The major classes of phenolics and respective examples found to have an effect on leukaemia.
\r\n\tMany tried to define it, and its definition is always related to those who are in power, that being explained by the fact that this power and the abuse of it precisely, gives the access to being corrupted and practicing the acts that fall under corruption.
\r\n\r\n\tWe can find various types of corruption such as bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Also giving or accepting bribes or inappropriate gifts, double-dealing, under-the-table transactions, manipulating elections, diverting funds, laundering money, and defrauding investors.
\r\n\tNo government is immune to corruption. According to the World Bank, “the causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history”.
\r\n\tThis indeed has consequences for increasing inequality, impacts government expenditure and services, shadow economy, and crime.
\r\n\tThis book will be a collection of chapters on Corruption. It welcomes contributions related to the nature of corruption its types and how corruption is undertaken in a certain context and the ways to deal with corruption will be part of this book. We value including materials on Corruption in organizations and ways to solve it. The origins of corruption and the way to deal with corruption, how to provide solutions, and any new insights on corruption will be part of this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-696-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-695-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-697-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"9cda6d2feaa52a6d523da74f2e2d7ffb",bookSignature:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg",keywords:"Corruption, Origins, Types, Corporate Governance, Organizational Performance, Solutions, Corruption Index, Private Sector, Lebanon, Accountability, Anti-corruption, Public Policy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, France, and received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues between two or more countries. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Family Business Management and a keynote speaker for corporate governance conferences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103784",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed-Sreih",slug:"josiane-fahed-sreih",fullName:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103784/images/system/103784.jfif",biography:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih is a full-time associate professor of Management in the School of Business, Lebanese American University. She is the founder and director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management at the same university. She was previously the assistant dean. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, Paris, France. Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the Middle East Coordinator for the Family Firm Institute (FFI), the USA, and a family wealth and family business consultant. She received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues that occur between two or more countries. She has participated in and organized international conferences, workshops, and seminars. She has presented at major conferences locally and internationally and consulted on management issues in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, Dubai, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Syria, Bahrain, Oman, France, Cyprus, and Lebanon. She currently sits on five boards of directors as a shareholder, two as a chairman of the board, and one as an independent director in the private sector. She is also an advisor on boards of community service organizations. \n\nShe speaks regularly to trade and professional groups and presents her research at academic conferences worldwide. She is frequently invited as a keynote speaker to the recognized family business and corporate governance conferences. Her research interests are in management, family business, the functioning of boards of directors, and corporate governance. She has published three books, several book chapters, and academic articles in international journals. 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As a result, these cells permeate the bone marrow and prevent haematopoiesis from occurring normally. Such blasts eventually penetrate into the bloodstream and spread into organs [2]. The earliest observations and descriptions of cases of leukaemia were recorded by Alfred Velpeau, Alfred Donné and John Hughes Bennett [3, 4, 5]. Rudolf Virchow is credited with coining the term ‘leukaemia’ in 1847, from the two Greek words ‘leukos’ and ‘helma’, which mean ‘white blood’ [6].
Broadly, leukaemia can be classified as either acute or chronic. In acute leukaemia, the proliferating cells are very immature, while in chronic leukaemia, these cells have a more mature phenotype [7]. Furthermore, both types are subdivided into myeloid, lymphoid and mixed lineages [8]. On one hand, in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), these blasts are termed myeloblasts while they are lymphoblasts in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). On the other hand, the mature cells are granulocytes or neutrophils in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) and are lymphocytes in chronic lymphatic leukaemia (CLL). In general, both chronic leukaemias and AML are more common in adults while ALL is generally prevalent in children [9, 10, 11, 12].
Acute and chronic leukaemias differ in terms of onset time. In acute leukaemia, cell proliferation occurs rapidly in days, while in chronic leukaemia, the process is slower and takes months or years [13, 14]. As a result, in acute leukaemia, lack of treatment results in death within a time frame of weeks or months while in chronic leukaemia, this may be either months or years. The signs and symptoms of both types of leukaemia also vary. In acute leukaemia, the rapid proliferation of white blood cells causes bone discomfort, aches as well as swelling in the lymph nodes. The initial symptoms include anaemia, fatigue, fever and swelling in the liver and the spleen [15]. Patients with chronic leukaemia may also show similar symptoms but if anaemia is evident, it is milder than in acute leukaemia. Moreover, most patients diagnosed with chronic leukaemia do not show symptoms at the time of diagnosis [16].
In the following sections, current treatments for different leukaemia subtypes are discussed, as well as their drawbacks. Such disadvantages pave the way for the need for alternative therapies, whereby studies show that phenolic compounds are very promising candidates in this regard.
Leukaemia is the most common cancer in children under 15 years of age and accounts for 32% of cancers in children of this age. For patients under 20 years of age, leukaemia accounts for 25% of cancers. The most common childhood cancer, ALL, constitutes 23% of childhood cancers and between 75% to 80% of childhood leukaemia cases. AML follows ALL and encompasses between 15% to 20% of childhood leukaemia [17, 18]. Leukaemia is also the most common blood cancer in people older than 55.
Though the treatment offered to a patient diagnosed with leukaemia depends on the leukaemia type, the primary options for treatment of leukaemia remain chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Chemotherapy drugs for AML include cytarabine, daunorubicin, doxorubicin and idarubicin [19]. Where possible, a bone marrow or stem cell transplant is also used following remission. In the latter, though the procedure may result in complications, recovery rates are good [15]. For AML, the intensive chemotherapy treatment administered to the patient as an induction treatment and as consolidation treatment. In the former, the aim is to achieve remission, while the purpose of the latter is relapse prevention [20, 21]. The use of induction and consolidation therapy together with an autologous stem cell transplant results in both a high relapse risk and a high mortality, while the use of consolidation therapy together with allotransplation results in a lower relapse risk but a higher mortality due to risks associated with graft versus host [22].
Although chemotherapy is widely used to treat a variety of cancers, it is broadly cytotoxic to normal tissues. Chemotherapy needs to be administered in more than one cycle since both the proliferating and resting phase cells possess the genetic abnormality. As a result, one chemotherapy cycle alone is not enough to kill all the leukaemic cells [23]. Chemotherapy drugs are classified into five major classes based on their structure and mechanistic action. These are: alkylating agents, topoisomerase inhibitors, antitumour antibiotics, antimetabolites and microtubule inhibitors. Alkylating agents such as cisplatin act by damaging DNA and inhibiting transcription and protein synthesis [24]. Topoisomerase inhibitors like etoposide inhibit DNA topoisomerase from releasing supercoils during DNA replication [25]. Standard chemotherapy drugs such as daunorubicin and doxorubicin fall under the class of antitumour antibiotics which inhibit enzymes involved in DNA replication [26], while cytarabine is an antimetabolite which disrupts the S phase of the cell cycle [27]. Finally, microtubule inhibitors such as paclitaxel interfere with the M phase of the cell cycle, which results in the inhibition of mitosis [28].
For AML patients younger than sixty years of age, chemotherapy results in remission rates of between 50% to 75%, with most suffering a relapse. The incidence in AML is bimodal, with remission rates being lower for older patients and relapse rates being higher [21]. This relapse is a result of haematopoietic stem cells which survive the chemotherapeutic drug treatment and regenerate. Currently five year survival rates are estimated to be around 30% for AML [29, 30]. Moreover, standard chemotherapy for AML may result in side effects including myelosuppression, tumour lysis syndrome and hepatotoxicity [31].
While chemotherapy remains the standard treatment for AML, the use of other drugs has greatly improved survival rates for about 30% of AML cases. Such patients present with FLT3 mutations, with FLT3 being a tyrosine kinase vital for the differentiation of progenitor cells into both myeloid and lymphoid lineages. The first drug approved as an FLT3 inhibitor was Midostaurin, which since 2017 has been used a treatment for FLT3 mutant AML in combination with standard chemotherapy [32, 33]. In 2018, the second FLT3 inhibitor Gliteritinib was approved as a treatment for patients who were found to be resistant to other treatments [34]. Patients with FLT3 mutations are likely to relapse as elimination of cells harbouring the FLT3 mutation is very problematic. Moreover, some patients also become resistant to FLT3 inhibitors after treatment [35].
In AML subtype APL, treatment involves the use of all
More than 98% of APL patients possess the characteristic translocation t(15;17), which results in the fusion between two genes - the PML gene and the RARα. As a result, the fusion protein PML-RARα is formed. PML-RARα is conformationally changed by ATRA at concentrations between 10−7 and 10−6 M, resulting in co-repressor dissociation and co-activator activation, leading to a relaxation in chromatin, the activation of transcription of genes involved in differentiation, resulting in the terminal differentiation of promyelocytes to granulocytes [41, 42].
Three decades ago, APL was fatal as a result of coagulation disorders, and via anthracycline based chemotherapy, the prognosis was still poor for approximately 70% of patients. Differentiation therapy using ATRA and ATO has resulted in complete remission (CR) for around 85% of patients, and 70% of patients being cured. The use of ATRA as a differentiating agent to differentiate promyelocytes into granulocytes was first discovered by Breitman
Moreover, though ATRA has been pivotal in the treatment of APL, this treatment may result in another complication known as retinoic acid syndrome or differentiation syndrome (DS). It has been found to occur in around 2% to 27% of children with APL who are treated with ATRA, and in up to 50% of patients. This may result in pulmonary haemorrhage, renal failure, as well as heart failure and for this reason is termed life threatening. Differentiation syndrome typically occurs around a week or two following the start of ATRA and/or ATO therapy [44]. If DS is severe and has resulted in pulmonary or renal dysfunction, the use of ATRA is ceased [45, 46, 47, 48]. Compared to patients who do not develop this complication, patients with DS have a lower overall free survival and event free survival [49]. Though the exact mechanism of DS is not fully known, the main key player is thought to be an excessive inflammatory response. This response stems from leukaemic cells during their differentiation process, and is due to a higher level of chemokine production and adhesion molecules on APL cells. Inflammation leads to capillary leak syndrome and blast cells infiltrating organs such as the lungs, and organ failure [50]. Treatment for DS is required early in the diagnosis, and the corticosteroid dexamethasone is administered intravenously. Corticosteroids decrease chemokine production and stop lung infiltration [51].
Reported benefits of other agents of differentiation include histone deacetylase (HDAC) and DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitors. A key DNMT inhibitor is 5-aza-cytidine while examples of HDAC inhibitors include sodium butyrate and valproic acid [52]. Moreover, for HDAC inhibitors, the combination of both valproic acid and ATRA has been found to be beneficial for older patients with AML [53, 54]. On one hand, HDAC inhibitors act by remodeling chromatin by subduing the activity of HDACs leading to histone acetylation. This results in the expression of genes involved in the processes of differentiation as well as apoptosis. On the other hand, the effect of DNMT inhibitors is DNA hypomethylation, which leads to the re-activation of tumour-suppressor genes silenced by methylation. The use of such inhibitors stems from the fact that the differentiation block of leukaemic cells may be a result of epigenetic changes including histone acetylation and DNA hypermethylation, which may be reversed through the action of these inhibitors [55].
In contrast to other leukaemias, in CML, the genetic abnormality, termed the Philadelphia chromosome is a result of the bcr-abl protein, which was identified by Nowell and Hungerford in 1960 [56]. This oncogenic protein leads to an upregulation of tyrosine kinase and inactivation of phosphoinositide-3-kinase resulting in the proliferation of myelocytes. Imatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor which acts by binding to the bcr-abl protein. This inhibition allows the cells to differentiate into mature granulocytes and subsequently die by apoptosis [57, 58, 59]. Following imatinib administration, the cytogenic response to the treatment can be at one of three levels – cytogenic response, major cytogenic response and complete cytogenic response. In 80% of the patients, it is the latter that results, and following imatinib administration, most remain stable. However in some patients, mutations in the bcr-abl tyrosine kinase domain result in lack of inhibition by Imatinib. This leads patients to rely on chemotherapy and stem cell transplantation [60, 61]. A number of unfavorable effects following Imatinib treatment have been reported and include episodic bone pain, fluid retention, lethargy and weight gain. These usually occur within the first two years of treatment, and through continued treatment, they may also be reversed [62].
For ALL, 80% of cases occur in children, and like AML, its distribution is bimodal. Though the outcomes for children have greatly improved, the same cannot be said for elderly patients, with remission rates lying between 30 and 40% for this age group [63, 64]. Treatment involves the use of chemotherapy as induction treatment, consolidation therapy and also maintenance. For the former, an anthracycline, vincristine as well as corticosteroids [65] or the Hyper-CVAD chemotherapy regimen are used [66]. For ALL patients who are Ph-positive, survival rates have improved through the use of second generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors coupled to Hyper-CVAD [67]. Recently, great advancements have been made for relapsed or refractory ALL patients through CAR-T cell therapy [68]. Between 70-90% of these patients respond well to this treatment, however it is associated with challenges such as antigen escape, toxicity and tumour infiltration [69].
Contrastingly, many patients with CLL have indolent disease and are asymptomatic. For patients with active CLL, treatment involves the use of chemoimmunotherapy such as a combination of fludarabine, cyclophosphamide and rituximab (FCR) or bendamustine and rituximab (BR) [70, 71]. For patients with high risk ALL, other targeted treatment agents include venetoclax, ibutrinib and idelasilib [72, 73, 74]. Though toxicity and resistance remain challenges, these may potentially be alleviated by combination therapy.
This chapter discusses studies that have been published to date, that assess the anti-leukaemic effect of phenolic compounds. These studies are grouped into the following three categories:
A flow chart outlining the different types of studies recording the effects of phenolics on leukaemia.
Due to the challenges posed by the current treatments, therapies that may improve patient survival are needed. Novel treatments that are more specific and generally less toxic than conventional chemotherapy, are highly in demand. Due to their health benefits, the interest in natural products, specifically phenolic compounds, has greatly increased, making phenolics the subject of a number of research efforts over the past decade. Even more so, toxicity studies have shown that phenolics are safe and less toxic than a number of other synthetic and semi-synthetic compounds [75].
In plants, phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites consisting of an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl groups, which are involved in defending the plant against stress caused by drought, low or high temperatures, pathogens, restricted soil fertility and ultraviolet radiation [76, 77]. There is a wide range of such compounds and to date around 8000 of them have been identified and grouped into the following classes: phenolic acids (hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids), lignans, stilbenes, coumarins, xanthones and flavonoids [78, 79, 80]. Examples of each class of phenolic compounds that have been tested on leukaemia are presented in Table 1.
Class | Examples | Study | Mode of action | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Flavonoids | Quercetin | G2M arrest | [81, 82, 83] | |
Curcumin | Tumour inhibition | [84, 85, 86] | ||
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate | Phases I and II | Decline in absolute lymphocyte count | [87, 88] | |
Phenolic acids | G0/G1 arrest | [89, 90] | ||
- Hydroxybenzoic acids | Gallic acid | Tumour inhibition | [91, 92] | |
- Hydroxycinnamic acids | Cinnamic acid | G0/G1 arrest and differentiation | [93] | |
Xanthones | α-mangostin | Apoptosis | [94, 95] | |
Stilbenes | Resveratrol | Apoptosis | [96] | |
Lignans | Syringaresinol | G0/G1 arrest | [97] | |
Tannins | Tannic acid | Apoptosis | [98] | |
Coumarins | Coumarin | Apoptosis | [99, 100, 101] | |
Phenolic alcohols | Hydroxytyrosol | Apoptosis and differentiation | [102] | |
Secoiridoids | Oleuropein | Differentiation | [103, 104] |
The major classes of phenolics and respective examples found to have an effect on leukaemia.
Such phenolics are distributed to varying degrees in particular parts of plants. Caffeic acid, a major phenolic acid is widely present in fruits, tannins are high in fruit pods, wood as well as bark, and flowers are rich in flavonoids [105, 106]. These compounds have been used by man for many years in the field of traditional medicine [76]. Several studies have been carried out which demonstrate the beneficial health effects of phenols. These compounds have been found to inhibit the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL)
Phenolic compounds such as hydroxytyrosol, hydroxytyrosol acetate and oleuropein have also been found to hinder platelet aggregation, in so doing, decreasing the synthesis of eicosanoids such as thromboxane and thus preventing thrombosis [109, 110]. Another antiatherogenic property of phenols is their ability to reduce endothelial activation by decreasing the mRNA levels of vascular adhesion molecule-1, hence resulting in a decline in its expression. Due to this, adhesion of monocytes to endothelial cells decreases, hence preventing endothelial malfunction [111].
The antioxidant capacity of phenolic compounds has also been widely investigated. Antioxidants are vital in protecting the plant from oxidative stress [112]. Compounds possessing an
Additionally to antioxidant behaviour, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein have been found to possess antimicrobial activity against a variety of American type culture collection (ATCC) bacterial strains and clinical bacterial strains [114]. Moreover, such compounds are also anti-inflammatory agents. This is because they have been found to reduce both the release of arachidonic acid as well as production of arachidonic acid metabolites which play central roles in inflammation [115]. Also crucial to inflammation are the enzymes cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). It has been reported that such enzymes are inhibited by the phenolic compound oleocanthal, in a mechanism like that of ibupforen [116].
Various
Structure-activity-relationship studies have shown that the anticancer properties of these compounds vary as a result of the functional groups present in the structure, where both the hydroxylic groups present as well as the aromatic ring play an important role. With regards to hydroxylic groups, the more the number of such groups, the higher the anticancer properties. Moreover, the presence of a side chain consisting of an unsaturated fatty acid makes the phenolic compound more effective (Figure 2) [125, 126].
The aromatic ring, the number and position of OH groups, and the presence of the unsaturated fatty acid side chain (R) influence activity.
In general, phenols act by inhibiting the cell cycle, leading to apoptosis (Figure 3) [127, 128, 129]. In addition, phenols appear to subdue the expression of chemokines as well as cytokines and angiogenesis is stopped. Both of these are vital for tumour development regulation [130, 131, 132].
The cell cycle – a process inhibited by phenolics. G1 = Gap 1, S = Synthesis phase, G2 = Gap 2, M = Mitosis, G0 = resting phase.
Though a number of
The HL-60 cell line was isolated in 1977 and is classified as acute myeloblastic leukaemia with maturation (M2 category in the French-American-British classification) [133, 134]. In this suspension culture, a vast majority of the cells are promyelocytes which can be induced to differentiate into monocytes or granulocytes respectively by a number of compounds such as Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), sodium butyrate, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as well as all-
Some phenolics found to possess anti-leukaemic activity. A = Gallic acid, B = Mangostin, C = Quercetin, D = Resveratrol, E = Syringaresinol and F = Tannic acid.
A number of phenolic compounds belonging to the flavonoid class have been found to have an effect on leukaemia cell lines. Quercetin is a flavonol that has been reported to inhibit the proliferation of HL-60 cells and induce their apoptosis by the activation of caspase-3, the downregulation of Bcl-2 protein and the upregulation of the Bax protein. Its effects have been found to be both dose and time dependent. The action of quercetin on the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis also involves the inhibition of COX-2 [81]. It has also been suggested that its antiproliferative effect may be due to its capacity to inhibit both cytosolic protein kinase C as well as tyrosine protein kinase [82]. Quercetin has been found to arrest the cell cycle of both HL-60 cells and U937 cells, with treatment resulting in an increase in the number of cells in G2M phase. For U937 cells, this effect was coupled to a decrease in cyclins D, E, E2F1 and E2F2 [83]. Furthermore, the treatment of K562 cells with quercetin results in a number of morphological changes which include nuclear fragmentation as well as nuclear chromatin condensation. It has been found to inhibit the synthesis of heat shock protein 70, which is known to be involved in regulating the processes of both cell proliferation and differentiation [142, 143].
Within the same class of flavonols, both galangin and kaempferol have been found to inhibit the growth of HL-60 cells in a dose dependent manner. For kaempferol, this was attributed to both apoptotic and non-apoptotic effects but for galangin, the increased level of caspase-3 is suggestive of apoptosis [144]. These effects were also observed for two major flavones apigenin and luteolin. For the former, treatment resulted in an increase in both caspase-3 and caspase-9 proteases as well as cytochrome c [145, 146, 147]. Furthermore, the treatment of U937 cells with apigenin resulted in the cleavage of Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) as well as in the activation of caspase-3, caspase-7 and caspase-9. As for quercetin, down-regulation of Bcl-2 also occurs [148].
It has been shown that, similarly to quercetin, the flavone chrysin induces both U937 cell proliferation decline and DNA fragmentation. Its apoptotic effect on this cell line has been found to involve activation of caspase-3 as well as the inactivation of Akt (protein kinase B) [149, 150]. A methylated form of chrysin, termed 5,7-dimethoxyflavone was found to inhibit the growth of YCUB leukaemia cell lines in a dose and time dependent manner. Though this effect was seen on both YCUB-2 and YCUB-5 cells, for the former, an accumulation of reactive oxygen species was observed, but this was absent in the latter, suggesting a potentially different mechanism of action. Moreover, when 5,7-dimethoxyflavone was tested in combination with anticancer drugs such as cytarabine, an antagonistic effect was observed, suggesting the use of the compound as a single agent [151].
As a flavanol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) has been found to induce apoptosis in both acute and chronic myeloid leukaemia. For the former, a decline in death associated protein kinase 2 is observed, and an increase in neutrophil differentiation results on treatment of acute promyelocytic leukaemia with both ATRA and EGCG [152]. For the latter, the use of both EGCG and ponatinib results in a synergistic apoptotic effect which involves the downregulation of the CyclinD1 gene and the upregulation of TGF-β2 gene [153]. It has been reported that epigallocatechin-3-gallate causes the downregulation of the 67LR gene, and the induction of apoptosis is selective to cancer cells [154].
The anthocyanin delphinidin-3-sambubioside induces apoptosis in HL-60 cells through activation of three caspases which are caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9, and causes DNA fragmentation [155].
Finally, the flavonoid curcumin and the metabolite tetrahydrocurcumin have both been found to induce apoptosis and autophagy respectively both in HL-60 cells as well as in HL-60 cells resistant to cytarabine [156]. This finding has very promising applications to overcome the issues with drug resistance. Furthermore, the combination of two flavonoids curcumin and quercetin induces mitochondrial apoptosis in CML. Since used in combination, any toxic effects on normal cells are unlikely since the treatment dose is lowered [157].
For hydroxybenzoic acids, gallic acid has been found to possess cytotoxic activity on HL-60 cells. Furthermore, gallic acid inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and arrests the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase [89, 90]. The apoptosis of HL-60 cells by derivatives of gallic acid has also been investigated, and it has been concluded that apoptosis is greater in the presence of a long hydrophobic chain [158]. One of the derivatives of gallic acid, ellagic acid has been found to accumulate HL-60 cells in the S phase as well as induce their apoptosis with an increase in caspase-3 expression and PARP cleavage. Moreover, ellagic acid also enhances the differentiation effect of ATRA on HL-60 cells, and thus may be useful in overcoming ATRA resistance [159]. Ellagic acid has also been found to induce apoptosis in B-lymphocytes obtained from untreated CLL patients. This apoptotic effect involved the formation of reactive oxygen species, activation of caspase-3 and release of cytochrome c. Interestingly, this effect was selective to cancerous B-lymphocytes, and no toxic effect was seen for B-lymphocytes obtained from healthy donors [160].
With respect to hydroxycinnamic acids, caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and cinnamic acid were found to induce apoptosis in HL-60 cells and K562 cells respectively, where for CAPE, protein, DNA and RNA synthesis in HL-60 cells were found to be inhibited [93, 161]. CAPE treatment resulted in the stimulation of Bax, downregulation of Bcl-2 as well as activation of caspase-3, signifying an apoptotic mechanism [162]. Apoptosis of U937 cells following CAPE treatment has also been recorded, with this effect being accompanied by an increase in cytochrome c [163]. For the cinnamic acid, a dose dependent arrest in the G0/G1 phase has been observed. Cinnamic acid has also been found to induce differentiation in K562 cells [93].
For xanthones, the effect of α-mangostin on HL-60 cells was investigated and its apoptotic effect was found to be caspase-3 dependent [94]. Apart from α-mangostin, β-mangostin also inhibits the growth of HL-60 cells, arrests them at the G0/G1 phase and induces intrinsic apoptosis through the activation of caspases-3, 7 and 9 and Bax, as well as the down-regulation of Bcl-2. Like quercetin, β-mangostin inhibits heat shock protein 70 [95].
With respect to stilbenes, studies have mainly focused on resveratrol, which has been found to be a differentiation inducing agent, as well as an inducer of apoptosis. This has been observed on NB4 cells, which are a type of APL. Like the xanthone α-mangostin, treatment with resveratrol results in an increase in caspase-3 activity. Nonetheless, for both α-mangostin and resveratrol, treatment on HL-60 and NB4 cells respectively does not have an effect on the Bcl-2 protein levels. Hence this is suggestive of an alternative apoptosis pathway. Differentiation of NB4 cells with resveratrol is completely effective when the cells are treated with both ATRA and resveratrol [96]. Furthermore, synthesized resveratrol analogues also arrest the cell cycle of HL-60 cells but do so at all three phases, G0/G1, S and G2/M, contrasting with resveratrol which has been found to be phase specific [164]. It is relevant to highlight that though resveratrol is effective, it is limited by its poor bioavailability [165, 166]. Another two stilbenes namely piceatannol and sophorastilbene A both possess dose dependent cytotoxic activity on HL-60 cells with caspases 3, 8 and 9 being activated, with no changes in Bcl-2 protein expression being recorded [167].
Within the class of lignans, (-)syringaresinol possesses anti-leukaemic behaviour. This is because it induces G0/G1 HL-60 cell cycle arrest in a manner that is both dose and time dependent. This is accompanied by the activation of both caspase-3 and caspase-9, DNA fragmentation and the release of cytochrome c [97].
Tannins such as woodfordin C, cuphiin D1, cuphiin D2 and oenothein B have been found to possess cytotoxic behaviour on HL-60 cells [145, 168]. Tannic acid also induces apoptosis in HL-60 in both a time and dose dependent manner. The apoptotic mechanism was noted to involve the activation of caspases, PARP cleavage and cytochrome c release. Interestingly, tannic acid enhanced the cytotoxic effect of arsenic trioxide on HL-60 cells. This finding suggests the potential use of tannic acid in combination with arsenic trioxide [98].
Apoptotic activity on HL-60 cells was also recorded following treatment with 4-substituted coumarins, as well as furanone-coumarins, with an enhanced activity of caspases -3 and 9 also being recorded [99, 100]. Moreover, interestingly, coumarin was also found to induce cell death in drug resistant HL-60 cells when combined with doxorubicin [101]. This combination has great potential in overcoming the issue of drug resistance.
While most of the effects reported referred to the inhibitory effect of phenolics, some studies have focused on their differentiating activity. Such studies have focused mainly on HL-60 cells, while other cell lines have been overlooked. Polyphenols from pomegranates and green tea, proanthocyanidins from barley and ellagic acid from fruits such as blackberries, pomegranates and strawberries have been found to induce differentiation HL-60 differentiation [159, 169, 170, 171]. Another three studies have focused on phenols from olive oil and the use of an olive leaf extract [102, 103, 104]. Two of these studies further confirm that phenolic compounds are capable of inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing differentiation in HL-60 cells. For the olive leaf extract study, the differentiation inducing compounds were found to be oleuropein and apigenin 7-glucoside [103]. The results from the study using olive oil on HL-60 cells show that dialdehydic compounds of elenoic acid with tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol are capable of inducing apoptosis and differentiation. It was reported that the effect of these two compounds was only a minor percentage of the total effect seen using the crude phenol extract [102]. Results from another study using an olive leaf extract with oleuropein as the major constituent show that the extract is capable of inducing both apoptosis as well as differentiation in K562 cells, along the monocyte/macrophage lineage [104].
The apoptotic effects recorded for phenolic compounds on leukaemia cell lines are potentially more similar to those of antitumour antibiotics as opposed to microtubule inhibitors and alkylating agents. This is beneficial as the latter two categories are highly unspecific as they target cells by mitotic spindle inhibition or DNA adduct formation respectively.
In addition to the
Using AML xenograft tumour NOD/SCID mice models injected with MV411 leukaemia cells, the effect of gallic acid in combination with daunorubicin and cytarabine was investigated. The results show that when gallic acid was used in combination with such drugs, tumour inhibition was observed when compared to the use of the drugs alone as single agents [91].
Interestingly, both gallic acid and curcumin were found to inhibit WEHI-3 leukaemia cells
For curcumin, an inhibition of CML was recorded using CML xenograft SCID mice and mice treated with curcumin had smaller tumours. Moreover, plasma exosomes of treated mice were found to contain higher levels of miR-21 [85]. Curcumin also inhibits the growth of SHI-1 leukaemia cells in SHI-1 injected SCID mice. The mechanism involves signaling of NF-kB and ERK pathways, and an activation of JNK and p38 [86].
Using mice treated with L1210 cells, resveratrol was found to increase the life span of such mice, as well as the activity of NK cells, which is an important mechanism for eradication of a tumour. Furthermore, lymphocyte proliferation and the humoral immune response were found to be enhanced following resveratrol treatment [172].
In addition to
For leukaemia, the clinical trials that have been performed to date have focused on CLL and utilized olive oil and a green tea extract as the polyphenolic sources. For one study, an olive oil rich in oleocanthal and oleacin at concentrations of 416 mg/kg and 284 mg/kg respectively, was selected. For this trial, performed in 2019, a cohort of 21 patients with CLL Rai stage 0 to II were chosen, who were not receiving any treatment. The effect of daily ingestion of 40 mL of olive oil per day for a period of six months was tested through the analysis of a number of molecular, haematological and biochemical markers at different time points. Such tests included liver function, kidney function, glucose profile, lipidemic profile and an analysis of apoptotic markers CCK18, Apo1-Fas and anti-apoptotic protein survivin. The glucose and lipidemic profiles of such patients were found to improve, the levels of the apoptotic markers CCK18 and Apo1-Fas increased and survivin decreased [177].
Similarly, on Rai stage 0 to II CLL patients, phase I (33 patients) and phase II (42 patients) clinical trials were conducted using a green tea extract (Polyphenon E), containing a standardized dose of EGCG. The results from the phase I clinical trial showed a good toleration of the extract in patients at doses ranging from 400 mg to 2000 mg twice daily, as well as a decline in both the absolute lymphocyte count as well as in lymphadenopathy. The same positive results were obtained in the phase II clinical trial, this time with a twice daily dose of 2000 mg. The side effects were reported to include nausea, transaminitis, and abdominal pain [87, 88].
The anti-leukaemic potential of phenolic compounds has been well documented through both
The studies presented in this chapter show the benefits of phenolic compounds, both as anti-proliferative agents as well as differentiation agents for leukaemia. These compounds have been found to arrest the cell cycle of leukaemia cells, as well as to induce apoptosis and differentiation. In a number of phenolics, such effects were noted to be selective, in contrast to chemotherapy. The promising results offer a potential alternative to the current standard treatments, in the hope that being natural products, are less toxic and are accompanied by less adverse effects. Furthermore, some phenolics show great therapeutic potential in multi-drug resistance leukaemia patients.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Climate change has always happened on Earth but its rapid rate and important magnitude occurring now are of great concern. Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global warming associated with climate change is different from past warming in its rate. It is anticipated that there will be a rise in global mean temperatures of up to 5.4°C by 2100. There is overwhelming evidence showing that human activities have contributed to climate change over the past century while changes in solar activity and volcanic eruptions have played a minor role. Over the last several decades, humans have engaged in large-scale transformation of natural systems causing a net accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth and affects life around the globe [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
Adaptation to the consequences of climate change and prevention of aggravation of climate change are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement personalized strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations [1, 2, 5, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37].
Climate, from Ancient Greek “klima” (meaning inclination), is defined as the weather averaged over a long period (the standard period is 30 years).
The instrumental record of climate change is based on thousands of temperature and precipitation recording stations around the world.
Climate change and global warming are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings and refer to different physical phenomena. Climate change includes warming and side effects of warming (e.g., heavy precipitation and increased wind speeds) while global warming refers only to long-term Earth’s rising global mean surface temperature.
Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The increase in heat-trapping greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide) in the atmosphere raises Earth’s mean surface temperature. The levels of greenhouse gases are higher now than at any time in the last 800,000 years. As temperature increases, more water evaporates from the oceans and other water sources into the atmosphere, causing further increase of the temperature [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Atmospheric carbon dioxide comes from two primary sources, natural and anthropogenic (human-induced). Natural sources of carbon dioxide include most animals which exhale carbon dioxide as a waste product. Anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide have been primarily driven by human activities since the early 20th century (industrial revolution), mainly fossil fuel burning (e.g., burning coal, oil, and natural gas), but also agricultural emissions and deforestation. The top 5 countries responsible for emissions of carbon dioxide are China, United States of America (USA), India, Russia, and Japan [4]. In 2017, the USA emitted approximately 5.1 billion metric tons of energy-related carbon dioxide for a global worldwide emission of approximately 32.5 billion metric tons. Deforestation of the Amazon in Brazil (loss of the equivalent of almost one million soccer fields of forest cover each year), mainly for agricultural purposes, is significantly contributing to climate change.
Climate change causes a cascade of side effects for the physical environment of the planet Earth and the living organisms on the globe (Figure 1). All the changes in the physical planet Earth’s environment affect the life of plants, animals, and humans. Coral reefs, forests, and coastal human communities are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Some of the effects of climate change may be through the enhancement of the susceptibility to chemical pollution [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
Climate change causes global changes of the planet.
Although most impacts of climate change are likely to be adverse, some health benefits may result in some regions. For example, warmer winters may reduce the number of temperature-related health events and death.
According to the core accretion theory, planet Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago (approximately one-third the age of the universe) by accretion from the solar nebula [38].
Planet Earth has faced climate change throughout its long history. The current climate change has multiple negative impacts on the physical planet Earth’s environment. It affects the frequency and severity of extreme events and natural disasters [1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19].
Temperature records from modern thermometers (with temperature scales) have been available only since early 18th century. By studying indirect parameters (chemical and structural signatures), scientists can infer past temperatures.
At the creation of the universe, the temperature of the universe at 10−35 second old was around 1 octillion°C. Within less than 2 minutes, the universe temperature cooled down to around 1 billion°C. Over at least the last several million years, planet Earth shifted between ice ages facing long cold periods (glacial) and warm periods (interglacial), on 100,000-year cycles.
The current climate change is associated with increased Earth’s temperature (land surfaces and upper layers of the ocean) (Figure 2) [1, 4]. Land surfaces are heating faster than ocean surfaces. A warmer atmosphere can hold more water vapor, leading to increased overall average precipitation [4]. Over the past 70 years, the Earth’s temperature has increased by approximately 0.7°C [4]. Since 1950, the number of cold days and nights has decreased while the number of warm days and nights has increased. Since 1976, the rate of warming has been greater than at any other time during the last 1,000 years. For any given period, there are extreme temperatures. In the past 20 years, Earth’s lowest air temperature was −94.7°C (recorded in Antarctica in 2010) and hottest air temperature was 70.7°C (recorded in Iran’s Lut Desert in 2005). The present global mean temperature is around 15.0°C. Currently, the surface temperatures are rising by approximately 0.2°C per decade [6]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and based on different emissions scenarios, there will be a rise in global mean temperatures of 0.9 to 5.4°C by 2100 [4].
Climate change is associated with increased Earth’s temperature.
The rise in global mean temperature is not the same everywhere. There are regional variations in Earth’s temperature. Some areas will not even get warmer and may actually get cooler in the short term [4]. Warming is more pronounced at higher latitudes. The North Pole and Northern Hemisphere have warmed much faster than the South Pole and Southern Hemisphere. Greater temperature increases are expected in winter compared to summer and in nighttime versus daytime. Springs occur earlier and winters are milder.
Climate change causes mountain glaciers to melt and accelerates the rate of ice loss on Earth in Greenland and Antarctica (Figure 3). Some glaciers are sites of powerful sacred and symbolic meanings for local communities (e.g., in the Peruvian Andes, the Nepalese Himalayas, and the Chinese Meili Snow Mountains) [7].
Climate change causes melting of mountain glaciers.
Lakes around the world are freezing less and for a shorter duration. In few decades, thousands of lakes may lose their winter ice cover.
Climate change triggers rise in sea levels. The sea levels rise following either an increase in the volume of the water already in the ocean as water warms and expands or an increase in the mass of the water in the ocean mainly due to melting glaciers [4]. Since 1900, global mean sea level has increased by approximately 0.20 meter [4]. Over the last 25 years, the global mean see level rose on average by 0.003 meter per year [8]. By 2100, based on different emissions scenarios, sea levels are predicted to rise between 0.40 and 1.50 meters [4]. The sea-level rise will lead to disappearance of some islands and flooding with invasion of cities by water, leading to homelessness and population movement (Figure 4).
Climate change triggers rise in sea levels
The salty ocean water will challenge native plants and animals to adapt to the changing conditions. For humans, it causes salination of freshwater supplies and loss of productive farmlands [8]. Low-income countries (e.g., Bangladesh) are particularly impacted.
Climate change promotes more dangerous hurricanes and heavier rainstorms due to warmer ocean water temperature (Figure 5) [4, 9]. The proportion of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes has increased at a rate of 25–30% per 1.0°C of global warming [9]. Hurricane Katrina (Category 5, New Orleans, USA, 2005) was one of the deadliest hurricanes in recent USA history. The total number of direct or indirect fatalities following hurricane Katrina was 1,833 (reports from state and local officials in five states). The 2019 North Atlantic hurricane season had six hurricanes (including three major hurricanes, e.g., Category 3 or higher).
Climate change promotes more dangerous hurricanes.
Climate change causes more frequent wildfires. The dry, hot weather has increased the intensity and destructiveness of forest fires in several countries (e.g., Brazil, USA, and Australia) (Figure 6) [10, 11]. Wildfires can cause deforestation, serious property damage, exposure of large populations to prolonged periods of polluted and toxic air with potential health impacts (e.g., respiratory diseases), and death. Amazon (Brazil) has become more flammable and vulnerable to wildfires during recent droughts [10]. California (USA) has experienced devastating autumn wildfires in recent years [11]; over 100 fatalities were directly attributed to the most destructive and deadliest wildfires that occurred in 2017 and 2018.
Climate change causes more frequent wildfires.
Drought is a complex and multivariate phenomenon influenced by diverse physical and biological processes. Drought is among the most expensive natural disasters. Climate change is responsible for more frequent and severe droughts (especially in subtropical regions), promoting the expansion of deserts (Figure 7) [4, 12]. This will lead to misery, hunger, starvation, and population movement.
Climate change is responsible for more frequent and severe droughts.
The ocean provides most of the life-supporting environment on planet Earth. The abundance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is causing the surface waters of the oceans to become more acidic as some carbon dioxide dissolves into ocean water forming carbonic acid [4]. Ocean acidification can alter marine ecosystems with damage to coral reefs (source of many benefits for human communities), fish, and other aquatic species [4, 13].
Climate change impacts plant phenology. Different climate change components are involved including atmospheric carbon dioxide level, temperature, sea level, rainfall, weeds, and pests or microbes [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Plant survival is affected by climate change (Figure 8) [14, 15, 16]. The increased land surface temperature with the resulting mild winters promoting pest proliferation (e.g., allowing more pine beetles to survive), the invasion of farmlands by salty water, the wildfires, and the droughts compromise life of plants and lead to destruction of forests and damage to human agriculture. According to some reports, agriculture is the most endangered activity adversely affected by climate change. The decreased farming activity will lead to food insecurity.
Climate change challenges plant survival.
Plant growth, blooming, pollination, and fructification are impacted by climate change [17, 18, 19]. With the occurrence of shorter winters and warmer springs, plants bloom earlier for a shorter period and die younger (Figure 9). Winter chill is essential for several fruit-producing trees. Insufficient chilling due to climate change can affect the productivity of fruit trees (e.g., less fruits, smaller fruits, and changes in color, texture, and taste of fruits) [17, 18]. Around 75% of the production of seeds and fruits for human consumption depend on pollinators. Pollinators, especially bees, are facing unprecedented challenges for survival. With the lack of synchrony between plants and pollinators due to shift in seasons and the decline in the number of pollinators, the production of fruits is decreasing while the cost is significantly increasing.
Climate change is responsible for earlier blooming time of plants.
Climate change exposes animals to a variety of stressors, influencing metabolic and endocrine functions, with potential consequences for the survival of species [14, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. With climate change, more animal species are going extinct every year. Approximately 700 mammals and birds are impacted. The degree of vulnerability varies by the type of animal and different species will be affected in different ways. Species with low tolerance for rising temperature are vulnerable to extinction. The vulnerable/endangered animals include polar bears, koalas, elephants, sea turtles, cheetahs, panda bears, and penguins (non-exhaustive list).
Species affected by climate change will either need to move to more suitable locations (e.g., higher elevations and latitudes) or to adapt to changes at their current locations (e.g., habitat, feeding and breeding patterns). If unable, they may perish and become extinct.
Climate change can cause habitat degradation or loss for several species (e.g., polar bears, koalas, and birds). Polar bears are dependent on sea ice. The increased temperature is causing the arctic sea ice to melt, damaging the polar bears’ habitat (Figure 10) [23]. Koalas are dependent on eucalyptus tree. The increased temperature and drought are causing wildfire, destroying the koalas’ habitat [24]. Lake Urmia (Iran) is a bird habitat and used to be a popular tourist destination. The lake is drying up mainly because of climate change.
Climate change causes loss of habitat for polar bear.
Survival of species can be affected by water/food availability/quality beyond those that species can tolerate. Unpredictability/shortage of water and food caused by climate change may lead to greater prevalence of torpor and hibernation in small mammals and hypometabolism in large mammals.
Polar bears will have trouble finding food as the sea ice thins and melts earlier. With limited food supply, the polar bears rely on their stored fat. They have to swim longer distances in the water and many young cubs die because of their inability to swim. Koalas’ main food source is eucalyptus leaves. Each koala eats approximately 1 kg of eucalyptus leaves per day. Climate change reduces the amount of water in the eucalyptus tree. The increased carbon dioxide level causes decrease protein levels in the tree affecting plant nutritional quality. All these changes create dehydration, malnutrition, and starvation. Koalas are risking their lives by climbing down from their trees in search of water and food. This leaves them vulnerable to predators and the risk of being hit by cars. Koalas’ population has declined by more than 30% over their last three generations (Figure 11) [24]. Elephants require 150–300 liters of water per day for drinking in addition to the amount needed for bathing and playing. Droughts can cause population decline (Figure 12) [25].
Climate change is responsible for dehydration and malnutrition of koala.
Climate change causes decline in elephant population.
Warmer springs have promoted advanced timing of migration and breeding in most avian species in the last decades (Figure 13) [26]. Rising sea levels threaten the sea turtle eggs as most turtles lay their eggs on beaches. Climate change can affect sex determination in several animals [27, 28]. The sex of the sea turtles is determined by the nest temperatures. Cool temperatures produce more males while warm temperatures produce more females. Climate change alters the sea turtles’ gender population (females outnumbering males). Certain areas could end up producing only female turtles, with the possibility of local species extinction since there will be no mating partners for female turtles (Figure 14).
Climate change promotes early avian migration.
Climate change leads to female sea turtle overpopulation and domination.
Climate change is a major threat to human existence. It has multiple deleterious health consequences leading to increased morbidity and mortality [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
The human core temperature averages 37.0°C and is tightly controlled within a range of 33.2°C and 38.2°C to ensure optimal physiological function. Extreme deviations from the normal core temperature, i.e., a decrease below 27.0°C (hypothermia) or an increase above 42.0°C (hyperthermia) can be fatal [5]. Climate change is resulting in increased exposures to intense heat in many parts of the world. With increase temperature, there are physiological reactions in humans creating risks for some organs and exposing individuals to increased morbidity and mortality (e.g., reduced performance and work productivity, behavioral changes, heat exhaustion, heat stroke, respiratory failure, myocardial infarction, stroke, and death) (Figure 15) [5, 29, 30, 31]. The reduced work productivity (up to 10% in some hot areas) has large economic consequences. Without adaptation, the economic losses of reduced work productivity could be more than 20% of the gross domestic product by 2100. Children, elderly people, poor people, outdoor workers, workers required to wear protective clothing and/or personal protective equipment, and subjects with chronic health conditions are at higher risk when facing heat stress. In the USA, the annual heat-related death is approximately 1,500. The European heat wave during the summer of 2003 caused as many as 70,000 deaths.
Climate change through heat wave can cause increased morbidity and mortality.
On the upside, increased temperatures by allowing milder winters can lower the incidence and mortality of some winter-related events such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Also, hotter and drier conditions can reduce the incidence of some infectious diseases (e.g., malaria).
Climate change creates water and food insecurity/shortage with significant impact on hygiene, nutrition, and food safety in several countries (Figure 16) [1, 8, 32, 33]. In the absence of proper desalination of drinking water impacted by increased salinity following sea-level rise (especially in low-income countries like Bangladesh), the high exposure to salt through drinking water, food, and bathing can lead to several health problems (e.g., hypertension and skin diseases) [8]. In many regions, food production systems are negatively impacted by climate change [1]. According to the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, 1.0°C rise in night-time temperature can reduce rice yields by 10%. With the ocean temperature rise, several fish populations may move to higher latitudes, affecting dietary protein supplies of millions of people.
Climate change can create human undernutrition.
Climate change through variations in temperature, precipitation/humidity, wind, and solar radiation influences the spread of some infectious diseases since these variations may impact the survival, reproduction, and distribution of disease pathogens and vectors/hosts as well as their transmission environment. Several infectious diseases are involved including malaria, dengue, and Lyme disease (Figure 17) [3, 34].
Climate change favors spread of infectious diseases.
Climate change by creating unsuitable living conditions (e.g., desertification, sea-level rise, decline in freshwater availability, food shortage, health issues) will move many people (forced displacement, planned resettlement, migration). Poor communities are particularly impacted by the human movement. It is estimated that by 2050, up to several hundred million persons will be moved (Figure 18) [32]. Population movement will expose countries to multiple challenges (e.g., social, health, and financial consequences and violent conflicts).
Climate change causes population movement.
Overall, children, elderly, indigenous groups, poor individuals, outdoor workers, remote populations, and subjects with pre-existing conditions are disproportionately affected by climate change (Figure 19) [1, 2, 5, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37].
Climate change disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations.
Low-income and geographically vulnerable countries (e.g., Bangladesh) are most affected by the health consequences of climate change (at least in its earlier stages). However, in higher-income countries (e.g., USA), there is also a high vulnerability in some ethnic and socio-economic groups as demonstrated by the Chicago heatwave of 1995 and the New Orleans hurricane Katrina of 2005. According to the World Health Organization, the global mortality in 2004 as a result of climate change was around 141,000 of which 85% were children. The mortality of the European heat wave of 2003 affected mainly the elderly.
Adaptive evolution of phenotypes to climate change has been the subject of several investigations [26, 39].
Animals react to climate change in three ways: to move, to adapt, or to die. Moving to a new territory is not always a simple solution and can create new challenges (e.g., interaction with unfamiliar species and more competition for food).
Some animals can adapt to changing conditions. An interesting example of adaptation to climate change is the case of polar bears. With the change in climate, polar bears who usually used seal pubs and other marine mammals as food, have started hunting animals available on land (e.g., snow geese and caribou). However, there is no proof that the change in diet can support the polar bear population in the long run. Another example of adaptation to climate change is with migrating birds. As spring arrives earlier, insects emerge earlier. Some migrating birds are laying their eggs earlier to match insect availability for their young.
Adaptation to deleterious consequences of climate change and prevention of aggravation of climate change are important components of the global response of the society [1, 2, 3, 5, 16, 18, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 40].
Adaptation (spontaneous or planned) is especially important in developing countries. Policymakers must implement personalized adaptive strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations. The risk control to population health cannot be implemented efficiently at the local level alone. It requires coordinated international policy. Human beings rely on biodiversity and functioning ecosystems for water, food, and health. If other species are unable to adapt to climate change, the consequences for humans could be extremely serious. Adaptive strategies require investment and skills. Society needs to implement strategies to help wildlife adapt to the impacts of climate change (e.g., wildlife overpass and drinking stations). Identification of traits contributing to resilience and vulnerability of species will allow the development of efficient conservation action plans.
Prevention (long-term strategies) is a key approach. To spare species and protect humans, the greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced as soon as possible. If we drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions, our climate may reach a new and potentially acceptable equilibrium. Development and deployment of low-carbon energy technologies, policies to reduce fossil fuel burning, forest preservation, and reforestation should be promoted. Carbon sequestration, by capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide, can decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and reduce climate change. More energy-efficient homes and vehicles using alternative energies from sun, wind, and waves are needed. Increased use of public transportation, cycling, and walking should be promoted. It is also helpful if humans could reduce the consumption of animal-based food (red meat) and switch to plant-based diet (fruits and vegetables). This type of dietary change can have multiple health, environmental, and economic benefits.
Numerous countries work together under the umbrella of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The recommendation of the IPCC is to keep the global warming below 1.5°C to avoid irreversible damages. Unfortunately, in some countries, extensive political lobbying denying the contribution of humans to climate change and creating political barrier to pro-environmental policies has emerged. In 2015, all United Nations countries negotiated the Paris Agreement aiming to keep global warming well below 2.0°C [41]. Almost all countries signed the treaty. However, in 2017, the USA decided to withdraw from the Paris Agreement.
Climate change, through its multiple consequences, has a very high cost for the society and significantly affects the economic growth.
The estimates of total direct damage of hurricane Katrina were up to $125 billion and the cost of California wildfires of 2017 and 2018 exceeded $40 billion. It is estimated that the cost of climate change for USA economy can reach hundreds of billions of dollars a year by 2090.
Adaptive and preventive strategies need important financial investments. The cost of halting global warming and reducing greenhouse gas emission to very low levels by 2050 will be around $50 trillion. At the current greenhouse gas emission rate, the budget for keeping the global warming below 1.5°C would be exhausted by 2028.
Climate change is a serious threat for our planet. The number of relatively undisturbed ecosystems is decreasing rapidly. Climate change seriously affects the viability of many plant and animal species, and human health. Climate change may become one of the major drivers of species extinction in the 21st century.
The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) releases regular reports on biodiversity written by hundreds of experts from all regions of the world. The reports found that biodiversity is declining in every region of the world, endangering economies, livelihoods, food security, and quality of life. In the words of the IPBES chair, “the time for action was yesterday or the day before”.
According to scientists, we have approximately a decade to keep carbon dioxide from reaching catastrophic levels that can cause irreversible damages. If no efficient preventive action is undertaken, by the year 2050, 15 to 37% of existing plant and animal species are predicted to become extinct and by the year 2100, half of all species may experience extinction.
It is widely accepted that the climate is changing in an accelerating pace. Climate change is affecting every aspect of life. It is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health.
Adaptation to health consequences of climate change and prevention of aggravation of climate change are key challenges for the society. The health sector should promote research, education (for health personnel), and information (for public and policymakers) on climate change and its consequences.
Adaptation requires multiple measures at various levels. Policymakers must implement personalized adaptive strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations.
Climate change impacts can be mitigated by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and by enhancing the capacity of Earth’s land surface to absorb greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Long-term investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency is urgently needed.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81235",title:"Global Food System Transformation for Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102749",signatures:"Jasper Okoro Godwin Elechi, Ikechukwu U. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/104833",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"104833"},fullPath:"/profiles/104833",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()