture, unless they give rise to anisotropic characteristics.
The dislocation array in fabricated materials looks very complicated. Dislocations generated during plastic deformation, deposition, etc., can be of edge, screw, and mixed types. Their Burgers vectors can be determined by deformation mode and texture, and their array can be approximated by a stable or low energy arrangement of edge dislocations after recovery. Figure 1 shows a schematic dislocation array after recovery and principal stress distributions around stable and low energy configurations of edge dislocations, which were calculated using superposition of the stress fields around isolated dislocations, or, more specifically, were obtained by a summation of the components of stress field of the individual dislocations sited in the array. It can be seen that AMSD is along the Burgers vector of dislocations that are responsible for the long-range stress field. The volume of crystal changes little after heavy deformation because contraction in the compressive field and expansion in the tensile fields around dislocations generated during deformation compensate each other. That is, this process takes place in a displacement controlled system. The uniaxial specimen in Figure 2 makes an example of the displacement controlled system. When a stress-free specimen
(a) Schematic dislocation array after recovery, where horizontal arrays give rise to long-range stress field, and vertical arrays give rise to short-range stress field [
Displacement controlled uniaxial specimen for explaining strain-energy-release being maximized when AMSD in high dislocation density matrix is along MYMD in recrystallized grain.
AMSD for active slip systems
Schematic of two slip planes S1 and S2 that share common slip direction along
We first calculate AMSD in an fcc crystal deformed by a duplex slip of (111)[-101] and (111)[-110] that are equally active. The duplex slip can be taken as a single slip of (111)[-211], which is obtained by the sum of the two slip directions. In this case, the maximum stress direction is [-211]. However, some complication can occur. One slip system has two opposite directions. The maximum stress direction for the (111)[-101] slip system represents the [-101] direction and its opposite direction, [1 0-1]. The maximum stress direction for the (111)[-110] slip system represents the [-110] and [1-1 0] directions. Therefore, there are four possible combinations to calculate the maximum stress direction, [-101] + [-110] = [-211], [-101] + [1-1 0] = [0-1 1], [1 0-1] + [-110] = [0 1-1], and [1 0-1] + [1-1 0] = [2-1-1], among which [-211]//[2-1-1] and [0-1 1]//[0 1-1]. The correct combinations are such that two directions make an acute angle. If the two slip systems are not equally active, the activity of each slip system should be taken into account. If the (111)[-101] slip system is two times more active than the (111)[-110] system, the maximum stress direction becomes 2[-101] + [-110] = [-312]. This can be generalized to multiple slip. For multiple slip, AMSD is calculated by the sum of active slip directions of the same sense and their activities, as shown in Figure 3. It is convenient to choose slip directions so that they can be at acute angles with the highest strain direction of the specimen, e.g., RD in rolled sheets, the axial direction in drawn wires, etc.
When two slip systems share the same slip direction, their contributions to AMSD are reduced by 0.5 for bcc metals and 0.577 for fcc metals as follows. Figure 4 shows two slip planes, S1 and S2, intersecting along the common slip direction, the
where PN1 and PN2 are normal to the planes S1 and S2, respectively. Therefore,
where OP,
Because
The apparent shear strains
For bcc metals, sin
For fcc metals, sin
The activity of each slip direction is linearly proportional to the dislocation density
If a crystal is plastically deformed by
The above equation is illustrated in Figure 5. If a deformation texture is stable, the shear strain rates on the slip systems are independent of deformation.
So far methods of obtaining AMSD have been discussed. This is good enough for prediction of fiber textures. However, the stress states around dislocation arrays are not uniaxial but triaxial. Unfortunately we do not know the stress fields of individual dislocations in real crystals, but know Burgers vectors. Therefore, AMSD obtained above applies to real crystals. Any stress state has three principal stresses and hence three principal stress directions which are perpendicular to each other. Once we know the three principal stress directions, the Rex textures are determined such that the three directions in the deformed matrix are parallel to three <100> directions in the Rexed grain, when MYMDs are <100>. In figure 6, let the unit vectors of
Calculation of
Relationship between three principal stress directions
If the unit vectors
It should be mentioned that
The 1st priority: When AMSD is cristallographically the same as MYMD, No texture changes after Rex [10].
The 2nd priority: When AMSD crystallographically differs from MYMD, the Rex texture is determined such that AMSD in the matrix is parallel to MYMD in the Rexed grain, with one common axis of rotation between the deformed and Rexed states. The common axis can be ND, TD, or other direction (e.g. <110> for bcc metals). This may be related to minimum atomic movement at the AMSD//MYMD constraints. However, we do not know the exact physical picture of this.
The 3rd priority: When the first two conditions are not met, the method explained to obtain Eq. 9 is used.
When the density of dislocations in electrodeposits and vapor deposits is high, the deposits undergo Rex when annealed. AMSD in the deposits can be determined by their textures. The density of dislocations whose Burgers vectors are directed away from the growth direction (GD)of deposits was supposed to be higher than when the Burgers vector is nearly parallel to GD because dislocations whose Burgers vector is close to GD are easy to glide out from the deposits by the image force during their growth [11]. This was experimentally proved in a Cu electrodeposit with the <111> orientation [12]. Therefore, AMSDs are along the Burgers vectors nearly normal to GD.
Lee et al. found that the <100>, <111>, and <110> textures (inverse pole figures: IPFs) of Cu electrodeposits which were obtained from Cu sulfate and Cu fluoborate baths [13,14], and a cyanide bath [15] changed to the <100>, <100>, and <√310> textures, respectively, after Rex as shown in Figure 7. The texture fraction (TF) of the (
where I(
Deposition and Rex textures of Cu electrodeposits. <
where
For fcc Cu, S11=0.018908, S44 =0.016051, S12 = -0.008119 GPa-1 at 800 K [17], which in turn gives rise to [
For the <100> oriented Cu (simply <100> Cu) deposit, two of the six <110> directions are at 90° and the remaining four are at 45o with GD, as shown in Figure 8. The two <110> directions, which is AMSD, change to the <100> directions after Rex, resulting in the <100> Rex texture (Figure 8b) in agreement with the experimental result.
For the <111> Cu deposit, three of the six <110> directions are at right angles with the [111] GD; the remaining three <110> directions are at 35.26o with GD, as shown in Figure 9 a. The former three <110> directions, AMSD, can change to <100> after Rex, but angles between the <110> directions are 60o and the angle between the <100> directions is 90°. Correspondence between the <110> directions in as-deposited grains and the <100> directions in Rexed grains is therefore impossible in a grain. Two of the <110> directions in neighboring grains, which are at right angles with each other, can change to the <100> directions to form the <100> nuclei in grain boundaries, which grow at the expense of high energy region, as shown in Figure 9b. Thus, the <111> deposition texture change to the <100> Rex texture, in agreement with the measured result.
Drawings explaining that <100> deposition texture (a) remains unchanged after Rex (b).
(a) <110> directions in <111> oriented fcc crystal in which arrow indicates [111] growth direction. (b) Drawings for explanation of <111> deposition to <100> Rex texture transformation.
directions in [110] oriented fcc crystal.
For the <110> Cu deposit, one <110> direction is normal to the <110> GD and the remaining four <110> directions are at 60o with the <110> GD, as shown in Figure 10. The first one of the <110> directions and the last four <110> directions are likely to determine the Rex texture because the last four directions are closer to the deposit surface than to GD. Recalling that the <110> directions change to <100> directions after Rex, GD of Rexed grains should be at 60o and 90o with the <100> directions, MYMD, at the same time. GD satisfying the condition is <√310>, in agreement with the experimental results.
So far we have discussed the evolution of the Rex textures from simple deposition textures. A Cu deposit whose texture can be be approximated by a weak duplex texture consisting of the <111> and <110> orientations developed the Rex texture which is approximated by a weak <√310> orientation rather than <100> + <√310> [18]. For the duplex deposition texture, the Rex texture may not consist of the Rex orientation components from the deposition orientation components because differently oriented grains can have different energies. The tensile strengths of copper electrodeposits showed that the tensile strength of the specimens with the <110> texture was higher than those with the <111> texture obtained from the similar electrodeposition condition. This implies that the <110> specimen has the higher defect densities than the <111> specimen [18,19]. Therefore, the <110> grains are likely to have higher driving force for Rex than the <111> grains, resulting in the <√310> texture after Rex, in agreement with experimental result [18].
For Ni, S11= 0.009327, S44 = 0.009452, S12 = -0.003694 GPa-1 at 760 K [20], which in turn gives rise to [
For Ag, S11= 0.03018, S44 = 0.02639, S12 = -0.0133 GPa-1 at 750 K [17], which in turn gives [
Deposition (top) and Rex (bottom) textures (IPFs) of Ag electrodeposits [
The deposition texture of Sample d was well described by 0.32<112> + 0.14<127>T + 0.25<113> + 0.23<557>T + 0.06<19 19 13>TT with each of individual orientations being superimposed with a Gaussian peak of 8°. Here <127>T indicates the twin orientation of its preceeding <112> orientation, and TT indicates secondary twin. Thus, the main components in deposition texture of Sample d are <112>, <113>, and <557>. The <110> directions that are nearly normal to GD will be AMSD and in turn determine the Rex texture. Table 1 gives angles between <110> and [11w]. Table 1 shows that the probability of <110> directions being normal to GD is the highest. The <110> directions normal to GD will become parallel to the <100> directions (MYMS) after Rex. Therefore, the Rex texture will be the <100> orientation for the same reason as in the <111> orientation of the deposit [22].
Table 2 shows TFs (Eq. 10) of Cr electrodeposits obtained under three electrodeposition conditions. Specimen Cr-A has a strong <111> fiber texture. The texture of Cr-B is characterized by weak <111>, and that of Cr-C is by weak <100>. The optical microstructure and hardness test results and others indicated that all the specimens were fully Rexed at 1173 K. TFs as functions of annealing temperature and time in Figure 12 indicate that the deposition texture of Cr-A little change after Rex. The pole figures in Figures 13 and 14 indicate the deposition textures of Cr-B and Cr-C little change after Rex. In conclusion, the <100> and <111> deposition textures of Cr electrodeposits little change after Rex. These results are compatible with SERM as discussed in what follows. There are four equivalent <111> directions in bcc Cr crystal, with opposite directions being taken as the same. For the <111> Cr deposit, one of four <111> directions is along GD and the remaining three <111> directions are at an angle of 70.5o with GD (Figure 15). The remaining three <111> directions can be AMSDs. They will become parallel to MYMDs of Rexed grains. The compliances of Cr are
\n\t\t\t | ||||||
557 | \n\t\t\t44.7 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t31.5 | \n\t\t\t81.8 | \n\t\t\t31.5 | \n\t\t\t81.8 | \n\t\t
112 | \n\t\t\t54.7 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t73.2 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t73.2 | \n\t\t
113 | \n\t\t\t64.8 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t31.5 | \n\t\t\t64.8 | \n\t\t\t31.5 | \n\t\t\t64.8 | \n\t\t
Angles between <110> and [11w] directions (°)
\n\t\t\t | |||||||
Cr-A | \n\t\t\t0.02 | \n\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tStrong <111> | \n
Cr-B | \n\t0.03 | \n\t0.15 | \n\t0.28 | \n\t0 | \n\t0.01 | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t<111> | \n
Cr-C | \n\t0.19 | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t0.13 | \n\t0.05 | \n\t0.13 | \n\t0.03 | \n\t<100> | \n
Texture fractions (TF) of reflection planes of Cr electrodeposits A, B, and C [14]. Bold-faced numbers indicate highest TFs in corresponding deposits.
TFs of Cr-A as functions of annealing (a) temperature for 1 h and (b) time at 903 K [
(200) pole figures of Cr-B (left) before and (right) after annealing at 1173 K for 1 h [
(200) pole figures of Cr-C (left) before and (right) after annealing at 1173 K for 1 h [
Patten et al. [24] formed deposits of Cu up to 1mm in thickness at room temperature in a triode sputtering apparatus using a krypton discharge under various conditions of sputtering rate, gas purity, and substrate bias. The 3.81 cm diameter target was made from commercial grade OFHC forged Cu-bar stock containing approximately 100 ppm oxygen by weight with only traces of other elements. The substrates were 2.54 cm diameter by 6.2 mm thick disks made of OFHC Cu. These disks were electron beam welded to a stainless-steel tube to provide direct water-cooling for temperature control during sputtering. As-deposited grains were approximately 100 nm in diameter. Room-temperature Rex and grain growth displaying no twins were observed approximately 9 h after removal from the sputtering apparatus. Nucleation sites were almost randomly distributed. Hardness of the unrecrystallized matrix remained at ~230 DPH from the time it was sputtered until Rex, when it abruptly dropped to approximately 60 DPH in the Rexed grains. Rex resulted in a texture transformation from the <111> deposition texture to the <100> Rex texture. Since the substrate is also Cu, the orientation transition from <111> to <100> cannot be attributed to thermal strains. The driving force for Rex must be the internal stress due to defects such as vacancies and dislocations. Therefore, the texture transition is consistent with the prediction of SERM.
Thin arrows (AMSDs) and thick arrows (GD) in [111] and [001] Cr crystals.
Greiser et al. [25] measured the microstructure and texture of Ag thin films deposited on different substrates using DC magnetron sputtering under high vacuum conditions (base pressure: 10-8 mbar, partial Ar pressure during deposition: 10-3 mbar). A weak <111> texture in a 0.6 μm thick Ag film deposited on a (001) Si wafer with a 50 nm thermal SiO2 layer at room temperature becomes stronger with increasing thickness. It is generally accepted that a random polycrystalline structure is obtained up to a critical film thickness unless an epitaxial growth condition is satisfied. Therefore, the <111> texture developed in the 0.6 μm film was weak and became stronger with increasing thickness. This is consistent with the preferred growth model [26]. They also found that the texture of the film deposited at room temperature was "high <111>", whereas the texture of the film deposited at 200 °C was characterized by a low amount of the <111> component and a high amount of the random component. This is also consistent with the preferred growth model.
Post-deposition annealing was carried out in a vacuum furnace at 400 °C with a base pressure of 10-6 mbar, a partial H2 pressure of 10 mbar, and under environmental conditions. The post-deposition grain growth was the same for annealing in high vacuum and in environmental conditions. A dramatic difference in the extent of growth was recognized in the micrographs of the 0.6 and 2.4 μm thick films. The 0.6 μm thick film showed normally grown grains with the <111> orientation; the average grain size was about 1 to 2 μm. This can be understood in light of the surface energy minimization. In contrast, in 2.4 μm thick films, abnormally large grains with the <001> orientation were found. These grains grew into the matrix of <111> grains. The grain boundaries between the abnormally grown grains have a meander-like shape unlike the usual polygonal shape. They could not explain the results by the model of Carel, Thomson, and Frost [27]. According to the model, the strain energy minimization favors the growth of <100> grains. The growth mode should be affected by strain and should not be sensitive to the initial texture. These predictions are at variance with the experimental results in which freestanding, stress-free films also showed abnormal growth of giant grains with <001> texture. The 2.4 μm thick films deposited at 100 °C or below could have dislocations whose density was high enough to cause Rex, which in turn gave rise to the texture change from <111> to <001> regardless of the existence of substrate when annealed, as explained in the previous section. Thus, the <111> to <100> texture change in the 2.4 μm thick films is compatible with SERM [28].
It is known that the texture of axisymmetrically drawn fcc metals is characterized by major <111> + minor <100> components, and the drawing texture changes to the <100> texture after Rex [29,30]. Figure 16 shows calculated textures in the center region of 90% drawn copper wire taking work hardening per pass into account. The drawing to Rex texture transition was explained by SERM [4]. Since the drawing texture is stable, we consider the [111] and [100] fcc crystals representing the <111> and <100> fiber orientations constituting the texture. Figure 17 shows tetrahedron and octahedron consisting of slip planes (triangles) and slip directions (edges) for the [111] and [100] fcc crystals. The slip planes are not indexed to avoid complication. The slip-plane index can be calculated by the vector product of two of three slip directions (edges) of a triangle constituting the slip-plane triangle. It follows from Figure 17a that three active slip directions that are skew to the [111] axial direction are [101], [110], and [011]. It should be noted that these directions are chosen to be at acute angles with the [111] direction (Section 2). Therefore, AMSD // ([101] + [110] + [011]) = [222] // [111]. That is, AMSD is along the axial direction. According to SERM, AMSD in the deformed matrix is along MYMD in the Rexed grain. MYMDs of most of fcc metals are <100>. Therefore, the <111> drawing texture changes to the <100> Rex texture. Now, the evolution of <100> Rex texture in the <100> deformed matrix is explained. Eight active slip systems in fcc crystal elongated along the [100] direction are calculated to be (111)[1 0-1], (-111)[101], (1-1 1)[110], (1 1-1)[1-1 0], (111)[1-1 0], (-111)[110], (1-1 1)[10-1], and (1 1-1)[101], if the slip systems are {111}<110> [32]. It is noted that the slip directions are chosen to be at acute angles with the [100] axial direction. These slip systems are shown in Figure 17 b. AMSD is obtained, from the vector sum of the active slip directions, to be parallel to [100], which is also MYMD of fcc metals. Therefore, the <100> drawing texture remains unchanged after Rex (1st priority in Section 2), and the <111> + <100> orientation changes to <100> after Rex, regardless of relative intensity of <111> to <100> in the deformation texture. The <100> grains in deformed fcc wires are likely to act as nuclei for Rex. The texture change during annealing might take place by the following process. The <100> grains retain their deformation texture during annealing by continuous Rex, or by recovery-controlled processes, without long-range high-angle boundary migration. The <100> grains grow at the expense of their neighboring <111> grains that are destined to assume the <100> orientation during annealing.
Calculated IPFs in centeral axis zone of Cu wire drawn by 90% in 14 passes (~15% per pass) through conical-dies of 9° in half-die angle, taking strain-hardening per pass into count [
Tetrahedron and octahedron representing slip planes (triangles) and directions (edges) in [111] and [100] fiber oriented fcc crystals. Thick arrows show (a) [111] and (b) [100] axial directions.
Cold drawn Ag wires develop major <111> + minor <100> at low reductions (less than about 90%) as do other fcc metals, whereas they exhibit major <100> + minor <111> at high reductions (99%) as shown in Figure 18 [32]. This result is in qualitative agreement with that of Ahlborn and Wassermann [33], which shows that the ratio of <100> to <111> of Ag wires was higher at 100 and -196oC than at room temperature. They attributed the higher <100> orientation to Rex and mechanical twinning, because Ag has low stacking fault energy. They suggested that the <111> orientation transformed to the <115> orientation by twinning, which rotated to the <100> orientation by further deformation.
The hardness of deformed Ag wires as a function of annealing time at 250 and 300 oC indicated that Rex was completed after a few min. This was also confirmed by microstructure studies [32]. Figure 18 shows the annealing textures of drawn Ag wires of 99.95% in purity, which shows that drawing by 61 and 84% and subsequent annealing at 250 oC for 1 h gives rise to nearly random orientation. Ag wires with the <111> + <100> deformation texture develop Rex textures of major <100> and minor <111>, or major <100> + its twin component <122> and minor <111>. The almost random orientation can be seen in Figures 19 d. Figure 20 shows the IPFs of 99% drawn 99.99% Ag wire annealed at 600 ℃ for 1 min to 200 h. Their microstructures showed that the specimen annealed at 600 oC for 1min is almost completely Rexed. The specimen has major <100> + minor <111> as the specimens annealed at 300 oC. After annealing at 600 oC for 3min, some grains showed abnormal grain growth (AGG), indicating complete Rex, and the intensity of <100> component increased. However, as the annealing time incresed, the orientation density ratio (ODR) of <111> to <100> increased, accompanied by grain growth. It is noted that the annealing texture is diffuse at the transient stage from <100> to <111> (5 min in Figure 20 and Figure 19d). The <100> to <111> transition is associated with AGG in low dislocation-density fcc metals, which has been discussed in [31,32]. The Rex results before AGG lead to the conclusion that the Rex texture of the heavily drawn Ag wires is <100> regardless of relative intensity of <111> and <100>, as expected from SERM.
IPFs of (a) 61, (b) 84, (c) 91, and (d) 99% drawn Ag wires (initial texture: random) of 99.95% in purity (top) before and (bottom) after annealing at 250 °C for 1 h [
IPFs of 99.99% pure Ag wires (a) drawn by 90% and (b) annealed at 300 °C for 1 h; (c) drawn by 99% and (d) annealed at 300 °C for 1 h [
IPFs of 99.99% Ag wire drawn by 99% and annealed at 600 °C for 1-12000 min [
Axisymmetrically extruded Al alloy rod [34], drawn Al wire [30] and Cu and some Cu alloy wires [29] generally have major <111> + minor <001> double fiber textures in the deformed state. Park and Lee [35] studied drawing and annealing textures of a commercial electrolytic tough-pitch Cu of 99.97% in purity. A rod of 8mm in diameter, whose microstructure was characterized by equiaxed grains having a homogeneous size distribution, was cold drawn by 90% reduction in area in 14 passes through conical dies of 9° in half-die-angle with about 15% reduction per pass. The drawing speed was 10 m/min. The drawn wire was annealed in a salt bath at 300 or 600 °C and in air, argon, hydrogen or vacuum (< 1x10-4 torr) at 700 °C for various periods of time. Figure 21 shows orientation distribution functions (ODFs) for the 90% drawn Cu wire. The drawing texture can be approximated by a major <111> + minor <100> duplex fiber texture. The orientation density ratio of the <111> to <100> components is about 2.6. The orientation densities were obtained by averaging the f(g) values on the [
ODFs of 90% drawn Cu wire (a) before and after annealing at (b) 300, (c) 600, (d) 700 °C for 3 h, measured by X-ray [
IPFs for center regions of 90% drawn Cu wires after annealing at 300 and 700oC [
ODR of <100> to <111> of 90% drawn Cu wire vs. annealing time at 700oC [
Grain size and volume fraction of ● ○ <111> and ▲△ <100> grains in Au wire vs. annealing time at 300 °C (solid symbols) and 400 °C (open symbols) [
Figure 23 shows ODR of <100> to <111> of the 90% drawn Cu wire as a function of annealing time at 700 °C. The ratio increases very rapidly up to about 1.8 after annealing for 180 s, wherefrom it decreases and reaches to about 0.3 after 6 h. The increase in the ratio indicates the occurrence of Rex and the decrease indicates the texture change during subsequent grain growth, that is, AGG. A similar phenomenon is observed in drawn Ag wire during annealing (Figure 20).
Cho et al. [36] measured the drawing and Rex textures of 25 and 30 μm diameter Au wires of over 99.99% in purity, which had dopants such as Ca and Be that total less than 50 ppm by weight. The Au wires were made by drawing through a series of diamond dies to an effective strain of 11.4.
Figure 24 shows the grain size and the volume fraction of the <111> and <100> grains as a function of annealing time at 300 and 400 oC. These values are based on EBSD measurements. The aspect ratio of grain shape was in the range of 1.5 - 2, which is little influenced by annealing time and temperature [36]. The grain growth occurs in whole area of the wire and is more rapid at 400 oC than at 300 oC as expected for thermally activated motion of grain boundaries. The volume fraction of the <111> grains decreases and that of the <100> grains increases with annealing time when Rex takes place, as expected from SERM.
The annealing texture of single-phase crystals of Al-0.05% Si of the Goss orientation {110}<001> deformed in channel-die compression was studied by Ferry et al. [37]. In the channel-die compression, the compression and extension directions were <110> and <001> directions, respectively. Their experimental results showed that, even after deformation to a true strain of 3.0 which is equivalent to a compressive reduction of 95%, the original orientation was maintained as shown in Figure 25a. Figure 25b shows one (110) pole figure typical of a deformed crystal after annealing at 300 °C for 4 h. The comparison of Figures 25a and 25b suggests that the annealing texture is essentially the same as the deformation texture. They also reported that even after 90% reduction and annealing for up to 235 h, the orientation was the same as that of the as-deformed crystal. For deformed specimens electropolished and annealed for various temperatures between 250 and 350 °C, no texture change took place before and after annealing, although grains which had different orientations were sometimes found to grow from the crystal surface after very long annealing treatments. For samples deformed over the true strain range of 0.5 to 3.0 in their work, annealing at a given temperature resulted in similar microstructural evolution. They called the phenomenon discontinuous subgrain growth during recovery. They stated that crystals of an orientation which was stable during deformation were generally resistant to Rex. This statement cannot be justified in light of single crystal examples in Sections 5.2 to 5.4.
pole figures for 95% channel-die compressed Al single crystal (a) before and (b) after annealing at 300 ˚C for 4 h. (Contour levels: 2, 5, 11, 20, 35, 70 x random) [
The result was discussed based on SERM [38]. The (110)[001] orientation is calculated by the full constraints Taylor-Bishop-Hill model to be stable when subjected to plane strain compression. The active slip systems for the (110)[001] crystal are calculated to be (111)[0-1 1], (111)[-101], (-1-1 1)[011], and (-1-1 1)[101], whose activities are the same. It is noted that all the slip directions are chosen so that they can be at acute angle with the maximum strain direction [001]. AMSD is [0-1 1] + [-101] + [011] + [101] = [004]//[001], which is MYMD because [
Blicharski et al. [40] studied the microstructural and texture changes during recovery and Rex in high purity Al bicrystals with S orientations, e.g. (123)[4 1-2]/(123)[-4-1 2] and (123)[4 1-2]/(-1-2-3)[4 1-2], which had been channel-die compressed by 90 to 97.5% reduction in thickness. The geometry of deformation for these bicrystals was such that the bicrystal boundary, which separates the top and bottom crystals at the midthickness of the specimen, lies parallel to the plane of compression, i.e. {123} and the <412> directions are aligned with the channel, and the die constrains deformation in the <121> directions. The annealing of the deformed bicrystals was conducted for 5 min in a fused quartz tube furnace with He + 5%H2 atmosphere. The textures of the fully Rexed specimens were examined by determining the {111} and {200} pole figures from sectioned planes at 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 specimen thickness. This roughly corresponds to the positions at the midthickness of the top crystal, the bicrystal boundary, and the midthickness of the bottom crystal, respectively. The deformation textures of the two bicrystals, (123)[4 1-2]/(123)[-4-1 2] and (123)[4 1-2]/(-1-2-3)[4 1-2], channel-die compressed by 90%, are reproduced in Figure 26. The initial orientation of the component crystals is also indicated in these pole figures. The annealing textures are shown in Figure 27. As Bricharski
where the factor 0.577 originates from the fact that the slip systems of (1-1 1)[110] and (-111)[110] share the same slip direction [110] (Eq. 7). Two other principal stress directions are obtained as explained in Figure 6. Possible candidates for the direction equivalent to
pole figures for 90% channel-die compressed Al crystals of {123}<412> orientations [
pole figures of 90 and 95% channel-die compressed Al bicrystals after annealing at 125 and 185 °C for 5 min [
Orientation rotations of {123}<412> crystals during plain strain compression by 90% [
Calculated shear strain rate with respect to thickness reduction of 0.01,
Orientation relations in deformed and Rexed states. Subscripts d and r indicate deformed state and Rexed state, respectively.
The calculated result means that the (0.1534 0.5101 0.8463)[0.8111 0.4242 -0.4027] crystal, which is obtained by the channel die compression by 90% reduction, transforms to the Rex texture (-0.0062 0.2781 0.9606)[0.9907 0.1322 -0.0319]. Similarly, crystals deformed by channel die compression from (123)[-4-1 2] and (-1-2-3)[4 1-2] orientations transform to (-0.0062 0.2781 0.9606)[-0.9907 -0.1322 0.0319] and (0.0062 -0.2781 -0.9606)[0.9907 0.1322 -0.0319], respectively, after Rex. The results are plotted in Figure 27 superimposed on the experimental data. It can be seen that the calculated Rex textures are in good agreement with the measured data.
Butler et al. [42] obtained a {112}<111> Al crystal by channel-die compression of the (001)[110] single crystal. The (001)[110]orientation is unstable with respect to plane strain compression, to form the (112)[1 1-1] and (112)[-1-1 1] orientations as shown in Figure 31a. The Rex texture produced after annealing at 200 °C was a rotated cube texture (Figure 31b). Lee [43] analyzed the result based on SERM. Figure 32 shows shear strains/extension strain on slip systems of 1 to 6 as a function of rotation angle about TD [-110] of the (001)[110] fcc crystal obtained from the Taylor-Bishop-Hill theory. The contribution of the slip systems to the deformation is approximated to be proportional to the area under the shear strains
All the slips may not occur on the related slip systems uniformly in a large single crystal. Some regions of the crystal may be deformed by 1, 3, and 5 slip systems, while some other regions by 2, 4, and 6 slip systems.
(a) (111) pole figure of Al single crystal with initial orientation (001)[110] after 70% reduction by channel-die compression; (b) (111) pole figure of measured Rex texture (contours), (100)[0-4 1], and (100)[041] [
Shear strains on slip systems of 1 to 6 as a function of rotation angle about TD [-110] of (001)[110] crystal [
Vector sum of slip directions ① [1 0-1], ③ [0-1-1], and ⑤ [110] assuming that their activities are proportional to 30:3:20.6 (Eq. 15).
For the contribution of the former three slip systems to the crystal deformation, AMSD is obtained by the vector sum of the [1 0-1], [0-1-1], and [110] directions whose contributions are assumed to be proportional to the area ratio obtained earlier (30 : 3 : 20.6). The vector sum is shown in Figure 33. The resultant direction passes through point E, which divides line BC by a ratio of 1 to 2. Thus, AMSD // AE // [3 1-2]. Another high stress direction equivalent to
If the directions [3 1-2], [2-4 1], and [112], whose unit vectors are [3/√14 1/√14 -2/√14], [2/√21 -4/√21 1/√21], and [1/√6 1/√6 2/√6], respectively, are set to be parallel to [100], [010] and [001] directions in the Rexed crystal, components of the unit vectors are direction cosines relating the deformed and Rexed crystal coordinate axes (Eq. 9). Therefore, ND, [112], and RD, [1 1-1], in the deformed crystal coordinate system can be transformed to the expressions in the Rexed crystal coordinate system using the following calculation:
Therefore, the (112)[11-1] deformation texture transforms to the (001)[ √6-1 0] Rex texture. Similarly, from the (111)[0 1-1], (-1-1 1)[-1 0-1], and (-1 1-1) [110] slip systems, another AMSD AF, or the [1 3-2] direction, can be obtained. In this case, the (112)[1 1-1] deformation texture transforms into the (001)[-√6 -1 0] Rex texture. The {001}<√6 1 0> orientation has a rotational relation with the {001}<100> orientation through 22° about the plane normal. The calculated Rex texture is superimposed on the measured data in Figure 31b. The calculated results are in relatively good agreement with the measured data. It is noted that Figure 32 does not represent the correct strain path during deformation. Therefore, there is a room to improve the calculated Rex texture. The Rex texture is at variance with the {001}<100> Rex texture in polycrystalline Al and Cu.
Kamijo et al. [44] rolled a (123)[-6-3 4] Cu single crystal reversibly by 99.5% under oil lubrication. The (123)[-6-3 4] orientation was relatively well preserved up to 95%, even though the orientation spread occurred as shown in Figure 34a. However, the crystal rotation proceeded with increasing reduction. A new (321)[-4 3 6] component, which is symmetrically oriented to the initial (123)[-6-3 4] with respect to TD, developed after 99.5% rolling as shown in Figure 34b. It is noted that other two equivalent components are not observed. The rolled specimens were annealed at 538 K for 100 s to obtain Rex textures. In the Rex textures of the crystals rolled less than 90%, any fairly developed texture could not be observed, except for the retained rolling texture component. They could observe a cube texture with large scatter in the 95% rolled crystal and the fairly well developed cube orientation in the 99.5% rolled crystal after Rex as shown in Figure 34c. They concluded that the development of cube texture in the single crystal of the (123)[-6-3 4] orientation was mainly attributed to the preferential nucleation from the (001)[100] deformation structure. The cube deformation structure was proposed to form due to the inhomogeneity of deformation. Lee and Shin [45] explained the textures in Figure 34 based on SERM. Figure 35 shows
pole figures for (123)[-6-3 4] Cu single crystal after rolling by (a) 95%, (b) 99.5%, and (c) 99.5% and subsequent annealing at 538 K for 100 s [
(a) Shear strain rates
a) Orientation relationship between deformed (d) and Rexed (r) states and (b) (111) pole figures of ○ (0 3-1)[100] and □ (001)[100] orientations. Contours were calculated assuming Gaussian scattering (10°) of (0 3-1)[100] and (001)[100] components with their density ratio being 2:1 [
The calculated Rex orientation is (0.049 3.543–1.192)[7.801-0.017-0.275] ≈ (0 3-1)[100]. Similarly the (321)[-436] crystal is calculated to have slip systems of (111)[-101], (111)[-110], (-1-1 1)[011], and (-1 1-1)[011], on which the shear strain rates at
According to the discussion in Section 6.1, if the cube oriented regions are generated during rolling, they are likely to survive and act as nuclei and grow at the expense of neighboring {112}<111> region during annealing because the region tend to transform to the {001}<100> orientation to reduce energy. The grown-up cube grains will grow at the expense of grains having other orientations such as the {123}<634> orientation, resulting in the {001}<100> texture after Rex, even though the Cu orientation is a minor component in the deformation texture. Meanwhile, the main S component in the deformation texture can form its own Rex texture, the near (0 3-1)[100] orientation. In this case, the Rex texture may be approximated by main (001)[100] and minor (0 3-1)[001] components. Figure 36b shows the texture calculated assuming Gaussian scattering (half angle=10°) of these components with the intensity ratio of (001)[100]: (0 3-1)[001] = 2 : 1. It is interesting to note that the cube peaks diffuse rightward under the influence of the minor (0 3-1)[100] component in agreement with experimental result in Figure 34c.
The rolling texture of fcc sheet metals with medium to high stacking fault energies is known to consist of the brass orientation {011}<211>, the Cu orientation {112}<111>, the Goss orientation {011}<100>, the S orientation {123}<634>, and the cube orientation {100}<001>. The fiber connecting the brass, Cu, and S orientations in the Euler space is called the β fiber. Major components of the plane-strain rolling texture of polycrystalline Al and Cu are known to be the Cu and S orientations. The Rex texture of rolled Al and Cu sheets is well known to be the cube texture. The 40°<111> orientation relationship between the S texture and the cube texture has been taken as a proof of OG, and has made one believe that the S orientation is more responsible for the cube Rex texture. OG is claimed to be associated with grain boundary mobility anisotropy. However, experimental data indicate that the Cu texture is responsible for the cube texture. For an experimental result of Table 3, the deformation texture is not strongly developed below a reduction of 73% and its Rex texture is approximately random. At a reduction of 90%, a strong Cu texture is obtained and its Rex texture is a strong cube texture. For 95% cold rolled Al-0 to 9%Mg alloy after annealing at 598K for 0.5 to 96 h, the highest density in the Cu component in the deformation texture and the highest density in the cube component in Rex textures were observed at about 3% Mg (Figure 37). This implies that the Cu component is responsible for the cube component. However, these cannot prove that the Cu texture is responsible for the cube texture because deformation components with the highest density are not always linked with highest Rex components [47].
Changes in orientation densities of 95% rolled Cu during annealing at 400 to 500 °C (Figure 38), 95% rolled AA8011 Al alloy during annealing at 350 °C (Figure 39a), and 95% rolled Fe-50%Ni alloy during annealing at 600℃ (Figure 39b), and 95% rolled Cu after heating to 150 to 300℃ at a rate of 2.5 K/s followed by quenching showing that the Cu component disappears most rapidly when the cube orientation started to increase [52]. These results imply that the Cu component is responsible for the cube Rex texture. Rex is likely to occur first in high strain energy regions. It is known that the energy stored in highly deformed crystals is proportional to the Taylor factor (Σ
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Rolling texture | \n\t\t\t58% | \n\t\t\t3.6 | \n\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t
73% | \n\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t|
90% | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t5.7 | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t|
Rex texture | \n\t\t\t58% | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t
73% | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t1.4 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t|
90% | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t\t20.0 | \n\t\t
Texture component strength of high purity OFE copper [46]
Effect of Mg content on (a) densities of {112}<111>, {123}<634>, and {110}<112> orientations in Al-Mg alloys cold rolled by 95% and on (b) density of {001}<100> orientation in specimens annealed at 598 K for 0.5, 4, and 96 h [
Changes in densities of copper Cu, S, brass Bs, and cube orientations in 95% cold rolled copper during annealing at (a) 400, (b) 450, and (c) 500 °C [
a) Changes in densities of cube, brass, copper and S orientations in 95% cold-rolled AA8011 Al alloy during annealing at 350 oC [
The copper to cube texture transition was first explained by SERM [4], and elaborated later [54]. The orientations of the (112)[1 1-1] and (123)[6 3-4] Cu single crystals remain stable in the center layer for all degree of rolling [55]. The Cu orientation (112)[1 1-1] is calculated to be stable by the
The above calculation indicates that the Cu orientation tends to turn into the cube orientation during annealing. In order for the transformation to occur, the cube oriented nuclei are needed, whether they may be generated from the deformed matrix or already existing cube bands. In order for the cube bands to be nuclei, they must be stable during annealing. The cube orientation (001)[100] is calculated by the full constrains method to be metastable with respect to plane strain compression, with active slip systems being (111)[1 0-1], (1 1-1)[101], (1-1-1)[101], and (1-1 1)[1 0-1] on which the shear strain rates are the same. If cube oriented grains survive after rolling, they must have undergone the plane strain compression with the slip systems. Therefore, AMSD is [1 0-1] + [101] + [101] + [1 0-1] = [400] // [100]. This is MYMD of Cu. Since AMSD is the same as the MYMD, the cube texture is expected to remain unchanged whether Rex or recovery (1st priority in Section 2).
SERM does not tell us how the cube oriented nuclei form. If the cube oriented grains survived during rolling, they are likely to survive and act as nuclei and grow at the expense of neighboring Cu oriented grains during annealing, because the Cu oriented grains tend to transform to the cube orientation. The grown up cube grains will grow at the expense of grains having other orientations such as the S and brass orientations, resulting in the cube texture after Rex. This discussion applies to other fcc metals with high stacking fault energy (SFE).
The evolution of rolling textures in copper alloys depends strongly on their SFEs. A continuous transition from the copper orientation to the brass orientation tends to occur with increasing content of alloying elements or decreasing SFE. However, Mn can be dissolved in copper up to 12 at.% without significantly changing SFE unlike various Cu alloys [58]. Engler [59,60] studied the influence of Mn on the deformation and Rex behavior of Cu-4 to 16%Mn alloys, as this should yield a clear separation of the effects caused by the changes in SFE from those due to other factors. It is particularly interesting that the alloys develop a deformation texture in which the density of the brass orientation can be higher than the densities of the copper orientation and the S orientation despite the fact that SFEs of the alloys are almost the same as that of pure Cu. The brass orientation is obtained in many Cu alloys with low SFEs, which is well known to transforms to the {236}<385> orientation. However, the Cu-Mn alloys do not develop the {236}<385> orientation after Rex. The texture transformation cannot be well explained by 40° <111> relation between the deformation and Rex textures.
β-fiber intensity lines of Cu-4%Mn, Cu-8%Mn, and Cu-16%Mn alloys after rolling reductions from 50 to 97.5% [
pole figures of (a) Cu-4%Mn, (b) Cu-8%Mn, and (c) Cu-16%Mn alloys after complete Rex (97.5% rolling, annealing for 1000 s at 450 °C) [
Orientation density ratios (ODR) among brass B, S, and copper C components in rolling texture (Figure 40) as a function of Mn concentration in Cu-Mn alloy [
Figure 40 shows the orientation densities f(g) along the β-fiber of Cu-4%Mn, Cu-8%Mn, and Cu-16%Mn alloys after rolling reductions of 50 to 97.5%. The figure indicates that with increasing Mn content and rolling reduction the brass orientation tends to dominate the rolling texture. The brass orientation in the Cu-Mn alloys is particularly interesting because the transformation of the orientation to the Rex texture will not be complicated by twinning as in low SFE alloys. Figure 41 shows {111} pole figures of the three Cu-Mn alloys rolled by 97.5% after complete Rex by annealing for 1000 s at 450 °C. In Cu-4%Mn the texture maximum lies in the cube-orientation. In Cu-8%Mn the texture maximum has shifted from the cube orientation to an orientation which can be approximated by the {013}<100> orientation. In Cu-16%Mn the texture maximum is in the Goss orientation. The orientation density ratios among the copper, S, and brass components in the rolling texture are shown in Figure 42. The density ratio of the brass to S component increases from about 1 to 2, the density ratio of the S to copper component increases from about 5 to 8, and the density ratio of the brass to copper component increases from about 5 to 18 with increasing Mn content from 4 to 16% in the Cu- Mn alloy. The density ratio of the S to copper and that of the brass to copper component are lowest in 4%Mn and highest in 16%Mn.
{110}<112> rolling and {110}<001> Rex textures of Cu-1% P alloy [
Comparison of the Rex textures with the corresponding deformation textures indicates that the brass component in the deformation texture seems to be responsible for the Goss components in the Rex texture. In what follows, the Rex textures are discussed based on SERM [61]. In order to find which component in the rolling texture is responsible for the Goss Rex texture, the brass rolling texture is first examined because it is the highest component in the deformation texture of Cu-16% Mn alloy, which changed to the Goss texture when annealed. When fcc crystals with the (110)[1-1 2] orientation are plane strain compressed along the [110] direction and elongated along the [1-1 2] direction, the relation between the strain
According to SERM, AMSD is parallel to MYMD of Rexed grain, the <100> directions in fcc metals. Therefore, the Rexed grains will have the (hk0)[001] orientation. The 2nd priority in Section 2 gives rise to the (110)[001] orientation because the (110) plane is shared by the deformed and Rexed grains. That is, the (110)[1-1 2] rolling texture transforms to the (110)[001] Rex texture. Similarly, for the (011)[2-1 1] crystal, equally active slip systems of (111)[1-1 0] and (1-1-1)[101] are obtained. Therefore, the (011)[2-1 1] rolling texture is calculated to transform to the (011)[100] Rex texture. It is concluded that the Goss Rex texture is linked with the brass rolling texture. The Goss orientation is stable with respect to plane strain compression and thermally stable (Section 5.1). Therefore, the Goss grains that survived during rolling are likely to act as nuclei during subsequent Rex and will grow at the expense of surrounding brass grains which are destined to change to assume the Goss orientation.
Figure 44 shows the rolling and Rex textures of Cu-1% P alloy sheet. The {110}<112> rolling texture changes to the (110)[001] texture after Rex. This is another example of the transition from the {110}<112> rolling texture to the {110}<001> Rex texture as explained in the Cu-16% Mn alloy.
In Section 5.4 the (123)[-6-3 4] rolling to (031)[100] Rex orientation transformation was discussed. Here we discuss the {123}<634> rolling to {031}<100> Rex orientation transformation. Figure 43b shows the shear strain rates as a function of strain for the (123)[6 3-4] crystal, which was calculated by the
The calculated result means that rolled fcc metal with the (123)[6 3-4] orientation transforms to (-0.1156 3.5441 1.1947)[7.8 0.1455 0.3263] ≈ (-1 31 10)[54 1 2] after Rex. For polycrystalline metals, the {123}<634> deformation texture transforms to the {-0.1156 3.5441 1.1947}<7.8 0.1455 0.3263> ≈ {1 31 10}<54 1 2> Rex texture. The Rex texture is shown in Figure 46a. If the {-0.1156 3.5441 1.1947}<7.8 0.1455 0.3263> orientations are expressed as Gaussian peaks with scattering angle of 10°, the Rex texture is very well approximated by the {310}<001> texture as shown in Figure 46b. This texture is similar to Figure 27 which shows the Rex texture of the plane strain compressed {123}<412> crystal.
Orientation relationship between deformed and Rexed states [
(a) (111) pole figure of {0.1156 3.5441 1.1947}<7.8 0.1455 0.3263> ≈ {1 31 10}<54 1 2>. (b) Sum of {0.1156 3.5441 1.1947}<7.8 0.1455 0.3263> expressed as Gaussian peaks with scattering angle of 10°. Calculated orientation can be approximated by {310}<001> [
It is noted that the highest density component in the deformation texture does not always dominate the Rex texture. All the components in the deformation texture are not in equal position to nucleate and grow the corresponding components in the Rex texture. The brass component has the highest density, but has lowest stored energy or the Taylor factor, while the copper component has the lowest density, but has the highest stored energy or the Taylor factor. If grains with the Goss or cube orientation survived during rolling, they must have undergone plane strain compression. They could undergo recovery and act as nuclei for Rex during annealing. This is the reason why the cube Rex texture could be obtained even though the copper component is the least in the deformation texture. When other conditions are the same, the higher relative density component in the deformation texture will give rise to the higher density in the corresponding component in the Rex texture, as shown in the highest relative copper component in the deformation texture yielding the highest cube component in the Rex texture in the Cu-4%Mn alloy among the three Cu-Mn alloys.
The Goss orientation {110}<001> in about 3% Si steel has been the subject of speculation due to its scientific and technological points of view. The grain oriented Si steel is made by hot rolling, cold rolling, followed by annealing. The Goss texture is formed near the sheet surface layer rolled in the α phase region at elevated temperatures. The friction between the sheet and rolls tends to increase with increasing temperature, and in turn increases the shear deformation and the Goss texture (Figure 47).
During hot rolling, Rex can take place, thereby the Goss orientation may change to a different orientation. Lee and Lee [64] obtained an IF steel specimen with only the shear texture by a multi- layer warm rolling and discussed the evolution of its Rex texture. The material used was a hot rolled 3.2 mm thick IF steel sheet. The hot-rolled sheet was cold-rolled to 1.1 mm in thickness in several passes. Four of the 1.1mm thick sheet were stacked, heated at 700 oC for 30 min and rolled by 70% in the ferrite region without lubrication. The rolled specimen was quenched into 25 oC water. Each layer was separated from the warm rolled sheet. In order to obtain a uniform shear texture, the surface layer was thinned from the inner surface to a half thickness by chemical polishing. The thinned surface and center layers were annealed at 750 oC for 1 h in Ar atmosphere.
The measured (110) pole figures and ODFs of the outer and inner surfaces of the 75% warm-rolled surface layer were similar. The similarity indicates that the texture of the layer is uniform. The texture was approximated by the Goss orientation plus minor {112}<111>. The center layer was similar to the typical texture of cold rolled steel sheet, RD//<110> and ND//{111}(Section 8). The surface texture could also be described as that which is obtained when the center layer texture is rotated through 35o about TD. The measured textures were similar to the calculated textures in Figure 47. The textures of the chemically thinned rolled surface layer and the center layer after annealing at 750 oC for 1 h showed that the texture of the surface layer was almost the same before and after annealing while the center layer underwent a texture change after annealing. Microstructures and hardness tests of the surface layer before and after annealing indicated Rex occurring after annealing [64].
Deformed FEM meshes in rolling and calculated (110) pole figures of layers A and E. In FEM calculation, flow characteristics of IF steel
Rotation rate
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
0.5 1.0 1.2 √2 1.5 | \n\t\t1.225 1.225 1.225 1.225 1.225 | \n\t\t1.225 1.225 1.225 1.225 1.225 | \n\t\t0.245 1.120 1.466 1.837 1.986 | \n\t\t0.245 1.120 1.466 1.837 1.986 | \n\t
Shear strain on each slip system as a function of
The unchanged texture in the surface layer after annealing can be explained based on SERM. AMSD is obtained from the slip systems activated during deformation. On the basis of the Taylor-Bishop-Hill theory, the (110)[001] orientation is calculated to be stable at
The (110)[001] orientation of bcc metals is calculated to be metastable with respect to plane strain compression (Figure 48), with active slip systems being (-1 0-1)[-1-1 1], (1 0-1)[111], (0-1-1)[-1-1 1], and (0 1-1)[111], on which the shear strain rates are the same. It is noted that the slip directions are chosen to be at acute angles with the [001] direction (Section 2). The two slip directions, [-1-1 1] and [111], are on the (-110) plane, which can be a slip plane in bcc crystals. Therefore, AMSD is [-1-1 1] + [111] = [002] // [001]. This is also MYMD of iron. Since the AMSD is the same as MYMD, if the Goss oriented crystal survives the plane-strain compression, the Goss texture is likely to remain unchanged during annealing according to SERM (1st priority in Section 2).
The Goss orientation, which is not stable with respect to plane strain deformation, rotates toward the {111}<112> orientation forming a strong maximum [66]. The relaxed constraints Tayor model, in which shear strains parallel to RD may occur, causes the formation of the {111}<112> orientation [67]. The {111}<112> rolling component is known to lead to the Goss orientation after Rex [66, 68]. Dorner et al. [68] attributed the transition from the {111}<112> deformation texture to the Goss Rex texture to the fact that the Taylor factor (2.4) of the Goss grains is lower than that (3.7) of the {111}<112> matrix. Dorner et al. [69], in their study with 3.2% Si-steel single crystals, also found two types of Goss crystal volumes in 89 % cold-rolled specimen. Most of the Goss crystal regions are situated inside of shear bands. The Goss crystal volumes are also observed inside of microbands. These Goss crystals may act as nuclei because they are thermally stable (Section 7.2).
The evolution of the Goss orientation in the (111)[1 1-2] component, a {111}<112>, has been explained by SERM [70]. Slip systems of (-1-1 0)[-1 1-1], (-1-1 0)[1-1-1], (101)[1 1-1], and (011)[1 1-1] are calculated, by the relaxed constraints Taylor model, to be equally active in the (111)[1 1-2] crystal undergoing the plane strain compression. It is noted that the three slip directions are chosen to be at acute angles with RD [1 1-2] of the crystal. Taking the (101)[1 1-1] and (011)[1 1-1] slip systems sharing the same slip direction [1 1-1] into account, AMSD is [-1 1-1] + [1-1-1] + [1 1-1] = [1 1-3]. According to SERM, this AMSD [1 1-3] becomes parallel to MYMD, the <100> directions in bcc iron, in Rexed crystals. Other directional relationships between the matrix and Rexed crystal can be obtained from the 2nd priority in Section 2. Let one of the <100> directions be the [001] direction, then it must be on the (100), (010) or (110) plane, taking the symmetry condition into account. TD of the (111)[1 1-2] crystal is the [1-1 0] direction. These facts give rise to orientation relationship between the deformed and Rexed states (Figure 49). It is noted that the [1-1 0] direction is TD of both the deformed and Rexed states. It follows that the (111)[1 1-2] orientation becomes the (441)[1 1-8] orientation after Rex. The symmetry yields another equivalent orientation, (441)[-1-1 8]. The (110) pole figure of the {441}<118> orientation is shown in Figure 50a along with the Goss orientation {110}<001>. The {441}<118> orientation is deviated from the Goss orientation by 10°. If each {441}<118> orientation is represented by the Gauss type scattering with a half width angle of 12°, the calculated result is as shown in Figure 50b, which is in very good agreement with the measured data in Figure 50c, where the highest intensity poles are the same as those of the Goss orientation, even though it is not real Goss orientation. It is also interesting to note that the rotation angle between (111)[1 1-2] and (441)[1 1-8] about a common pole of [110] is calculated to be 25°and the rotation angle between (111)[1 1-2] and (110)[001] about a common pole of [110] is 35°. Thus the {111}<112> matrix can favor the growth of Goss-oriented crystals or nuclei, which are stable during annealing, if any, or may generate Goss-oriented nuclei, especially in polycrystalline materials.
Orientation relationship between deformed (
pole figures for (a) {110}<001> and {441}<118> orientations (●(110)[0 0-1], ■(441)[1 1-8], ▲(4 4-1)[-1-1-8]) [
It is well known that the rolling texture of bcc Fe is characterized by the α fiber (<110>//RD) plus the γ-fiber (<111>//ND) and the rolling texture is replaced by the γ-fiber after Rex (Figure 51). This texture transformation will be discussed based on SERM. Figure 52 shows ODFs of 50, 80, and 95% cold-rolled IF steel sheets and their Rex textures, which indicate that the deformation textures are approximated by the α and γ fibers and the Rex texture by the γ fiber, as well known. As the deformation increases, peak type orientations tend to form. For the 80 and 95% cold rolled specimens, the {665}<110>, {558}<110>, and {001}<110> orientations develop as the main components. The {665}<110> and {558}<110> orientations may be approximated by the {111}<110> and {112}<110> orientations, respectively. The {001}<110> component is the principal component inherited from the hot band. It is stable and its intensity increases with deformation [72,73]. The Rex texture is approximated by the γ fiber whose main component is approximated by {111}<112>. The density of this orientation increased with increasing cold rolling reduction.
Figure 53 shows the orientation densities along the α and γ fibers for IF steel rolled by 80% and annealed at 695 °C. Up to 100 s, little change in the orientation density occurs, although appearance of the {111}<112> component in the γ fiber is apparent. For the specimen annealed for 200 s, the orientation density along the γ fiber is almost as high as that of the fully annealed one, while the density along α fiber decreases with increasing annealing time.
We want to know if the {111}<112> Rex texture results from the {111}<110> deformation texture. The (111)[1-1 0] orientation is taken as an orientation representing the {111}<110> deformation texture. The (111)[1-1 0] orientation is calculated to be stable using the rate sensitive model with pancake relaxations (
Section of
ODFs (
Orientation densities along α and γ fibers for IF steel sheets cold-rolled by 80% and subsequently annealed at 695°C for 10 to 1000 s [
These two slip systems are depicted as locating in the opposite sides of the rolling plane as shown in Figure 54a, and they are physically equivalent. They may not be activated homogeneously, even though they are equally activated macroscopically. In this case, AMSD is [1-1-1] or [1-1 1]. It should be mentioned that all active slip directions are not summed unlike fcc metals in which all slip directions are related to each other through associated slip planes. Figure 54b shows angular relationships among MYMD [100], ND [111], and RD [2-1-1] in the (111)[2-1-1] grains, whose orientation has been supposed to be the Rex texture of the (111)[1-1 0] rolling texture. It can be seen that [1-1 1] in Figure 54a is not parallel to [100] in Figure 54b. According to SERM, the {111}<110> rolling texture is not likely to link with the {111}<112> Rex texture.
Examining the experimental results more closely, the evolution of the {665}<1 1 2.4> Rex texture [(
Angular relationships (a) among AMSD, ND, and RD in rolled (111)[1-1 0] crystal and. (b) among MYMD, ND, and RD in (111)[2-1-1] crystal.
Slip direction | \n\t\t\t1-1-1 | \n\t\t\t1-1 1 | \n\t\t\t1 1-1 | \n\t\t||||||
Slip plane | \n\t\t\t101 | \n\t\t\t211 | \n\t\t\t312 | \n\t\t\t0-1-1 | \n\t\t\t-1-2-1 | \n\t\t\t-1-3-2 | \n\t\t\t112 | \n\t\t\t123 | \n\t\t\t213 | \n\t\t
| | \n\t\t\t0.0536 | \n\t\t\t0.0086 | \n\t\t\t0.0843 | \n\t\t\t0.0536 | \n\t\t\t0.0086 | \n\t\t\t0.0843 | \n\t\t\t0.0368 | \n\t\t\t0.0148 | \n\t\t\t0.0148 | \n\t\t
Shear strain rates on slip systems in plane strain compressed (665)[1-1 0] crystal calculated based on rate sensitive pancake model [71]
For the (665)[-1-1 2.4] orientation as an orientation representing the {665}<1 1 2.4> Rex texture, the angles among ND, TD, RD, and [001] are shown in Figure 55b. Comparison of Figures 55a and 55b shows that AMSD in the deformed specimen is almost parallel to [001], MYMD of iron, in the Rexed specimen. This is compatible with SERM. In other words, the transformation from the (665)[1-1 0] deformation orientation to the (665)[1-1 2.4] Rex orientation is compatible with SERM. The deformed matrix and Rexed grains share the [665] ND (2nd priority in Section 2). Taking symmetry into account, the {665}<110> rolling texture is calculated to transform to the {665}<1 1 2.4> Rex texture, in agreement with the experimental result. This transformation relationship may be approximated by the transformation from the {111}<110> deformation texture to the {111}<112> Rex texture.
The {111}<112> orientation is not stable with respect to plane-strain compression. However, if the orientation survived during rolling, grains with the orientation must have been plane-strain compressed. The plane-strain compressed (111)[1 1-2] crystal is calculated, by the full constrains model, to have slip systems of (110)[1-1-1] and (110) [-1 1-1], whose activities are the same, if we consider slip systems on one side of the rolling plane. It is noted that the slip directions are at acute angles to RD and on the same slip plane. AMSD is calculated to be [1-1-1] + [-1 1-1] = [0 0-2], which is parallel to a MYMD (Figure 56a). Therefore, the {111}<112> deformation texture is likely to remain unchanged during annealing (1st priority in Section 2). The {111}<112> grains may act as nuclei.
Yoshinaga et al. [74] observed that a {111}<112> nucleation texture was strongly formed in 65% rolled iron electrodeposit with a weak {111}<112> texture, resulting in the {111}<112> Rex texture, whereas a {111}<110> nucleation texture was formed in 80% rolled electrodeposit having a strong{111}<112> texture, resulting in the {111}<110> Rex texture. They noted the importance of the nucleation texture in the Rex texture formation and attributed to the {111}<110> Rex texturing in the 80% rolled sheet to higher mobility of grain boundaries between the {111}<110> grains and the{111}<112> deformed matrix. They did not account for the differences in nucleation texture between the 65% and 80% rolled sheets.
(a) AMSD in (665)[1-1 0] rolled crystal; (b) MYMD in (665)[-1-1 2.4] Rexed crystal [
Explanation of {111}<112> rolling texture changing to {111}<112> or {111}<110> after Rex. F’B’ and F’D’ are MYMDs in Rexed state and are almost parallel to AMSDs, FB and FD, in deformed state, respectively [
According to SERM, the {111}<112> deformation texture is likely to remain unchanged after Rex because AMSD in the deformed state is parallel to MYMD, as mentioned above. If the activities of the slip systems of (110)[-1 1-1] and (110)[1-1-1] in Figure 56a are well balanced, MYMD becomes [0 0-1]. This may be the case in the 65% rolled sheet. As the rolling reduction increases, the balance can be broken. When the (110)[1-1-1] slip system is two times more active than the (110)[-1 1-1] system, AMSD is parallel to the [1-1-3] direction (2[1-1-1] + [-1 1-1] = [1-1 -3]). Similarly if the (110)[-1 1-1] system is two times more active than the (110)[1-1-1] slip system, AMSD is parallel to the [-1 1-3] direction. These directions are shown in Figure 56a. If one of the two slips takes place in one layer and another one does in another layer and so on, as in
As the Rexed {665}<1 1 2.4> and {111}<112> grains grow, they are likely to meet the α fiber grains. If the Rexed grains are not in a favorable orientation relationship with the α fiber grains, they may not grow at the expense of the α fiber grains. This is discussed in the next section.
Park et al. [75,76] discussed orientation relationships between the rolling and Rex textures in rolled IF steel sheets based on both SERM and the conventional OG, in which the α-fiber rolling texture was assumed to transform to the γ-fiber Rex texture. The {001}<110> and {112} <110>rolling orientations, which are main components in the α-fiber texture, are calculated to be stable using the full constraints Taylor model. For the (001)[110] orientation as an orientation representing the {001}<110> orientation, active slip systems are calculated to be (1 1-2)[111] and (112)[1 1-1] from the full constraints Taylor model. Therefore, AMSD can be [111] or [1 1-1]. Figure 57a shows the angular relation between the [111] direction and the (001)[110] specimen axes. Figure 57b shows the angular relation between the [001] direction, which is a MYMD, and the axes of the specimen with the (111)[-1-1 2] Rex texture. It can be seen from Figure 57 that AMSD in the deformed state is parallel to MYMD in the Rexed state and TD is shared by the deformed and Rexed states (2nd priority in Section 2). Taking the symmetry into account, the {001}<110> deformation texture is calculated to transform into the {111}<112> Rex texture. This transformation was observed in the experimental results (Figures 52 and 53, [75], [77]). It is often addressed that the {001}<110> orientation is difficult to be Rexed. It may be attributed to the fact that the orientation has a low Taylor factor [66].
For the (558)[1-1 0] orientation as an orientation representing the {558}<110> orientation, active slip systems are calculated to be 2.283(101)[1-1-1], (101)[-1-1 1], 2.283(0-1-1)[1-1 1], and (0-1-1)[1 1-1] from the full constraints Taylor model, where the factor 2.283 in front of slip systems indicates that their activities are 2.283 times higher than other slip systems [66]. The slip systems reduce effectively to (101)[1-2.56-1] and (0-1-1)[2.56-1 1]. Therefore, AMSD becomes [1-2.56-1] or [2.56 -1 1]. Figure 58 shows that the [1-2.56-1] direction in the (558)[1-10] crystal is nearly parallel to MYMD in the Rexed state, and the [101] direction is shared by the deformed and Rexed states (2nd priority in Section 2). Taking the symmetry into account, the {558}<110> deformation texture is calculated to transform into the {334}<483> Rex texture. This transformation relation was observed in the experimental result. The {334}<483> orientation is away from the {111}<112> orientation. An exact correspondence between the (112)[-110] deformation and (-2.45 2 –2.45)[1 2.45 1] Rex orientations can be seen in Figure 59.
AMSD in (001)[110] rolled crystal and MYMD in (111)[-1-1 2] Rexed crystal [
AMSD in (558)[1-1 0] rolled crystal and MYMD in (334)[4-8 3] Rexed crystal [
AMSD in (112)[-110] rolled crystal and MYMD in (-2.45 2 -2.45)[1 2.45 1] Rexed crystal [
Park et al. [75] studied relationships between rolling and Rex textures of IF steel. When the {112}<110>, {225}<110>, and {112}<110> components had the highest density in cold rolling texture, the {567}<943>, {223}<472>, and {554}<225> components had the highest density in Rex texture, respectively. Rolling and Rex textures of low carbon steel (C in solution), and Fe-16%Cr and Fe-3%Si steels indicate that the strong rolling texture components {001}<110> and {112}<110> have an effect on the evolution of a very strong Rex texture {111}<112> [77].
Park et al. [76] investigated the macrotexture changes in 75% cold-rolled IF steel with annealing time at 650ºC along the α-fiber. The cold rolling texture showed the development of the α fiber as typical in bcc steels. The orientation densities of the α-fiber increased slightly after annealing for 300 s. This is a well-known recovery phenomenon. A part of the α-fiber, near {114}<110>, substantially decreased after annealing for 1000 s. EBSD analysis indicated that the {556}<175> Rex component was formed at the expense of the {114}<110> deformation component. This texture transformation could be explained by SERM. Relationships between various rolling and Rex textures are summarized in Table 6.
These results can be explained based on SERM [4,75,76]. Figure 60 shows drawings relating the rolling texture components to the Rex texture components. AMSDs can be easily obtained by choosing the <111> directions, the slip directions in bcc metals, closest to 45o to the compression axis without calculation of rolling deformation. For the cold rolling texture (001)[110], TD is calculated by the vector product of [110] and [001] to be [-110]. The <111> directions closest to 45o with the [001] compression axis are [-111], [-1-1 1], and [111]. The [-111] direction is likely to contribute to spread of the width of sheets. Therefore, slip along the [-111] direction is unlikely. The effective slip planes are likely to be parallel to TD and contain the [111] and [-1-1 1] slip directions. The planes are those normal to the vector product of the [-110] TD and the [-1-1 1] and/or [111] directions. They are calculated to be the (112) and/or (1 1-2) planes. The related slip systems are therefore (112)[-1-1 1] and (1 1-2)[111]. These systems are physically equivalent. Therefore, it is sufficient to choose one of them. Let us choose the [111] direction. The [111] direction and other related directions and planes are shown in Figure 60a. The [111] direction is on ND-RD plane. Therefore, it is likely to be AMSD.
Correspondence between AMSD in rolled state (top), MYMD in Rexed state (bottom) in orientation relationships between (a) (001)[110] roll ↔ (111)[-1-1 2] Rex, (b) (112)[-110] roll ↔ (545)[-2 5-2] Rex, (c) (114)[-110] roll ↔ (556)[-1 7-5] Rex.
If the [111] direction in the deformed state is set to be parallel to MYMD [001] in the Rexed state, the (111) plane becomes parallel to the rolling plane and the [-1-1 2] direction becomes parallel to RD in the Rexed state, giving rise to the (111)[-1-1 2] Rex texture as shown in Figure 60a. This result is the same as that obtained based on the full-constraints Taylor model (Figure 57). Therefore, the {001}<110> may be responsible for the measured {111}<112> Rex texture. It is noted that the [-110] TD is shared by both the deformed and Rexed states (2nd priority in Section 2). It is also noted that the angle between AMSD and RD is about 30o which is the usually observed angle between the shear band and RD.
Other examples in Figure 60 are self-explainable. In all the examples except Figure 60d, the <110> directions are shared by the deformed and Rexed states. In fact, the Rex textures in Figure 60b and 60c are very similar. This is the reason why there exists an angular relation between the deformed and Rexed states about the <110> axes (Table 6). This has often been interpreted to be associated with CSL boundaries. However, there is no consistency in the CSL boundaries. Anyhow the high density orientations along the α fiber change to near {111}<112> orientations on Rex.
As the Rexed γ fiber grains grow, they are likely to meet the α fiber grains. Main components in α fiber including the {112}<110> orientation are predicted to tend to change to near {111}<112> orientations according to SERM. Therefore, the {111}<112> Rexed grains will grow at the expense of the α fiber grains with little disturbance of orientation. It is interesting to note that SERM can satisfy the relation between the deformation and Rex textures in the nucleation and growth stages. The two prominent components, (334)[4-8 3] and (554)[-2-2 5], in the Rex texture are related to the (558)[1-1 0] and (112)[1-1 0] components in the rolling texture, respectively.
{112}<110> | \n{567}<943> | \n30 | \n29 | \n30°<110> | \nΣ19a(26.5°<110>) | \n
{225}<110> | \n{223}<472> | \n35.3 | \n32.6 | \n25°<110> | \nΣ19a(26.5°<110>) | \n
{112}<110> | \n{554}<225> | \n30 | \n29.5 | \n35°<110> | \nΣ9(38.9°<110>) | \n
{001}<110> | \n{111}<112> | \n35.3 | \n35.3 | \n55°<110> | \nΣ11(50.5°<110>) | \n
{114}<110> | \n{556}<175> | \n35 | \n36 | \n\n | \n |
{558}<110> | \n{334}<483> | \n30.6 | \n32 | \n29°<110> | \nΣ19a (26.5°<110> | \n
Orientation relationships (OR) between major components which dominate rolling and Rex textures.
Orientation densities along α- and β- fibers for 70% rolled and annealed Ta [
The texture evolution in Ta after 70% rolling and subsequent annealing at various temperatures is shown in Figure 61 [78]. The rolling texture of Ta is characterized by a partial α-fiber extending from {001}<110> to {111}<110> and a complete γ-fiber {111}<uvw>. The major deformation texture components are {112}<110> and {001}<110> as in steel. MYMD of Ta is <100> (A>0 in Table 6), the development of the Rex texture is expected to be similar to that in steel. It can be seen that an enhancement of {001}<110> due to recovery and a strong decrease in {001}<110> to {112}<110> accompanied by a strong increase in γ-fiber {111}<112> and/or {554}<225> due to Rex. The Rex behavior is readily understood from Figure 60 [4, 75].
(a)
The deformation texture of rolled Mo sheets was characterized by a weak γ-fiber and α-fiber with a strong {100}<110> component [79]. Full Rex does not change the rolling texture but reduces its intensity (Figure 62). This result is compatible with SERM considering that the <111> directions are not only slip directions, which is approximately AMSD (Figure 60a, top), but also MYMD of Mo (
Since the slip systems of W are {112}<111> [80], it is predicted that the {001}<110> component dominates the rolling texture as shown in Figure 60a. Figure 63a shows the rolling texture which is dominated by the {100}<011> component as predicted. The deformation texture is approximately randomized after Rex (Figure 63b). This is compatible with SERM because W is almost isotropic in its elastic properties (
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Ta | \n\t\t1300 1400 1500 1600 | \n\t\t8.137 8.297 8.408 8.576 | \n\t\t13.966 14.025 14.184 14.409 | \n\t\t-3.150 -3.224 -3.274 -3.357 | \n\t\t1.6164 1.6429 1.6472 1.6563 | \n\t\t82 | \n\t
Mo | \n\t\t273 373 973 | \n\t\t2.607 2.655 3.010 | \n\t\t9.158 9.242 9.823 | \n\t\t-0.622 -0.682 -0.833 | \n\t\t0.7052 0.7092 0.7824 | \n\t\t83 | \n\t
W | \n\t\t100 297 973 2073 | \n\t\t2.398 2.454 2.711 3.509 | \n\t\t6.158 6.218 6.553 7.375 | \n\t\t-0.665 -0.690 -0.798 -1.160 | \n\t\t0.9948 1.0113 1.0710 1.2662 | \n\t\t84 85 85 85 | \n\t
Pole figure of W sheet (a) after cold rolling by 96% and (b) subsequent annealing at 2000 °C for 30 min [
The Rex textures of freestanding electro- and vapor-deposits of metals and heavily deformed metals and alloys whose stored energies due to dislocations constitute the main driving forces for Rex can be determined such that AMSDs in the fabricated matrix can be along MYMDs in Rexed grains or nuclei, and by other conditions which can maximize the strain-energy release in the system. The strain-energy-release-maximization theory can explain the following results.
The <100>, <111> and <110> electro- and vapor-deposition textures of Cu, Ni, and Ag transform to the <100>, <100>, and <√3 1 0> textures, respectively, after Rex.
The <100> and <111> deposition textures of Cr remain unchanged after Rex.
The <111>+<100> drawing textures of uniaxially drawn Ag, Al, Cu, and Au wires change to the <100>textures after Rex.
Channel-die compressed {110}<001> Al single crystal keeps its {110}<001>deformation texture after Rex.
The {135}<2 1-1> Al sheet obtained by channel-die compression of Al crystals of {123}<412> orientations by 90% develops {-0.0062 0.2781 0.9606}<0.9907 0.1322 -0.0319> ≈ {0 1 3.5}<31 4 -1> after Rex.
An Al crystal of {112}<111> obtained by channel-die compression of a (001)[110] Al single crystal develops {001}<√610> after Rex.
The (123)[-6-3 4] + (321)[-436] + {112}<111> Cu sheet obtained after reversible rolling of a (123)[-6-3 4] Cu single crystal by 99.5% under oil lubrication develops the Rex texture of major {001} <100> + minor (0 3-1)[100] orientations. The {001}<100> and (0 3-1)[100] components are calculated to result from the {112}<111> and (123)[-6-3 4] components in the deformation textures, respectively.
The {011}<211>, {112}<111>, and {123}<634> components in the rolling texture of cold-rolled polycrystalline fcc metals and alloys with medium to high stacking fault energy are respectively linked with the {011}<100>, {100}<001>, and {031}<100> component in the Rex texture.
The {111}<112> bcc crystal undergoing plane strain rolling can develop three different Rex textures of {441}<118>≈ {110}<001>, {111}<112>, and ~{111}<110> depending on local slip systems and their activities in the same gloval deformation.
The {665}<110>, {001}<110>, {558}<110>, {112}<110>, {114}<110> components in the rolling texture of steel are respectively linked with the {665}<1 1 2.4>, {111}<112>, {334}<483>, {545}<252>, {556}<175> components in the Rex texture.
The rolling and Rex textures of Ta are similar to those of steel.
Full Rex of Mo does not change the rolling texture but reduces its intensity.
The rolling texture of W transforms to a texure which can be approximated by random orientation distribution after Rex.
There is a global raise in the burden of Candidiasis among immunocompromised individuals and this has to an increase in
The phenotypic appearance of
The laboratory diagnosis of the Candidiasis involves the use of both Conventional (phenotypic) and molecular (genotypic) methods to detect visible and genetic characteristics of Candida respectively.
Conventional methods are still commonly used for diagnosis and identification of fungi. These techniques are based on microscopic examination and fungal culture. Oral swab is collected, followed by microscopy and culture on selective media [4]. Microscopy can be done directly either from fresh samples or from fungal cultures. However, microscopy is non-specific, as different species can show the same morphological patterns and it is not possible to identify the
Indirect nonculture-based methods are available such as
Test | Sensitivity (%) | Specificity (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Mannan and antimannan | 58 and 59 | 93 and 83 | [18] |
(1,3)-ß-D-glucan | 75–80 | 80 | [19] |
76.2 | 80.3 | [20] | |
T2Candida | 91.1 | 99.4 | [20] |
Polymerase chain reaction | 95 | 92 | [19] |
PNA-FISHa | 98–100 | 99–100 | [21] |
MALDI-TOF MSb | 91–100 | 100 | [11] |
Sensitivity and specificity of some methods used in diagnosis of invasive candidiasis as compared to conventional methods.
Peptide nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization.
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits can be used to identify both mannan and anti-mannan antibodies however, this test is not recommended for identification of
Molecular methods are more accurate and rapid in detecting
Adopted from Chen et al., 2000, showing the non-coding internal transcribed spacer between the coding regions of 18S, 5.8S and 28S ribosomal RNA [
Molecular techniques are categorized into two methods, i.e., polymerase chain reaction-based methods and non-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is one of the most important molecular techniques used to detect
PCR is based on the amplification of a small specific DNA target through multiple repeated cycles of temperature changes into multiple copies. The main PCR steps are denaturation of the template DNA into single strands (94–98°C), annealing of the primers to the target sequence (50–65°C), and elongation whereby DNA polymerase elongates a DNA complementary to each strand of the target (72°C) [27].
Various PCR techniques have been developed, such as real-time PCR, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) PCR technique, multiplex PCR, reverse transcriptase PCR and nested PCR [27, 28].
Real-time PCR can be used to quantify the PCR product during amplification. Moreover, it has advantages over the conventional PCR in that it does not require agarose gel electrophoresis to visualize the amplified products. In real-time PCR, the amplified product can be measured automatically after each cycle by a fluorometer [29].
Nested PCR is based on the amplification of DNA by using two sets of primers to improve its specificity and sensitivity.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) PCR is an important technique to detect and identify strains of
Multiplex PCR requires multiple different primers and specific probes labeled with different fluorophores in a single PCR tube to allow the identification of many different
Sanger sequencing is a first-generation sequencing technique developed by Sanger Frederick and it is based on chain-termination (Sanger
Next generation sequencing (NGS) is accurate and rapid high throughput sequencing technique and is very vital in genome sequencing, fungal research, diagnostic purposes, outbreak monitoring [36]. Most of NGS platforms including the Ion Torrent PGM (Life Technologies), HiSeq, MiSeq and NextSeq (Illumina), 454 GS (Roche) and SOLiD System (Applied Biosystems) are based on sequencing by synthesis and have three main steps: template preparation, sequencing and imaging and data analysis [37, 38]. In addition to
Pyrosequencing is another PCR based technique which depends on the release of pyrophosphate when nucleotides are incorporated into the nucleic acid chain by DNA polymerase and produced pyrophosphate is then subsequently converted to Adenosine-5’triphosphate (ATP) by ATP sulfurylase, and that provides energy for luciferin oxidation by luciferase, which produces light that can be detected as a peak on the pyrogram [37]. Any unincorporated nucleotides are degraded by apyrase to allow iterative nucleotide addition into the nucleic acid chain and peak heights are associated with the number of the same nucleotides added to the nascent strand [41].
Pyrosequencing is a rapid and accurate molecular method for the detection of point mutations in any selected gene within short DNA fragments. It has been used widely for the identification and detection of antifungal drug resistance [42].
These methods can facilitate rapid identification of
MALDI-TOF MS is a method that uses mass spectrometry to identify the protein fingerprints of microorganisms that are compared with databases of reference spectra [43]. MALDI-TOF MS is able to accurately detect and identify
The ITS region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is the most useful genetic marker for rapid and accurate molecular identification of
Emergence of non albicans
IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
",metaTitle:'Call for Applications: "IntechOpen Women in Science 2018" Book Collection',metaDescription:"IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/women-in-science-book-collection-2018/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"On February 9th, 2018, which marks the official celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we have announced we are seeking contributors for the upcoming “IntechOpen Women in Science 2018” Book Collection. The program aims to support women scientists worldwide whose academic needs include quality assurance, peer-review, fast publishing, collaboration among complementary authors, immediate exposure, and post-publishing citations reporting.
\\n\\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\\n\\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\\n\\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"On February 9th, 2018, which marks the official celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we have announced we are seeking contributors for the upcoming “IntechOpen Women in Science 2018” Book Collection. The program aims to support women scientists worldwide whose academic needs include quality assurance, peer-review, fast publishing, collaboration among complementary authors, immediate exposure, and post-publishing citations reporting.
\n\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\n\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]},{id:"13254",doi:"10.5772/13474",title:"Insight Into Adsorption Thermodynamics",slug:"insight-into-adsorption-thermodynamics",totalDownloads:7156,totalCrossrefCites:90,totalDimensionsCites:267,abstract:null,book:{id:"25",slug:"thermodynamics",title:"Thermodynamics",fullTitle:"Thermodynamics"},signatures:"Papita Saha and Shamik Chowdhury",authors:[{id:"13943",title:"Dr.",name:"Papita",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"papita-saha",fullName:"Papita Saha"},{id:"24184",title:"Mr.",name:"Shamik",middleName:null,surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"shamik-chowdhury",fullName:"Shamik Chowdhury"}]},{id:"35261",doi:"10.5772/34233",title:"Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of ABS Parts Fabricated by Fused Deposition Modelling",slug:"anisotropic-mechanical-properties-of-abs-parts-fabricated-by-fused-deposition-modeling-",totalDownloads:7283,totalCrossrefCites:116,totalDimensionsCites:246,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Constance Ziemian, Mala Sharma and Sophia Ziemian",authors:[{id:"89554",title:"Dr.",name:"Mala",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"mala-sharma",fullName:"Mala Sharma"},{id:"98759",title:"Dr.",name:"Constance",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"constance-ziemian",fullName:"Constance Ziemian"},{id:"137165",title:"Ms.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"sophia-ziemian",fullName:"Sophia Ziemian"}]},{id:"8446",doi:"10.5772/39538",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",totalDownloads:12087,totalCrossrefCites:139,totalDimensionsCites:227,abstract:null,book:{id:"3161",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics"},signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg"}]},{id:"27163",doi:"10.5772/31200",title:"Synergisms between Compost and Biochar for Sustainable Soil Amelioration",slug:"synergism-between-biochar-and-compost-for-sustainable-soil-amelioration",totalDownloads:6069,totalCrossrefCites:66,totalDimensionsCites:170,abstract:null,book:{id:"873",slug:"management-of-organic-waste",title:"Management of Organic Waste",fullTitle:"Management of Organic Waste"},signatures:"Daniel Fischer and Bruno Glaser",authors:[{id:"84418",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Glaser",slug:"bruno-glaser",fullName:"Bruno Glaser"},{id:"96141",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"daniel-fischer",fullName:"Daniel Fischer"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7442,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10667,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12438,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]},{id:"70874",title:"Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Resources",slug:"social-economic-and-environmental-impacts-of-renewable-energy-resources",totalDownloads:4991,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:"Conventional energy source based on coal, gas, and oil are very much helpful for the improvement in the economy of a country, but on the other hand, some bad impacts of these resources in the environment have bound us to use these resources within some limit and turned our thinking toward the renewable energy resources. The social, environmental, and economical problems can be omitted by use of renewable energy sources, because these resources are considered as environment-friendly, having no or little emission of exhaust and poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monooxide, sulfur dioxide, etc. Renewable energy is going to be an important source for power generation in near future, because we can use these resources again and again to produce useful energy. Wind power generation is considered as having lowest water consumption, lowest relative greenhouse gas emission, and most favorable social impacts. It is considered as one of the most sustainable renewable energy sources, followed by hydropower, photovoltaic, and then geothermal. As these resources are considered as clean energy resources, they can be helpful for the mitigation of greenhouse effect and global warming effect. Local employment, better health, job opportunities, job creation, consumer choice, improvement of life standard, social bonds creation, income development, demographic impacts, social bonds creation, and community development can be achieved by the proper usage of renewable energy system. Along with the outstanding advantages of these resources, some shortcomings also exist such as the variation of output due to seasonal change, which is the common thing for wind and hydroelectric power plant; hence, special design and consideration are required, which are fulfilled by the hardware and software due to the improvement in computer technology.",book:{id:"7636",slug:"wind-solar-hybrid-renewable-energy-system",title:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System",fullTitle:"Wind Solar Hybrid Renewable Energy System"},signatures:"Mahesh Kumar",authors:[{id:"309842",title:"Mr.",name:"Kamlesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"kamlesh-kumar",fullName:"Kamlesh Kumar"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"11",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83011",title:"E-Waste Management in Different Countries: Strategies, Impacts, and Determinants",slug:"e-waste-management-in-different-countries-strategies-impacts-and-determinants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106644",abstract:"Over the last two decades, the electronic equipment has increased dramatically around the world, which causes increasing in e-waste as well. This increasing has affected the environment badly. E-waste disposal has become one of the most critical issues and concerns have raised of it because most of these products do not biodegrade easily and they are toxic. Different strategies have been followed in many countries in order to solve the e-waste problem. Understanding these strategies can help to plan better for e-waste management correctly. Awareness of people about the e-waste impacts is crucial, because it can ensure people participation in managing the e waste process. This research has carried out in order to introduce to the e-waste impacts on environment and human health, and the importance of people awareness about these impacts. In addition, it shows many strategies that have been used in different countries to manage the e-waste, choosing the successful one to focus in order to benefit from it. Furthermore, a surveying has been carried out to exam people awareness in Iraq about the e-waste impacts. Finally, recommendations to manage e-waste successfully have been added.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Shireen Ibrahim Mohammed"},{id:"83044",title:"Fatigue Behavior of Reinforced Welded Hand-Holes in Aluminum Light Poles with a Change in Detail Geometry",slug:"fatigue-behavior-of-reinforced-welded-hand-holes-in-aluminum-light-poles-with-a-change-in-detail-geo",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106342",abstract:"Welded aluminum light poles often contain hand-holes. These hand-holes are used to give access for electrical wiring installation and maintenance purposes. Wind load may cause light poles to be loaded in a cyclic manner. This cyclic loading can cause localized fatigue cracking around the hand-hole. Fatigue failure around hand-holes has been observed in the field, but studies surrounding the resistance of the hand-holes are few and far between. This study included four-point bending fatigue tests on welded aluminum poles containing hand-holes. Eight welded aluminum specimens, each with two hand-holes, were tested in fatigue. These 16 details were loaded at the same stress range. Each specimen had a slightly different geometry or treatment applied to the hand hole. These different details mimicked traditional reinforced hand holes, similar to those evaluated in previous studies. Changes in the treatment and/or geometry included milling the inside of hole, milling the inside of the hole as well as the cast insert prior to welding, and milling the cast insert itself prior to welding. Among the 16 details tested, 15 failed as a result of fatigue cracking. It was found that specimen failure would originated in the throat of the fillet weld and then proceeded to propagate into the reinforcement ring/casting. A finite element analysis was used in addition to the experimental study.",book:{id:"12056",title:"Structural Health Monitoring",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12056.jpg"},signatures:"Cameron R. Rusnak and Craig C. Menzemer"},{id:"83028",title:"Construction and Modification of Copper Current Collectors for Improved Li Metal Batteries",slug:"construction-and-modification-of-copper-current-collectors-for-improved-li-metal-batteries",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106540",abstract:"Metallic Lithium have gained great attention for its high theoretical specific capacity. But continuous growth of Li dendrites upon cycling might cause low coulombic efficiency and serious security issues. Construction of advanced 3D Cu current collectors to regulate Li plating/stripping and improve battery performance is considered as one effective promising strategy. In this chapter, we will discuss the roles and requirements of current collectors in lithium metal batteries. Then methods (dealloying, powder-sintering and 3D printing) employed for construction of 3D Cu current collector and implementation of surface modification (lithiophilic sites and coating layers) will be illustrated. At last, future opportunities of Cu current collectors will be lifted out.",book:{id:"11179",title:"Lithium-Ion Batteries - Recent Advanced and Emerging Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11179.jpg"},signatures:"Shunrui Luo and Kai Pei"},{id:"83021",title:"Valorization of Forest Waste for the Production of Dio-oils for Biofuel and Biodiesel",slug:"valorization-of-forest-waste-for-the-production-of-dio-oils-for-biofuel-and-biodiesel",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105366",abstract:"Biomass is a renewable energy source to generate heat and electricity through the enhancement of various organic materials. Cistus slow pyrolysis of seeds and shells was carried out in a fixed bed reactor to determine the effect of pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, and particle size on the performance of pyrolysis. Therefore, pyrolysis experiments were performed at different temperatures, ranging from 300 to 500°C, with heating rates varying from 10 to 70°C.min−1 for shells and 7 to 28°C.min−1 for seeds. The particle sizes of samples range from 0.3 to 3.5 mm for shells and 0.075 to 1.2 mm for seeds. The highest yield of liquid products (53.31% for shells; 52.24% for seeds) was obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 450°C and a heating rate of 40°C.min−1 for shells and 21°C.min−1 for seeds. The functional groups and chemical compounds present in the bio-oil obtained under optimal conditions were identified by FTIR. The calorific value of the bio-oil was equal to 37.05 and 37.93 MJ.kg−1 for shells and seeds, respectively. The obtained results show that the bio-oil from the pyrolysis of Cistus shells and seeds could be used as a renewable fuel or a source of pharmaceutical and chemical raw material.",book:{id:"11533",title:"Advances in Green Electronics Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11533.jpg"},signatures:"Hammadi el Farissi"},{id:"83003",title:"Rheology of Heavy Oils",slug:"rheology-of-heavy-oils",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105666",abstract:"The problems of heavy oil rheology, accompanied by physical phenomena of the formation and destruction of coagulation disordered structures and aggregates as a result of the hydrodynamic interaction of particles (asphaltenes, paraffins, resins, and solid-phase particles) contained in the oil, which significantly affect its properties and flow, are considered and analyzed. Rheological models of viscous-plastic heavy oils are considered and developed, consistent with a variety of experimental data. New rheological models for viscous-plastic heavy oils are proposed, which make it possible to generalize many existing models. It is noted that the variety of rheological models for heavy oils is determined by the conditions for the formation of disordered structures in the bulk of the oil flow. For heavy oils, a nonlinear equation for filtration in porous media is proposed, depending on the shear stress, pressure gradient, effective viscosity of the oil, and a number of other parameters. An analytical solution to this equation is proposed, which is consistent with the experimental data. Models for the settling rate and drag coefficient of particles in heavy oils are proposed. Applied problems of rheology aimed at improving the rheological properties of heavy oil during their processing as a result of creating a recirculation scheme at an operating oil refining unit are considered.",book:{id:"11542",title:"Crude Oil - Emerging Downstream Processing Technologies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg"},signatures:"Gudret Isfandiyar Kelbaliyev, Dilgam Babir Tagiyev and Manaf Rizvan Manafov"},{id:"82986",title:"Interferometric Gravitational Wave Detectors",slug:"interferometric-gravitational-wave-detectors",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106417",abstract:"The existence of gravitational waves is an important proof of Einstein’s theory of general relativity and took 100 years to be achieved using optical interferometry. This work describes how such a detector works and how it can change the way of seeing the Universe. Kilometers size laser interferometers are being built around the world in the way to make gravitational astronomy; detectors already built in the United States, Italy, and Japan will join efforts with detectors built in Japan and India and provide humanity with the means to see gravitational interactions of black holes and neutron star. Interactions, without these detectors, will be forever out of our sight.",book:{id:"11156",title:"Optical Interferometry - A Multidisciplinary Technique in Science and Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11156.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Frajuca"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:284},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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