Mycotoxins and their toxic effects on human health (adapted from Capriotti
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9644",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Glaciers and Polar regions provide important clues to understanding the past and present status of the Earth system, as well as to predict future forms of our planet. In particular, Antarctica, composed of an ice-covered continent in its center and the surrounding Sothern Ocean, has been gradually investigated during the last half century by all kinds of scientific branches; bioscience, physical sciences, geoscience, oceanography, environmental studies, together with technological components. This book covers topics on the recent development of all kinds of scientific research on glaciers and Antarctica, in the context of currently on-going processes in the extreme environment in polar regions.",isbn:"978-1-83962-593-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-592-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-594-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87447",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",publishedDate:"February 24th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5203,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 12th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 13th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 2nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51959/images/system/51959.jpg",biography:"Dr. Masaki Kanao obtained his Ph.D. from Kyoto University. He is currently working at the National Institute of Polar Research in Tokyo. He is chiefly interested in the Earth\\'s structure and evolution from geoscience studies. Polar regions, both in Arctic and Antarctic, have been investigated by geophysical investigations particularly by passive and active seismic sources. He is also interested in the present Earth’s dynamics and tectonics of the continental lithosphere. The Antarctic continent, as a member of the past Gondwana super-continent, has been the main target to reveal lithospheric evolution history. Recently, inter-disciplinary studies in terms of glacial earthquakes, cryoseismic events in Greenland and Antarctica have been focusing on involving environmental changes associated with global warming. These investigations in polar regions have been contributing to the development of all kinds of global Earth sciences.",institutionString:"National Institute of Polar Research",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"17",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"National Institute of Polar Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53849/images/system/53849.jpg",biography:"Dr. Danilo Godone holds a Ph.D. in 'Agriculture, Forest and Food Sciences”, with his doctorate’s topic being the cryosphere’s phenomena monitoring by innovative geomatic methodologies. Currently he is a Research Scientist in the Geohazard Monitoring Group (CNR IRPI), studying geomatic contribution in natural hazard monitoring and analysis. His main research interests are landslides, glaciers and, more generally, natural disasters. During his activities, he has developed skills in GIS, R programming, and land surveying with UAVs, GNSS, and LiDAR. He was also involved in several scientific expeditions in the Alps, Nepal, Chilean Andes, and Patagonia. He is a member of NATRISK - Research Centre on Natural Risks in Mountain and Hilly Environments, in Turin University.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"313979",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Niccolò",middleName:null,surname:"Dematteis",slug:"niccolo-dematteis",fullName:"Niccolò Dematteis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313979/images/15855_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Niccolò Dematteis received his M.S. degree in Physics and he obtained his Ph.D. in Earth Sciences at Pavia University in 2020. He is involved in proximal remote sensing of glaciers and other gravitational processes. His activities concern the measurement of surface deformations using active and passive sensors, like radar interferometers and optical imagery, and data integration techniques. His research interests include glacier monitoring, glacial hazards, and data processing implementation. He is currently affiliated with the Geo-hazards Monitoring Group and works in Turin, Italy.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Research Institute for Geo-Hydrological Protection",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"626",title:"Climate Change",slug:"atmospheric-sciences-climate-change"}],chapters:[{id:"74060",title:"Gas Hydrates in Antarctica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94306",slug:"gas-hydrates-in-antarctica",totalDownloads:561,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Few potential distributing areas of gas hydrates have been recognized in literature in Antarctica: the South Shetland continental margin, the Weddell Sea, the Ross Sea continental margin and the Wilkes Land continental margin. The most studied part of Antarctica from gas hydrate point of view is the South Shetland margin, where an important gas hydrate reservoir was well studied with the main purpose to determine the relationship between hydrate stability and environment effects, including climate change. In fact, the climate signals are particularly amplified in transition zones such as the peri-Antarctic regions, suggesting that the monitoring of hydrate system is desirable in order to detect potential hydrate dissociation as predicted by recent modeling offshore Antarctic Peninsula. The main seismic indicator of the gas hydrate presence, the bottom simulating reflector, was recorded in few parts of Antarctica, but in some cases it was associated to opal A/CT transition. The other areas need further studies and measurements in order to confirm or refuse the gas hydrate presence.",signatures:"Michela Giustiniani and Umberta Tinivella",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74060",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74060",authors:[{id:"326581",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Michela",surname:"Giustiniani",slug:"michela-giustiniani",fullName:"Michela Giustiniani"},{id:"326582",title:"Dr.",name:"Umberta",surname:"Tinivella",slug:"umberta-tinivella",fullName:"Umberta Tinivella"}],corrections:null},{id:"74071",title:"Geomorphological Insight of Some Ice Free Areas of Eastern Antarctica",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94445",slug:"geomorphological-insight-of-some-ice-free-areas-of-eastern-antarctica",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Schirmacher Oasis and Larsemann Hills are among the few significant ice free areas of East Antarctica that are conspicuous due to presence of more than a hundred melt water lakes each, preserving the signatures of climatic variation and deglaciation history since Last Glacial Maximum (19 to 24 ky BP) and beyond. There are evidences, recorded in the lake sediments of low lying Larsemann Hills, of marine transgression due to variation in sea level, isostatic upliftment and close vicinity of the Hills to the marine environment. The Schirmacher Oasis, on the other hand has preserved various landforms-both erosional and depositional- typical of a periglacial environment along with proglacial lakes (incorporating signals of ice-sheet dynamics) and epishelf lakes (signatures of marine influence) .",signatures:"Rasik Ravindra, Badanal Siddaiah Mahesh and Rahul Mohan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74071",authors:[{id:"326272",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahesh",surname:"Badanal",slug:"mahesh-badanal",fullName:"Mahesh Badanal"},{id:"328260",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasik",surname:"Ravindra",slug:"rasik-ravindra",fullName:"Rasik Ravindra"},{id:"333294",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Mohan",slug:"rahul-mohan",fullName:"Rahul Mohan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73751",title:"Kalman Filter Harmonic Bank for Vostok Ice Core Data Analysis and Climate Predictions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94263",slug:"kalman-filter-harmonic-bank-for-vostok-ice-core-data-analysis-and-climate-predictions",totalDownloads:452,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Vostok ice core data cover 420,000 years indicating the natural regularity of Earth’s surface temperature and climate. Here, we consider four major cycles of similar duration, ranging from 86,000 to 128,000 years, comprising 15% of periods for the warming interglacials compared to some 85% of cooling periods. Globally, we are near the peak of a rapid warming period. We perform a detailed frequency analysis of temperature and CO2 cycles, as a primary stage in building a logical Climate Prediction Engine (CPE), illustrated with specific harmonics. This analysis can be repeated for all harmonics and various cycle combinations. Our time correlation estimates the CO2 time lag for temperature at 400–2300 years, depending on the cycle, longer on average than previously concluded. We also perform Fast-Fourier transform analysis, identifying a full harmonic spectrum for each cycle, plus an energy analysis to identify each harmonic amplitude − to achieve further prediction analysis using a Kalman filter harmonic bank. For Vostok data we can use combinations of different cycles compared to the most recent for learning and then the current ongoing cycle for testing. Assuming causal time regularity, more cycles can be employed in training, hence reducing the prediction error for the next cycle. This results in prediction of climate data with both naturally occurring as well as human forced CO2 values. We perform this detailed time and frequency analysis as a basis for improving the quality of our climate prediction methodologies, with particular attention to testing alternative hypotheses of the possible causes of climate change. These include the effect on albedo of suspended dust and increasing water vapor with temperature in initiating interglacial warming, the effect of temperature and pH values of surface water on ambient level of CO2 in the atmosphere and finding a larger latent heat capacity in the atmosphere required to sustain its circulatory motions, leading to friction and turbulent release of heat in boundary layer. All these potentials can be examined in an effective CPE.",signatures:"Migdat Hodzic and Ivan Kennedy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73751",authors:[{id:"325148",title:"Prof.",name:"Migdat",surname:"Hodzic",slug:"migdat-hodzic",fullName:"Migdat Hodzic"},{id:"331790",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Kennedy",slug:"ivan-kennedy",fullName:"Ivan Kennedy"}],corrections:null},{id:"74504",title:"The Vegetation of the South Shetland Islands and the Climatic Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94269",slug:"the-vegetation-of-the-south-shetland-islands-and-the-climatic-change",totalDownloads:439,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antarctica allows at the same time to study the effects of change on the environment with minimal anthropic interference and in the least modified conditions in the world regarding biodiversity and its relations. At the same time, it allows assessing its effects on an ecosystem of few species and with a food web that directly links the oceans to terrestrial organisms. The South Shetland Islands are located further north within Antarctic Maritime and are therefore more vulnerable to climate change. Part of the studies already carried out with vegetation in this archipelago are discussed with a focus on the effects already generated and on predictions about future changes in the structure and plant diversity of Antarctica.",signatures:"Jair Putzke and Antonio Batista Pereira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74504",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74504",authors:[{id:"324930",title:"Prof.",name:"Jair",surname:"Putzke",slug:"jair-putzke",fullName:"Jair Putzke"}],corrections:null},{id:"74082",title:"Whales as Indicators of Historical and Current Changes in the Marine Ecosystem of the Indo-Pacific Sector of the Antarctic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94323",slug:"whales-as-indicators-of-historical-and-current-changes-in-the-marine-ecosystem-of-the-indo-pacific-s",totalDownloads:452,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We review the scientific information on whales that could be indicative of historical and current changes in the ecosystem in the Indo-Pacific sector of the Antarctic. The increased krill availability in the middle of the past century as a result of the heavy harvesting of the larger baleen whale species could have been translated into better nutritional conditions for the Antarctic minke whale, resulting in a decreasing trend in the age at sexual maturity and an increasing trend in recruitment rate and hence total population size between approximately 1940 and 1970. This nutritional condition has deteriorated more recently, as revealed by a decrease in energy storage and stomach content weight since the 1980’s; these changes coincide with appreciable increases in the abundances of humpback and fin whales, which were heavily harvested in the first half of the past century. The historical demographic changes observed in the Antarctic minke whale are consistent with the pattern to be expected under the krill surplus hypothesis, with minke whales now again competing with other (recovering) baleen whale species for krill. However, these minke whales could also be using alternative feeding areas (e.g. polynias within the pack-ice) in response to the increase in abundance and geographical expansion of these other large whale species. This could provide an alternative explanation for indications from sighting surveys and population models of a decrease and then re-stabilisation of minke whale abundance in open water areas since the 1970s.",signatures:"Yoshihiro Fujise and Luis A. Pastene",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74082",authors:[{id:"324853",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Pastene",slug:"luis-pastene",fullName:"Luis Pastene"},{id:"329769",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",surname:"Fujise",slug:"yoshihiro-fujise",fullName:"Yoshihiro Fujise"}],corrections:null},{id:"73124",title:"Risks of Glaciers Lakes Outburst Flood along China Pakistan Economic Corridor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93459",slug:"risks-of-glaciers-lakes-outburst-flood-along-china-pakistan-economic-corridor",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through the Hunza River basin of Pakistan. The current study investigates the creation and effects of end moraine, supra-glacial, and barrier lakes by field visits and remote sensing techniques along the CPEC in the Hunza River basin. The surging and moraine type glaciers are considered the most dangerous type of glaciers that cause Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the study basin. It can be concluded from the 40 years observations of Karakoram glaciers that surge-type and non-surge-type glaciers are not significantly different with respect to mass change. The recurrent surging of Khurdopin Glacier resulted in the creation of Khurdopin Glacial Lake in the Shimshal valley of the Hunza River basin. Such glacial lakes offer main sources of freshwater; however, when their dams are suddenly breached and water drained, catastrophic GLOFs appear and pose a great threat to people and infrastructure in downstream areas. This situation calls for an in-depth study on GLOF risks along the CPEC route and incorporation of GLOF for future policy formulation in the country for the CPEC project so that the government may take serious action for prevention, response to GLOFs, and rehabilitation and reconstruction of the areas.",signatures:"Muhammad Saifullah, Shiyin Liu, Muhammad Adnan, Muhammad Ashraf, Muhammad Zaman, Sarfraz Hashim and Sher Muhammad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73124",authors:[{id:"320968",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Saifullah",slug:"muhammad-saifullah",fullName:"Muhammad Saifullah"},{id:"324015",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiyin",surname:"Liu",slug:"shiyin-liu",fullName:"Shiyin Liu"},{id:"324016",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Adnan",slug:"muhammad-adnan",fullName:"Muhammad Adnan"},{id:"324017",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Ashraf"},{id:"324018",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zaman",slug:"muhammad-zaman",fullName:"Muhammad Zaman"},{id:"324019",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarfraz",surname:"Hashim",slug:"sarfraz-hashim",fullName:"Sarfraz Hashim"},{id:"327965",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sher",slug:"muhammad-sher",fullName:"Muhammad Sher"}],corrections:null},{id:"72496",title:"Close-Range Sensing of Alpine Glaciers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92841",slug:"close-range-sensing-of-alpine-glaciers",totalDownloads:702,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glacial processes can have a strong impact on human activities in terms of hazards and freshwater supply. Therefore, scientific observation is fundamental to understand their current state and possible evolution. To achieve this aim, various monitoring systems have been developed in the last decades to monitor different geophysical and geochemical properties. In this manuscript, we describe examples of close-range monitoring sensors to measure the glacier dynamics: (i) terrestrial interferometric radar, (ii) monoscopic time-lapse camera, (iii) total station, (iv) laser scanner, (v) ground-penetrating radar and (vi) structure form motion. We present the monitoring applications in the Planpincieux and Grandes Jorasses glaciers, which are located in the touristic area of the Italian side of the Mont Blanc massif. In recent years, the Planpincieux-Grandes Jorasses complex has become an open-air research laboratory of glacial monitoring techniques. Many close-range surveys have been conducted in this environment and a permanent network of monitoring systems that measures glacier surface deformation is presently active.",signatures:"Daniele Giordan, Niccolò Dematteis, Fabrizio Troilo, Valerio Segor and Danilo Godone",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72496",authors:[{id:"313983",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Godone",slug:"danilo-godone",fullName:"Danilo Godone"},{id:"313979",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Niccolò",surname:"Dematteis",slug:"niccolo-dematteis",fullName:"Niccolò Dematteis"},{id:"104358",title:"MSc.",name:"Valerio",surname:"Segor",slug:"valerio-segor",fullName:"Valerio Segor"},{id:"313980",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Giordan",slug:"daniele-giordan",fullName:"Daniele Giordan"},{id:"317885",title:"Mr.",name:"Fabrizio",surname:"Troilo",slug:"fabrizio-troilo",fullName:"Fabrizio Troilo"}],corrections:null},{id:"72539",title:"Glacial Biodiversity: Lessons from Ground-dwelling and Aquatic Insects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92826",slug:"glacial-biodiversity-lessons-from-ground-dwelling-and-aquatic-insects",totalDownloads:675,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At first glance, the ground surrounding the glacier front and the streams originated by melting glaciers seem to be too extreme to host life forms. They are instead ecosystems, colonized by bacteria, fungi, algae, mosses, plants and animals (called the “glacial biodiversity”). The best adapted animals to colonize glacier surface, the recently deglaciated terrains and glacial streams are insects, specifically the ground beetles (carabids) and the non-biting midges (chironomids). This chapter aims to overview the species colonizing these habitats, their adaptation strategies to face natural cold and anthropogenic heat and the extinction threats of glacial retreat and pollution by emerging contaminants. Notes on their role in the glacial-ecosystem functioning and related ecosystem services are also given.",signatures:"Mauro Gobbi and Valeria Lencioni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72539",authors:[{id:"318195",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Gobbi",slug:"mauro-gobbi",fullName:"Mauro Gobbi"},{id:"318196",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria",surname:"Lencioni",slug:"valeria-lencioni",fullName:"Valeria Lencioni"}],corrections:null},{id:"71145",title:"Variations of Lys Glacier (Monte Rosa Massif, Italy) from the Little Ice Age to the Present from Historical and Remote Sensing Datasets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91202",slug:"variations-of-lys-glacier-monte-rosa-massif-italy-from-the-little-ice-age-to-the-present-from-histor",totalDownloads:843,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Alpine glaciers respond to climate imbalance by adjusting their mass and length. In turn, these changes modify the glacial and periglacial environment, leading to increased supraglacial debris cover, the development of glacial lakes and glacier fragmentation. In this research, we investigated the evolution of Lys Glacier (Monte Rosa Group), by studying length, area and volume changes, and evolution of its supraglacial debris cover and proglacial lakes by means of historical sources and high-resolution aerial and satellite orthophotos. Lys Glacier retreated almost continuously, by nearly 2 km, from its maximum Little Ice Age position. More recently, the glacier lost 11.91% of its area between 1975 and 2014 and underwent fragmentation in 2009. Over the same period, glacier fragmentation and tongue stagnation affected the formation and rapid growth of a series of ice-contact lakes and led to a non-linear debris cover evolution. The glacier was also subjected to strong volume losses, with more than 135 m thinning on the ablation tongue from 1991 to 2014. Analysis of the meteorological records (1927–present) from the closest weather station reveals a considerable increase in average annual temperatures by more than 1°C from the mean of 1971–1989 to the mean of 1990–2017.",signatures:"Fugazza Davide, Senese Antonella, Azzoni Roberto Sergio, D’Agata Carlo, Cat Berro Daniele, Mercalli Luca, Ventura Fabiano, Smiraglia Claudio and Diolaiuti Guglielmina Adele",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71145",authors:[{id:"315859",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Davide",surname:"Fugazza",slug:"davide-fugazza",fullName:"Davide Fugazza"},{id:"315860",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",surname:"Senese",slug:"antonella-senese",fullName:"Antonella Senese"},{id:"315861",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto Sergio",surname:"Azzoni",slug:"roberto-sergio-azzoni",fullName:"Roberto Sergio Azzoni"},{id:"315862",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlo",surname:"D'Agata",slug:"carlo-d'agata",fullName:"Carlo D'Agata"},{id:"315863",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Cat Berro",slug:"daniele-cat-berro",fullName:"Daniele Cat Berro"},{id:"315864",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Mercalli",slug:"luca-mercalli",fullName:"Luca Mercalli"},{id:"315865",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Smiraglia",slug:"claudio-smiraglia",fullName:"Claudio Smiraglia"},{id:"315866",title:"Prof.",name:"Guglielmina Adele",surname:"Diolaiuti",slug:"guglielmina-adele-diolaiuti",fullName:"Guglielmina Adele Diolaiuti"},{id:"317077",title:"Mr.",name:"Fabiano",surname:"Ventura",slug:"fabiano-ventura",fullName:"Fabiano Ventura"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"65",label:"highly cited contributor"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"892",title:"Seismic Waves",subtitle:"Research and 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Globally, the consumption of contaminated foods accentuates a clear food security threat, and the central elements leading to contamination are microorganisms, specifically, fungi, which produce low-molecular weight toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. About 25% of the global food and feed output is contaminated by mycotoxins, which negatively affects human and animal health, productivity, livelihood, household security, income and causes significant economic losses [1]. Very often, contamination of agricultural commodities by mycotoxins results from a cumulative process, which begins from pre-harvest through post-harvest stage and continues throughout the entire food production chain [2]. Some factors that drive mycotoxin contamination along the African food and feed chain are the mid and hot tropical climates that are favourable growth conditions for fungi, food shortages, ignorance of the cause and implications of mycotoxins, food dumping and adulteration of foods with mouldy agricultural products as well as inadequate regulatory mechanisms [3, 4].
\nA recent investigation on the mycotoxin issue across the entire continent of Africa led by Professor Sheila Okoth of the University of Nairobi (Kenya) and commissioned by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in conjunction with Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA), confirmed and re-affirmed the seriousness of the mycotoxin issue [5, 6]. Economic losses arising from mycotoxicosis in Africa are alarming; losses incurred by developed nations are usually trade-related, whereas Africa tends to incur both economic losses and additional costs related to health challenges. This immense socio-economic impact of mycotoxins threatens the UN’s sustainable development goal of improving nutrition, achieving food security and attaining a healthy agro-economic growth [6]. Often, socio-economic impact of mycotoxin contamination in Africa can be measured through reduced food availability, specifically amongst the rural poor, regulatory rejections of goods mainly at ports of exit, reduced market value of contaminated produce in domestic markets, decreased marketability of crops, forced alternative uses, increased livestock and human diseases, as well as mortality. Moreover, this impact should not exclude the high cost of research and regulatory activities aimed at reducing health risks because of the existence of causal relationships between mycotoxins and their impact on health. It is also overwhelming that in Africa, an annual cost of over USD 750 million is been accrued to aflatoxin (AF) contamination of crops, while the European Union (EU) regulation of AFs reportedly costs food exporters an estimated USD 670 million yearly [7]. Misdiagnosis, poor infrastructures, undependable and inconsistent data amongst other factors make it difficult to account for the additional and indirect costs associated with mycotoxin exposure in Africa. If the scale of economic and health impact of mycotoxin contamination is well understood, it will hasten policy makers towards imposing regulations and supporting affected populations. This chapter discusses on some pertinent socio-economic impacts of mycotoxin contamination in Africa.
\nMycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi, especially those members within the
From an African context, the major mycotoxins of significance in terms of health and the economy are the AFs, fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxins (OTs), trichothecenes (THs) and the zearalenones (ZEAs). This is equally relative to their widespread occurrence in major food and feed commodities, aggravated by favourable climatic conditions in the continent. Of all the several occurring mycotoxins, the AFs are considered the most important. This is particularly associated with its prevalence in commodities and potency of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), an AF form known to be the most noxious naturally occurring carcinogen. They have thus received substantial attention as compared to other mycotoxins as they frequently contaminate food and feed commodities in Africa [8]. Though there are about 20 different identified forms of these AFs [9], those of significant and economic importance are AFB1, aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2). Equally important are also aflatoxins M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2), which are hydroxylated metabolites of AFB1 and AFB2, respectively [10]. FBs, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1), have been classified as a group 2B carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [11], and is highly prevalent in African staples such as maize, millet and sorghum [12]. The OTs are isocoumarin derivatives, occurring as ochratoxin A (OTA), B (OTB), C (OTC), D (OTD) and their methyl and ethyl esters [13]. Similar to FB1, OTA is a prevalent toxin, classified as a Group 2B potential carcinogen to human [11]. The THs, which are tetracyclic sesquiterpenes with an epoxy-ring [12, 14], are divided into type A consisting of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and type B with deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV), the most important representatives [12]. Zearalenone (ZEA) and its hydroxylated derivatives α- and β- zearalenone (α-ZEA and β-ZEA) are lactone derivatives commonly found in food commodities [15]. It has been reported that ZEA usually co-occurs with one or more of the THs, because of the ability of its producing fungi to synthesize more than one mycotoxin [16]. The occurrence of modified and emerging forms of these mycotoxins including 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), beauvericin (BEA), the enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) have also been reported in African commodities [12]. The prevalence of these mycotoxins in African food crops have been reviewed extensively in literature [17, 18, 19, 20], and can be strongly associated with a number of factors which are discussed in the next section.
\nThe prevalence of mycotoxins in African food and feed commodities have been well documented in literature, and major factors that contribute to this have been identified as climate change, poverty, limited/lack of awareness, pro-regulation and legislation, poor agricultural practices, amongst others. Climate change has in fact been proposed as probably the most serious environmental issue facing our planet [21], and Africa has been the most affected. In fact, 2016 was identified as the hottest year in about a century, and accordingly, a manifestation of this was the 2016
Africa is the poorest continent in the world [25]. Nearly one in five people living in Africa is undernourished and/or go hungry, the highest prevalence of such in the world [26]. This can have a huge significance on the quality of food commodities consumed in Africa. There are limited resources to adopt relevant technologies/systems to control mycotoxins proliferation, and in dire need for food and “quenching” hunger, the quality and safety of food ingested is totally irrelevant (even though visibly contaminated). Under such circumstances, having food is much more vital and subsequently prioritized. Further to this, limited public awareness on the mycotoxins issue has been identified as a critical factor on the prevalence of mycotoxins in Africa. Knowledge is power. The available information on the incidence, public health importance, prevention and control of mycotoxins in many African countries is still grossly lacking, with no indication that such will be addressed anytime soon. Equally important is the lack of appropriate mechanisms to promote and educate consumers on the harmful effects of mycotoxins, good agricultural practices and post-harvest handling of commodities. Due to all these factors, the issue of mycotoxins on the continent has remained infamously persistent, with attendant grave implications. The next section of this chapter discusses in detail the socio-economic impact of these fungal pollutants on the African continent.
\nMycotoxin contamination have contributed significantly to the elusive sustainable development in Africa. The ever daunting and manifest challenges to food safety and security, good health and economic empowerment are all undisputable evidences to this fact.
\nThe most significant impact of mycotoxin contamination in Africa has been shown to be on human health. A World Bank report in 1993 observed that the various health problems modulated by exposure to mycotoxins accounted for up to 40% of lost disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) [27], and it is no doubt that Africa is the most affected. In 2004, an outbreak caused by food poisoning with AFs occurred in Kenya, where 317 cases of illness were reported and 68 of the persons were children below the age of 5 and 90 were from 5 to 15 years. In this incidence, at least 123 deaths were recorded [28, 29, 30]. In sub-Saharan Africa, about 250,000 deaths are caused by hepatocellular carcinoma annually and this can be linked to risk factors such as AFs and high prevalence of hepatitis B [31]. AF contamination in groundnuts and maize in Nigeria contributed to 7761 liver cancer cases, which results in a total burden of 100,965 DALYs [32]. In 2014, due to AF contamination, about 3334 cases of hepatocellular carcinoma was calculated in Tanzania, 95% of which ended as deaths resulting to a loss of 96,686 DALYs [33].
\nBased on several studies in Southern Africa, AFs contamination have been strongly linked with child undernutrition, increased mortality and morbidity due to their negative effect on micronutrient absorption and immune function [34]. In addition to these, immune disruption by AFs may aggravate health impacts of principal diseases plaguing Africa such as malaria, kwashiorkor and HIV/AIDS [35]. In Nigeria, posthumous autopsy of infants who suffered from kwashiorkor showed a significant level of AFs in their brains, because of consumption of contaminated maize based gruel [36]. According to Jolly
In the Gambia, maternal dietary intake was indicated to be an important factor in carcinogenic-induced damage in the unborn baby, due to a highly significant correlation between AF-albumin adduct levels in the mothers venous and respective cord sera [40]. In the same country, children with reduced level of salivary Secretory Immunoglobulin A (sIgA) have been linked with exposure to AFs [38]. The consumption of FBs contaminated maize have been correlated to the high incidence of oesophageal cancer in parts of South Africa [41] and Malawi [42]. According to Ferlay
Mycotoxins | \nToxic effects | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|
Ergot alkaloids | \nErgotism: central nervous system disorder, gastrointestinal symptoms, & gangrene | \n[51] | \n
Citrinin | \nHepatonephrotoxic | \n[51] | \n
Cyclopiazonic acid | \nWeight loss, diarrhoea, nausea, necrosis, & convulsion | \n[51] | \n
Patulin | \nGenotoxic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, & acute toxicity to kidney | \n[51] | \n
Sterigmatocystin | \nCarcinogenic, & hepatotoxic | \n[51] | \n
Rubratoxin | \nLiver damage, nephrotoxic, & haemorrhage | \n[51] | \n
Gliotoxin | \nNeurological syndrome, & immunosuppressive | \n[51] | \n
Moniliformin | \nAcutely toxic, & cardiac impairment | \n[51] | \n
Fumitremorgen | \nTremors, & convulsion | \n[51] | \n
AFs | \nCarcinogenic, & immunosuppressive | \n[52] | \n
OTs | \nMutagenic, carcinogenic, & nephrotoxic | \n[53, 54, 55, 56] | \n
FBs | \nCarcinogenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, immunosuppressive, atherogenic, & embryotoxic | \n[57, 58] | \n
DON | \nImmunosuppressive, immunostimulative, & causes fertility problems | \n[59, 60, 61, 62] | \n
ZEAs | \nInfertility, reduced milk production, vaginal secretions, & vaginitis | \n[63, 64] | \n
T2-toxin | \nCardiovascular defects, gastroenteritis, & alimentary toxic aleukia | \n[65, 66] | \n
Mycotoxins and their toxic effects on human health (adapted from Capriotti
Though tremendously difficult to estimate in Africa, the net monetarized impact of mycotoxins on human health in Africa [including physical pain, death (in severe cases), temporary or permanent impairment, loss of productivity, costs of diagnosis, treatment, hospitalization and health care (morbidity), cost of anxiety, pain, misdiagnosis, suffering and reduced life quality etc.] could be enormous, and demanding on national budget. A case in point, a study conducted in Gambia observed that diseases consistent with mycotoxin exposure (in particular Hepatitis B and its associated medical complications) results in a total monetized DALY worth over 94 million US$ of GDP, which equals 9.4% of the nation’s GDP. This is a huge loss to the health of the populace and country [67]. Similarly, in Senegal, the cumulative cost in terms of health due to AFs is estimated at no less than 92 million US$ of the nation’s GDP [67]. In 2014 in Tanzania, the economic impact (in monetary terms) of AFs was estimated between 6 million and 264 million US$ due to the resultant health impact [33].
\nVery little work has been done on the health impact of mycotoxins on animals in Africa. This is understandable as the health effects and losses in animals (such as feeding efficiency, infertility, meat, milk and egg quality losses, susceptibility to diseases etc.) are subtler to decipher. Moreover, in Africa, people have limited resources and may prioritize the care of humans above the ‘waste of resources’ on animals. To this effect, when mouldy cereals are too bad to be consumed, they are usually not disposed, but blended with non-mouldy ones and used as animal feed, or in some cases fed directly to the animals. However, monogastric farm animals such as poultry, swine and dogs are at particular high risk, because their basal diet (feed) is made up of cereals [68]. These animals also lack reservoir that harbours microorganisms that can break down secondary metabolites of fungi before they are absorbed into the intestine. In South Africa, there have been two episodes of aflatoxicosis (illness resulting from AFs) amongst dogs through the consumption of contaminated dog food. The first occurred in 1987 where 10 cases of fatality were reported, and histopathological evaluation revealed chronic symptoms of necrosis, bile duct proliferation, hepatocellular fatty degeneration, fibroplasia etc. were observed [69]. The second episode occurred in 2011, where over 220 dogs died and several others were affected in the Gauteng province. Subsequent clinical examinations revealed that the dogs were exposed to highly contaminated feed (with levels of AFs ranging from 5 μg/kg and 4946 μg/kg), which is well above regulatory limits [70]. In addition to AFs, other mycotoxins such as FB1, ZEA, and OTA were all later implicated in this outbreak [71]. Mwanza
The CTA has clearly alarmed that mycotoxins significantly threatens achieving food security and safety in Africa, which is one of the UN’s sustainable development goals [5]. Food supplies are limited and often of poor quality, with mycotoxins proliferation frequently implicated as the culprit. About 35% of global food and feed produce is contaminated by mycotoxins. The attendant food losses/wastages is in the ranks of 1 billion metric tons annually [73, 74, 75], and there is little doubt that majority of these losses come from Africa. In a continent where about 60% of the populace are farmers (mainly at a subsistence level), and majority of households relay on their homegrown food for survival, these statistics on mycotoxins are disturbing. The eminent reality of global warming further complicates the situation as Africa is the continent that is most affected due to its position at the equator. A recent study predicts that fungal pathogens and pests are proliferating at a rate of 5–6 km annually from the equator to polar regions of the earth [76]. Drought and plant stress makes crops more susceptible to diseases and fungal attack, and consequently increases mycotoxin contamination, which reduces crop quality and yield, as well as decreases in livestock productivity, disease tolerance and fertility. Moreover, adaptation of known mycotoxigenic fungal species to climate change conditions could result in a more aggressive and invasive behaviour of the fungi leading to colonization of new territories, increased production of mycotoxins, and perhaps the potential of producing entirely new mycotoxins, which poses a significant threat to food security, safety and health in Africa and other developing countries [76, 77, 78].
\nMycotoxins affect trade in Africa majorly by reducing the value of commodities offered for sale. Reduced value can manifest at different trade levels through the lowering of prices, inspection cost, disposal, rejection of lots or treatment of lots at additional cost prior to sale, compensation in case of claims and cost of sampling and analysis along the value chain. Not less than 2.3 million bags of maize were found unsuitable for marketing (as well as consumption) during the outbreak of aflatoxicosis in Kenya from 2004 to 2006 [79]. Following another AF alert in Kitui, Kenya in 2009, it was reported that maize prices dropped by half from 1800 to 900 Kenyan shillings [79]. The enforcement of regulatory standards primarily by developed nations which are the main destinations of African agricultural export commodities have resulted in a more critical situation for the African agricultural trade [52, 80]. EU regulation of mycotoxins was expected to reduce African export of nuts, cereals, oil seeds and dried fruits by 64%, reportedly costing 670 million US$ yearly [81]. Between 2000 and 2014, the cumulative economic loss on domestic and international trade in Gambia was about 23 million US$, which amounts to a yearly loss of about 1.52 million US$ [67]. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) [82] reported an annual loss of 1.2 billion US$ on a global scale due to AF contamination and established that 38% of this loss (450 million US$) is incurred by African nations.
\nAnother major socio-economic impact of mycotoxins on Africa is the damage to the African agricultural tradename. Brand in general terms can be described as an intangible and invaluable feature that distinguishes an entity from its competitors, and comprises expectations, imaginations, emotions and loyalty by the customers [83]. As a matter of fact, in the field of accounting, it is regarded as the most valuable asset on the balance sheet [84, 85]. Damage to brand can have a significant and enduring (and in some cases irredeemable) impact on subsequent business performance, productivity, reputation, financial gains and business prospects. Unfortunately, the mycotoxin issue has caused significant damage to African food and agricultural trade brand, particularly in the export market. Some of the consequences can be observed in the lack of trust for African food/feed commodities, ‘redundant scrutiny’ (which may result in transaction delays and perhaps more food spoilage), rejections, etc. A case in point was the significant levels of AFs in groundnuts exported from Africa to Europe in 2007 [86], leading to the serious concern about the future of such and other exports from the African continent.
\nIn 2000, 57 cases of border refusal of African exports to the EU were recorded but these cases have increased over the years and as at 2012, 525 cases were recorded [87]. More specifically, from 2002 to 2008, 130 export rejections from Egypt, 90 from Nigeria, 91 from Ghana, 5 from Morocco and 1 from Tunisia were recorded due to mycotoxin contamination [88]. Also in 2008, Rwanda suffered border rejections of sorghum, maize, soybean flour, destined to United Kingdom due to AFs contamination [89]. Between 2007 and 2012, 13 consignments of groundnut and groundnut related products from Nigeria were also rejected by the EU [90]. The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration (NAFDAC) of Nigeria reported that up to 42 semi-processed and processed food products of Nigeria origin destined for the European Union where rejected in 2015 and 2016 for failing to meet standards [91]. Twenty-eight of these items were destroyed, 6 subjected to official detention, 6 withdrawn from consumers and from the market, and 9 were re-dispatched [91]. Based on data from European Commission Rapid Alert System (RASFF), 35% of food/feed commodities rejections by the EU borders in 2014 were due to mycotoxin contamination at levels above the EU legislative limits [76]. It should be noted that the cost of a rejected food shipment is significant (about 10,000 US$ per lot in demurrage fees) even if the lot can be returned to the country attempting to export [92].
\nSome African countries have started to set up interventions to reduce the prevalence of mycotoxins in their jurisdiction, however, most of these interventions have high cost implication with regards to their design and implementation. In 2014, the Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS) in collaboration with the African Union’s PACA and other stakeholders developed the “ECOWAS Aflatoxin Control Action Plan (ECOACAP)” which identified key actionable strategic interventions in order to combat the prevalence of AFs across ECOWAS member States. Policy 4.3 SO3 of this plan recommended that ECOWAS member states increase budgetary allocations and investments to at least 1% of national GDP for the development and enforcement of AFs control efforts [67]. An annual cost of 7.5 million US$ was calculated by member states of the African Groundnut Council (Mali, Nigeria, Gambia, Sudan, Niger and Senegal) for the implementation of an AF contamination reduction program [90]. The Maize Trust, an initiative principally funded by the government of South Africa, spends over 4 million US$ per annum on funding projects directly targeted at improving the South African maize industry, and one of the outlined key objectives is to combat mycotoxins in South African maize [93]. Details of other interventions sponsored by other African governments can be found in the PACA report [94].
\nAfrica has been caught in a vicious circle of the cause and effects of mycotoxin contamination and poverty. Mycotoxins aggravates poverty, and due to poverty, many African countries lack the resources to sponsor effective mycotoxin research and mitigation interventions, which further worsens the situation on the continent. As such, majority of the mycotoxin projects conducted on the continent are sponsored by external sources, hence, increasing Africa’s dependence of foreign aid. For instance, the US government via the Feed the Future (FTF) initiative of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Bureau for Food Security budgeted 2–5 million US$ per year in 2010, and 15–20 million US$ per year in 2014, for AF-specific researches in African countries and developing countries in other continents [95]. Ghent University, Belgium sponsored an international thematic network ‘Mytox-South’ established in 2017, with an initial approved funding of 600,000 EUR. This intends to build/strengthen the human capacity of researchers from the Southern Hemisphere, leveraging on infrastructure and expertise at Ghent University in order to combat the mycotoxin problem and associated food security and safety issues at global level [96]. The Standards and trade development facility (STDF) sponsored a six month project on strengthening AF control in the Republic of Malawi through the Malawi Programme for Aflatoxin Control (MAPAC) with a budget of 46,265 thousand US$ [97]. Details on other foreign mycotoxin interventions in Africa worth millions of US$ can be found from these sources [94, 98, 99].
\nInterestingly, even the private sector has not been left out. Recently, the spotlight has turned on strengthening coalitions with the private sector, while leveraging on the efforts of different actors for effective management of mycotoxins in Africa. In October 2016, PACA and CTA convened a roundtable event in Entebbe, Uganda to identify concrete areas of collaboration and evaluate avenues for effective public-private sector partnership and engagement in the common agenda for tackling mycotoxin prevalence. CEOs and other representatives from various private establishments such as Cereal Millers’ Association—Kenya, AFRI-Nut—Malawi, CTA, Meds For Kids—Haiti, GrainPro—East Africa, PACA, USAID, Nestlé—West Africa, various Women’s organisations in Zimbabwe and Uganda, were in attendance, amongst others [5, 6].
\nMycotoxicology research is an important component of mycotoxin management. Particularly in Africa, more research needs to be done in order to establish safe limits and guard against potential health hazards. Availability of stringent scientific data provides the basis for government regulatory bodies to assess the risk of exposure, as well as, establish/enforce or reassess regulatory limits for mycotoxins [52, 100]. For example, from central African countries, there is hardly any information on mycotoxins. This may be due to ignorance on the mycotoxin issue, poverty, lack of research facilities and skills/manpower in these countries [17]. In a recent study by Adekoya
Despite all said, it must be acknowledged that mycotoxin research in Africa has yielded fruitful and positive results. While some of these studies were funded by governments in the continent, many are equally funded by research organizations and governments of other developed nations. For example, researchers at IITA and the University of Ibadan, in partnership with the Agriculture Research Service (ARS) of the United States Department of Agriculture developed a natural, safe and affordable solution to the problem of AF called “Aflasafe™”, intended for use by groundnut and maize farmers. The product which contains non-toxigenic strains of
Last year 2017, Ethiopia farmers/researchers supported by Ethiopia’s Agricultural Transformation Agency, was able to produce and market much of the 27 tons of new, disease-resistant wheat seed, in direct response to an annual attack of rapidly-evolving fungal diseases that can infect their locally grown crops worth as much as 200 million US$ [107]. Elsewhere, several African scientists are working on a project aimed at reduction of AF contamination via RNA interference (RNAi) in peanut plants. Three peanut varieties endemic to Africa are currently been genetically transformed at Kenyatta University in Nairobi, Kenya, by means of RNAi molecular constructs. Many of the African scientists involved in the project have been trained hands-on at the National Peanut Research Laboratory (NPRL) in Dawson, Georgia [99]. At the University of Johannesburg and Stellenbosch University both in South Africa, microbial means of degrading and detoxifying mycotoxins have also been proposed as a possible way of reducing/eliminating mycotoxins in food [108, 109, 110].
\nPreviously, much of research was focused on producing enough food to meet the teaming population of the world, however, it is becoming more obvious that reducing food spoilage/loss and contamination could be a more efficient approach towards addressing issues of food security particularly in Africa. As a way forward, research objectives should be prioritized to ensure a positive impact for public health, food safety and security and economic development. Recently, a global initiative has been launched, The Mycotox Charter, which provides a global platform for the various players along the food supply chain to commit to the mycotoxin cause, by means of a globally applicable statement and clearly outlined principles and practices targeted at reducing mycotoxin contamination in food and feed and associated health problems [111]. It is hoped that such an initiative will achieve its objectives in addressing these problems linked to mycotoxins.
\nThe impact of mycotoxins on Africa has been and is still illustrious. Limited knowledge/awareness, poverty, bad governance and climatic conditions have further aggravated this unfortunate situation. Africa is the largest continent in the world and the most plagued by the mycotoxin menace. Despite the notoriously incessant occurrence and exceptionally high levels of mycotoxins reported in dietary food for humans and animals, and the associated lethal consequences, regulation for their control and management is significantly limited in this part of the world. It has been projected that between 2015 and 2050, the population of Africa will increase by 1.3 billion people. In fact, according to the UN, the population of Nigeria alone is projected to surpass that of the entire US by 2050. This teaming population puts immense pressure on the already scarce food resources on the continent. More compelling is the fact that Africa’s population is comprised mainly of the younger age (with two-fifths between the ages of 0–14 years, and one-fifth in the age bracket to 15–24 years), where good food and health plays a critical role in the overall development of individuals. As such, the proliferation and widespread effect of mycotoxins in Africa is of great concern. The eminent reality of climate change is also looming steadily with Africa at the epicentre. Biodiversification of fungi due to adaptation to climate change leads to threats of newer mycotoxins or more of existing ones. In order to stay aligned with the UN’s sustainable development goals (particularly goal No. 2: end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture), a concerted effort is needed to adequately address the issue of mycotoxin in Africa and other developing countries of the world. Critical areas to concentrate efforts include development of efficient and cost-effective intervention strategies, public awareness, strengthening research and human capacity development as well as harmonizing and enforcing regulations.
\nThis work was financially supported via the Global Excellence and Stature (GES) Fellowship of the University of Johannesburg granted to the main author (S. Gbashi), as well as, the South African National Research Foundation (NRF).
\nThe heart is composed of a special tissue and a unique electrical system. Though there are some hypotheses about the possibility of regeneration, the cardiac tissue is composed of non-regenerative muscle cells called myocytes which have the capacity to revert acute damages before necrosis and subsequent fibrosis are present. It is thought that this reversion could be related to multiple factors. A decrease in inflammatory markers, perfusion recovery, and possible RNA reactions reduce the fiber tension and inflammation that cause the shortening of the dilated fibers, and then the transient condition will improve. All reversible cardiomyopathies can be associated with cardiomegaly, systolic heart failure, structural changes, and an increase in mortality, but when the offensive agent is identified and stopped, these conditions tend to stop their progression and reverse. In a period of 6 weeks, we are usually able to evaluate positive results after the stunning myocardial cells recover. Most patients with reversible cardiomyopathy present with clinical picture similar to that of systolic heart failure (HF) as follows:
Dyspnea
Chest discomfort/pain
Lower extremity edema or peripheral edema
Weight gain
Orthopnea or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND)
Decrease in exercise tolerance etc.
In this chapter, we have focused on important types of reversible cardiomyopathy (Figure 1).
Different types of reversible cardiomyopathy.
Cardiomyopathy includes a diverse and heterogeneous group of disorders affecting the myocardium and eventually leading to cardiac dysfunction [1]. The HF is a widely prevalent syndrome today and affects 5.1 million adult Americans over the age of 20 [1]. Cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of hospitalization in patients older than 65 years of age and it is an important cause for enormous healthcare expenditure. Interestingly, ischemic cardiomyopathy is responsible for about half of these patients. On the other hand, the prevalence of reversible nonischemic cardiomyopathy is also significant, as per several large clinical trials, and ranges from 20–50% [1]. The prognosis of reversible nonischemic cardiomyopathies is better than ischemic or other nonreversible cardiomyopathies which were suggested by the epidemiological evidence [1]. Additionally, it is important to diagnose etiology of HF early and precisely to determine prognosis and effective treatment.
Arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy (also known as tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy, tachycardia-mediated cardiomyopathy, or tachymyopathy) is one of the reversible causes of dilated cardiomyopathy. Arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy is defined by the presence of a sustained tachycardia (or frequent episodes of tachycardia or very frequent ectopy) which results in left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction. It is a relatively rare, but well-recognized entity caused by long-standing tachycardia, which can be treated readily in most instances and have a good prognosis. A common clinical problem is differentiating whether tachycardia is the primary cause of the patient’s cardiomyopathy, or if the tachycardia is secondary to another cardiomyopathy of a different etiology. Arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy has been reported with nearly all types of tachyarrhythmia and frequent ectopy, both supraventricular and ventricular [2]. Different types of tachyarrhythmias associated with arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy include atrial fibrillation (AF), atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia, reentrant supraventricular tachycardias, and ventricular tachycardia. Regardless of the type of arrhythmia, therapy to restore normal sinus rhythm or to slow the ventricular rate (or eliminate ectopy) usually result in an improvement in left ventricular function.
The incidence of arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy is unclear, but an association between tachycardia and cardiomyopathy is well known. An insight into the prevalence of arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy can be derived from cohort studies. In one study of 1269 patients undergoing ablation for atrial flutter, 184 had reduced ejection fractions (<40 percent) at baseline [3]. In another study with a cohort of 625 patients undergoing catheter ablation for a variety of tachyarrhythmias, tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy was present in 2.7 percent (17 of 625 patients) [4]. Similarly, in one cohort of 331 patients who had catheter ablation of incessant atrial tachycardia (AT), myocardial dysfunction was present in 9 percent of patients [5]. Additionally, the patients in the cohort with arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy were younger, predominantly male, and had continuous or very frequent paroxysmal tachycardia.
In general, chronic tachycardia eventually causes significant structural changes in the heart, including left ventricular dilatation and cellular morphologic changes. However, the exact mechanism by which tachycardia produces such changes is not well explained. Additionally, the morphologic and biochemical changes that result from arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy may produce electrophysiological abnormalities. Chronic tachycardia was associated with ventricular arrhythmias (including polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and sudden death) in a canine model which result from a prolongation in repolarization [6]. Many alterations in neurohumoral and cellular activation have been described in arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy patients, and several factors may contribute to the development of rate-related myocardial dysfunction. However, data supporting certain potential mechanisms are lacking, and it remains unclear whether such changes play an etiologic role or if they arise because of tachycardia.
The clinical presentation of arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy can vary and usually involves signs and/or symptoms related to HF (dyspnea, fatigue, orthopnea, PND, chest pain or discomfort, lower extremities edema), cardiac tachyarrhythmias (palpitations, lightheadedness, dizziness, anxiety, etc) or both. The approach to the patient with suspected arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy includes a thorough history and physical examination with appropriately selected tests to establish the diagnosis and assess acuity, severity, and etiology. All patients should have an electrocardiogram (ECG) to determine the cardiac rhythm and ventricular heart rate (Figure 2). There are no specific ECG findings that distinguish patients with and without arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy, and the ECG findings will vary depending upon the underlying tachyarrhythmia. It is important to determine which is the primary pathology, the arrhythmia, or the cardiomyopathy. Usually, the diagnosis of arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy can only be made after a successful trial of therapy to slow down the ventricular rate or to restore sinus rhythm after excluding the other potential causes of cardiomyopathy. Patients with suspected arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy should have continuous cardiac monitoring for 24 to 48 hours and have non-invasive imaging to assess cardiac structure and function. A transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE) is the preferred modality for assessing cardiac structure and function for most patients due to its widespread availability and ease of performance. However, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is also a reasonable alternative approach in centers with expertise in this modality.
ECG showing Atrial flutter that can lead to tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy.
The initial treatments for a patient with HF and suspected arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy are similar to those of HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and tachyarrhythmias. Treatment of HFrEF generally includes the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI), beta-blockers, or diuretics. On the other hand, treatment of tachyarrhythmia includes rate-control medications, consideration of antiarrhythmic drugs, and/or cardioversion. Aggressive efforts should be made to achieve good ventricular heart rate control or to restore sinus rhythm due to the potentially reversible nature of arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy [2]. Additionally, an adequate trial of medical therapy is required before evaluating the patient for the need for cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD).
Following the restoration of sinus rhythm or appropriate ventricular rate control, most patients show significant improvement and/or normalization of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) over a period of months. Generally, patients who have not experienced sudden cardiac arrest or sustained ventricular arrhythmia and whose LVEF has improved to 40% or greater, do not require implantation of an ICD. If arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathy recurs, then these patients are at substantial risk for sudden death and ICD implantation should be considered. In some patients, the LV chamber may remain somewhat enlarged even after LVEF has normalized. Patients will also have ultrastructural abnormalities of the myocardium, despite improvement in cardiac function when a tachycardia has been terminated or rate controlled [7].
Long-term excess alcohol consumption is a leading cause of secondary dilated cardiomyopathy and is associated with up to 40% of dilated cardiomyopathy. Alcohol use can cause atrial enlargement, global chamber dilation, cardiomegaly, and heart failure. Once the structural changes are present, patients with alcoholic cardiomyopathy are at high risk for arrhythmias, especially atrial fibrillation (AF). The prevalence of alcoholic cardiomyopathy is similar in men and women; however, there is a higher disease burden in men. It is more common in the age group of 45–59 years old. Most patients who develop alcoholic cardiomyopathy have been drinking more than 80 to 90 g of ethanol per day for more than five years. This corresponds to approximately eight bottles of beer, one liter of wine, or one-half pint of hard liquor every day. The pathogenesis of alcoholic cardiomyopathy is not well understood, but experimental data have suggested that alcohol consumption may directly or indirectly cause oxidative stress, apoptosis, impaired mitochondrial bioenergetics, altered fatty acid metabolism, and increased myocardial protein catabolism via its metabolites. The pathophysiology of alcoholic cardiomyopathy can also be explained by myocardial toxicity due to adenosine accumulation caused by the impairment of ATP production secondary to thiamine deficiency (Thiamine serves as a co-factor for ATP production).
Common clinical features include classic symptoms of HF (dyspnea, fatigue, orthopnea, PND, chest pain or discomfort, lower extremities edema) and cardiac arrhythmias (palpitations, lightheadedness, dizziness, anxiety, etc). Patients may have a normal physical exam but can also have findings of heart failure such as the decreased intensity of the heart sounds, new S3 or S4 gallop, new murmurs due to valvular insufficiency, increased jugular venous pressure, hepatojugular reflux, and peripheral edema. An EKG usually does not show any specific findings, but may show atrial fibrillation, atrial enlargement, or left ventricular hypertrophy as the most common findings. The mainstay of treatment is abstinence from alcohol which can help in reversing the disease and management of HF. Thus, prognosis in such patients is usually good if they continue to avoid alcohol. If the patient does not stop drinking alcohol, the alcoholic cardiomyopathy may cause severe HF and could advance to severe valvular insufficiency, fatal arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death.
Myocarditis is a global cardiomyopathy that leads to acute chamber dilation. It is a major cause of death in young adults, reaching up to 20% of deaths. The incidence of myocarditis, according to the International Classification of Diseases’ diagnosis codes, was 22 patients per 100,000 patients in the 2013 world population. Myocarditis is an inflammatory disease of the heart that may occur because of infections, immune system activation, or exposure to drugs. The common causes include coxsackievirus (most common), Lyme disease, Chagas disease [8], rheumatic fever, toxic (monoxide, diphtheria, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, cocaine) [9, 10], autoimmune or systemic diseases (SLE, sclerosis, sarcoidosis) [11]. Most patients diagnosed with acute myocarditis recover without clinically relevant residual damage. Patients usually present with viral illness (Fever, malaise, fatigue, etc.) [12]. Patients can also present with symptoms of acute heart failure and conduction abnormalities (Premature atrial complex, supraventricular tachycardia, ventricular ectopies, bradyarrhythmia) including fatal arrhythmia (Ventricular tachycardia, fibrillation) leading to sudden cardiac death [13].
Common physical examination findings may include chest pain, new gallop, friction rub, or new valvular insufficiency on auscultation; hepatomegaly, cardiogenic shock, tachypnea with or without respiratory distress [14]. The ECG in some patients with myocarditis is similar to the ECG pattern of acute isolated pericarditis (which is suggestive of myopericarditis) or acute MI, myocarditis may be associated with regional ST elevations and Q waves like acute MI [15]. Laboratory tests can reveal elevated levels of troponin, pro-BNP, and CK-MB [16]. Echocardiography can be useful by showing wall motion abnormalities and acute valvular insufficiency [17].
Coronary angiography should be considered in patients when acute coronary syndrome (ACS) cannot be distinguished from the myocarditis clinically [18]. CMR is indicated in patients with suspected myocarditis with elevated troponin level and/or ventricular dysfunction, without a clear cause such as ischemic heart disease [19]. The definitive diagnosis of myocarditis can be made by endomyocardial biopsy (EMB). The need for an EMB should be based upon the likelihood that the results will change management. Histologic examination of EMB in myocarditis reveals cellular infiltrates, which are usually histiocytic and mononuclear with or without associated myocyte damage; specific histological forms of myocarditis include eosinophilic, granulomatous, and giant cell myocarditis. Possible late complications include severe valvulopathies, biventricular failure, and conduction abnormalities [20]. The mainstay treatment is to treat the underlying cause. Most patients with acute myocarditis have partial or full clinical recovery. In some cases, the process may continue subclinically which eventually causes DCM [21]. The likelihood of these late complications is increased in patients who present with greatly diminished left ventricular function.
Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy is a reversible condition causing left ventricular dilation that could lead to low filling pressures and low ejection fraction. It usually starts to normalize within 10 days of treatment of underlying sepsis [22]. Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction is one of the major predictors of morbidity and mortality in sepsis [23]. It is usually present in more than 40% of cases of sepsis and its presence can increase the mortality rate up to 70% [24, 25]. The exact physiopathology is not completely understood but the role of cytokines and endotoxins is thought to have an important role in the myocardial depression found in this condition. Other factors that are also related are metabolic disturbances, hypoxia, coagulopathies, and oxygen deprivation leading to myocardial injury [26]. Another theory is the high consumption of oxygen by the mitochondria creating an energy imbalance. Pro-inflammatory factors from infectious agents cause a release of cytokines and endotoxins that accelerate the oxygen consumption in a low oxygen environment eventually leading to the production of e metabolites such as free radicals and nitrogen species [27]. These metabolites then create a toxic environment and a transient myocardial injury [28, 29]. Sepsis can also cause Takotsubo cardiomyopathy which is described separately.
The clinical features include fever, elevated WBCs, weakness, and malaise along with clinical features of HF. Physical exam findings may include rash, conjunctivitis, wounds, or evident infection. Patients may also present with hypotension, chest pain, or altered mental status. EKG usually does not show any specific findings, but may show findings suggestive of ACS due to underlying myocardial inflammation [30]. Laboratory tests may show elevated inflammatory markers, such as elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), ferritin due to systemic inflammation [31]. Additionally, cardiac markers may be also elevated due to underlying myocardial injury [32, 33]. Furthermore, cultures should be obtained to identify the causative agent before starting a patient on antibiotics. The treatment mainly includes treatment of underlying sepsis and stabilization of the patient when they are hemodynamically unstable to avoid myocardial injury secondary to profound hypotension or arrhythmia. The prognosis of the patient usually varies depending on the severity of sepsis, but generally, the prognosis is reserved.
Stress cardiomyopathy is also known as Takotsubo cardiomyopathy or broken heart syndrome, and the clinical presentation mimics acute myocardial infarction [34]. This condition is most common in post-menopausal women. The possible reason for involvement in such a patient group could be explained by hypotheses demonstrating a potential protective effect of estrogen in stress CM [35, 36, 37]. The patient with such type of cardiomyopathy should be treated as ACS until the obstructive coronary disease is ruled out by coronary angiography. The pathophysiology behind stress cardiomyopathy is not well understood [38], but the possible mechanism can be explained by the sudden release of catecholamine (Norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine) [39, 40] that causes cardiac stunning by myocyte perfusion impairment and lead to myocardial tissue edema, necrosis, and fibrosis [41].
The clinical features include anxiety, tachycardia, and chest pain which can mimic chest pain of acute MI. EKG may vary from ST segment elevation (most common finding), ST segment depression (less common), QT interval prolongation, T wave inversion, abnormal Q waves, and non-specific abnormalities. Serum cardiac troponin levels are elevated in most patients with stress CM, while creatine kinase (CK) levels are generally normal or mildly elevated. Furthermore, brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal pro-BNP (NT-proBNP) levels are elevated in most patients with stress CM. Radionuclide myocardial perfusion imaging is generally not indicated in patients presenting with suspected stress cardiomyopathy since most have high-risk features for ACS and will require coronary angiography. Patients with suspected non-ST elevation ACS with low to intermediate-risk features may undergo radionuclide myocardial perfusion imaging. An echocardiogram can show a decrease in LVEF and LV wall motion abnormalities (Figure 3). Patterns of LV wall motion abnormality in patients with stress-induced cardiomyopathy include the apical type (most common), and atypical variants including mid-ventricular, basal, focal (limited to an isolated segment), and global types. CMR may be helpful in the diagnosis and evaluation of stress cardiomyopathy when the echocardiogram is technically suboptimal and/or there is coexistent coronary artery disease. Late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) on CMR is usually absent in stress cardiomyopathy in contrast to MI in which intense subendocardial or transmural LGE is seen.
Doppler image showing LVOT obstruction in a patient with Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy.
Stress-induced cardiomyopathy is generally a reversible disorder that is managed with supportive therapy [42]. Rapid resolution of symptoms can be usually seen with conservative treatment and resolution of the physical or emotional stress. However, some patients may develop acute complications such as shock and acute HF that require intensive therapy. Appropriate management of shock varies and depends on whether significant left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction is present [43]. HF management during an acute presentation and following stabilization is generally performed according to standard guidelines. However, caution should be performed to avoid volume depletion and with use of vasodilator therapy in patients with LVOT obstruction. Recommendations for anticoagulation to prevent thromboembolism in patients with stress cardiomyopathy with LV thrombus or severe LV systolic dysfunction are similar to those for post-MI patients [44, 45].
Peripartum cardiomyopathy is an important cause of dilated cardiomyopathy and HF. It is also known as pregnancy-associated cardiomyopathy [46]. The diagnosis can be missed due to the lack of regular screening and overlap between clinical signs or symptoms of HF signs or symptoms of the pregnancy [47]. Peripartum cardiomyopathy usually occurs during the last trimester or within the 6 months of the postpartum period. Several risk factors have been identified which include greater age, multiple gestations, African descent, and a history of preeclampsia, eclampsia, or postpartum hypertension. The pathophysiology is not clearly understood but Honigberg and Givertz suggested the possible role of oxidative stress on myocardium caused by elevated prolactin levels [48].
The clinical features of peripartum cardiomyopathy are usually masked by signs and symptoms of pregnancy and are difficult to diagnose solely based on clinical findings. Patients usually present with similar clinical presentation as HF patients (shortness of breath, fatigue, orthopnea, lower extremities pitting edema). An echocardiogram is the modality of choice for definitive diagnosis of peripartum cardiomyopathy and usually shows dilated cardiomyopathy with an impairment of the ejection fraction [49]. Echocardiogram generally reveals a global reduction in LV systolic function with LVEF nearly always <45 percent. Management is similar to the treatment of HF with reduced EF, such as ACE inhibitors or ARBs or ARNI, beta-blockers, and diuretics. In addition to this treatment, use of bromocriptine should also be considered [50]. However, prophylactic anticoagulation should always be considered along with bromocriptine treatment as thromboembolic events have been noticed during the use of bromocriptine [50]. Patients should get a repeat echocardiogram six weeks after diagnosis has been made for prognostication [51].
Metabolic cardiomyopathy is a secondary cardiomyopathy that results from disturbed energy production leading to impaired cardiac function. It may be caused by a myriad of endocrine disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and familial storage diseases [52]. Thyroid hormones have been shown to affect myocytes by acting on various thyroid hormone receptors in the myocardium, including a-myosin heavy chain fusion, sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium-activated ATPase (SERCA), the cellular membrane Na+/K+ pump (Na+/K+ ATPase), β-adrenergic receptors, cardiac troponin I, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) [53]. These interactions help upregulate α-chains but downregulate β-chains in myocytes, which ultimately leads to faster myocardial fibril shortening [54]. Thyroid hormones have also been shown to affect the ion channels, including Na+/K+ ATPase, Na+/Ca + 2 exchanger, and various K+ channels by inducing positive inotropic effects, thereby prolonging activation of Na + channels and shortening action potential durations [55]. Additionally, thyroid hormones have been known to have a vasodilatory effect on peripheral arteries [56]. The combined effort of these mechanisms can cause systemic changes in cardiac function by reducing peripheral vascular resistance, activating the renin-angiotensin mechanism, increasing LV end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), and increasing preload [57]. The increased preload and decreased peripheral vascular resistance lead to a high cardiac output, even at rest, resulting in cardiomyopathy. In contrast to hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism causes a low cardiac output cardiomyopathy via the same pathways mentioned above, however, by downregulating the previously mentioned receptors/channels causing decreased myocardial excitation and contractility leading to a low-output cardiomyopathy [58]. The clinical features are similar to those seen in patients with HF.
Management of thyroid disease-induced cardiomyopathy follows a similar algorithm to the cardiomyopathies mentioned above, which includes the typical HF treatment regimen. Management also includes addressing the root etiology, whether it be excess or deficiency of thyroid hormones. However, there is promising data showing that the use of β-adrenergic blockade may be beneficial in these patients. Biondi et al. conducted a small study which demonstrated that hyperthyroid patients treated with the selective β1-adrenoceptor antagonist bisoprolol experienced normalization of the LV mass index and LV systolic function after 6 months of treatment [59]. Similar results were established in a case study published a year later in which the use of β-adrenoceptor blockers showed clinical improvement in a patient with dilated cardiomyopathy caused by hyperthyroidism [60]. It is also worth mentioning the association between hyperthyroidism and AF. The prevalence of AF in thyrotoxicosis is estimated to be 13% according to one study. This is especially important as uncontrolled AF is associated with tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy as discussed above [61, 62].
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a potentially life-threatening condition that is characterized by repeated cessation of breathing while sleeping mostly due to complete or partial pharyngeal obstruction [63]. There has been evidence supporting the associations between obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The National Commission on sleep disorders research estimated that sleep apnea is probably responsible for 38,000 cardiovascular deaths per year [64]. Also, obstructive sleep apnea increases the risk of coronary artery disease by 30%, heart failure by 140%, and stroke by 60% [65]. OSA can be identified by a combination of symptoms and laboratory results, such as repetitive apneas and hypopneas accompanied by hypoxia, sleep arousals, and hemodynamic changes [66, 67, 68, 69]. Furthermore, activation of the sympathetic nervous system during respiratory events potentiates vasoconstriction and often triggers increases in blood pressure and heart rate [67, 70]. OSA is also associated with several cardiorespiratory problems such as loud snoring, loud gasps, and daytime breathlessness [71, 72].
The underlying mechanisms showing the associations between OSA and cardiovascular disease are not completely understood, but several intermediate mechanisms have been proposed. They include sustained sympathetic activation, changes in intrathoracic pressure and oxidative stress, and later vascular inflammation caused by nocturnal hypoxia and reoxygenation cycles [73, 74]. These mechanisms then results in increases in systolic blood pressure that might eventually lead to hypertension or worsening of this condition. A similar mechanism might explain the link between OSA and tachyarrhythmia [75]; whereas bradyarrhythmia, which is more common than tachyarrhythmia, might be the effect of an increase in vagal tone due to stimulation of receptor sites in the upper airway [76]. Other abnormalities observed among patients with OSA such as disorders in coagulation factors, endothelial damage, platelet activation, and an increase in inflammatory mediators might also be involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease [74, 76, 77, 78, 79]. Patients with OSA have characteristically higher levels of endothelin and lower levels of nitric oxide than healthy sleepers [74, 77]. This increased endothelin level is known to impair blood pressure regulation as well. Thus, patients with OSA often experience greater blood vessel constriction. Interestingly, with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment, levels of endothelin and circulating nitric oxide invariably return to normal [77].
Recently, research interests have centered on the relative contribution of oxidative stress in explaining the associations between sleep apnea and cardiovascular morbidity [74, 79, 80]. Investigators have proposed that hypoxia, which is commonly observed in sleep apnea, promotes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which could activate the transcriptional activator hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), particularly during the reoxygenation period [81, 82]. ROS regulates the activation of critical transcription factors that are redox-sensitive, resulting in increased expression of genes, which encode proteins promoting adaptation to hypoxia [81]. It has been suggested that redox-sensitive transcription factors, which elicit inflammatory pathways are also activated, thereby affecting inflammatory and immune responses by promoting activation of endothelial cells, leukocytes, and platelets [74]. These cells once activated can express adhesion molecules and proinflammatory cytokines that may lead to endothelial injury and dysfunction, which inevitably lead to the development of cardiovascular morbidity [74]. Observing this chain of events, investigators surmise that atherogenesis apparently starts soon after the onset of sleep apnea [74]. Substantial atherosclerotic insults are likely incurred by the time a diagnosis is rendered since symptoms often become apparent around the age of 45 years [74, 80]. It is unclear whether such atherogenic damages can be reversed, but treatment can retard their progress [83].
Using CPAP therapy, investigators have shown significant reductions in levels of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 [83], and atherogenic plaque regression has been observed among patients with dyslipidemia [84]. Therefore, sleep apnea diagnosis and treatment should be made as early as possible in order to prevent cardiovascular morbidity. The use of CPAP or bilevel PAP therapy have showed positive benefits in clinical trials. This therapeutic modality is highly effective in improving left ventricular ejection fraction and quality of life by decreasing blood pressure and sympathetic activity and reducing mortality among patients with congestive heart failure [85, 86]. Additionally, CPAP treatment significantly reduces risks of ACS, cardiovascular death, and hospitalization for heart failure among patients with coronary artery disease [87]. Furthermore, CPAP therapy has significant effects on lipid levels. CPAP studies show significant improvement in insulin sensitivity and left ventricular function with a corresponding decrease in blood pressure [88].
Dilated cardiomyopathy can result from direct exposure to toxins, such as cocaine, alcohol, medications, particularly chemotherapeutic drugs, and radiation in the absence of abnormal underlying cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, valvular disease, or coronary artery disease. The true prevalence of toxic cardiomyopathy in the general population is not known. The mechanism of toxic cardiomyopathy caused by some common toxic substances has been mentioned here. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy has been discussed separately. Patients with toxic cardiomyopathy usually present with clinical features similar to patients with systolic HF and the treatment involves the avoidance of toxic substances along with treatment for systolic HF.
Cocaine use is associated with the development of cardiomyopathy. However, the relationship is not well understood as compared to the relationship between cocaine use and coronary ischemia. Multiple mechanisms have been explained including the excessive sympathetic stimulation with increased myocardial oxygen consumption, direct toxic effect, and infectious cardiomyopathy in a parenteral cocaine user. In young persons, cardiomegaly with otherwise unexplained HF should raise the suspicion of cocaine abuse. Abstinence from cocaine usually leads to complete reversal of the myocardial dysfunction.
A number of medications such as anticancer drugs, anti-diabetic drugs, or antiretroviral drugs are associated with cardiomyopathy, and discontinuation of such drugs may result in significant improvement in cardiac function.
Anticancer drugs, such as anthracycline, trastuzumab, and cyclophosphamide are known to cause CM. Anthracycline-induced cardiomyopathy has been the most extensively studied. The mechanisms of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity are primarily due to its mechanisms of action as anticancer drugs which is inhibition of topoisomerase II β and DNA cleavage. Additionally, metabolic or oxidative stress factors may play a part, together with interference with iron metabolism. On the other hand, trastuzumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against the c-erbB-2 (HER2/neu) receptor that is used in the treatment of breast cancer. Since the HER2 signaling pathway plays an important role in cardiac development and protection, there is biological plausibility for cardiac toxicity with the use of trastuzumab [89, 90]. cardiomyopathy is also known to develop when a loss of function mutation occurs in HER2 in ventricular myocytes [91].
Antidiabetic medications such as thiazolidinedione class drugs are known to cause cardiotoxicity. The possible mechanisms of cardiotoxicity caused by these drugs include oxidative stress and interference with mitochondrial respiration. On the other hand, antiretroviral medications like azidothymidine are also cardiotoxic as a result of mitochondrial toxicity. Azidothymidine also increases the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in addition to energy depletion.
Methamphetamine and related compounds are the second most widely used illicit drug in the United States after cannabis [92]. Methamphetamine-associated cardiomyopathy (MACM) may be seen in chronic methamphetamine users. The primary mechanism of action of methamphetamine is the increased release and decreased uptake of catecholamines at the neuronal synapse producing a marked effect on the cardiovascular system [92]. The increased levels of catecholamines can stimulate alpha and beta-adrenergic receptors leading to hypertension and tachycardia. Methamphetamine can lead to irreversible structural and functional changes in the heart which eventually lead to decompensated heart failure and ultimately requiring heart transplantation.
Carbon monoxide (CO) exposure is known to cause cardiomyopathy by causing hypoxic injury. CO causes direct toxic damage to the mitochondria leading to an impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory chain at the cytochrome c oxidase level and a decrease of glutathione concentrations and ATP production. In survivors of an acute exposure, there is no evidence for a delayed dilated cardiomyopathy. In one retrospective study of 626 patients with CO exposure, only 3.04% (n = 19) patients had CO induced CM [93].
Trace elements are known to play an important role in myocardial metabolism and their accumulation (cobalt, arsenic) or deficiency (selenium) can be responsible for a form of dilated cardiomyopathy that is indistinguishable from an idiopathic CM. The role of trace elements was assessed in one study in which myocardial and skeletal muscle biopsies were obtained from 13 patients with an idiopathic DCM, 35 patients with valvular or ischemic heart disease, and 4 normal subjects [94]. Patients with a dilated cardiomyopathy had a significant increase in the myocardial concentration of mercury (22,000 times normal), antimony (12,000-fold higher), gold (11-fold higher), chromium (13-fold higher), and cobalt (4 times higher). On the other hand, patients with valvular or ischemic heart disease had myocardial concentrations of trace elements that were ≤ 5 times greater than normal. Concentrations of trace elements in skeletal muscle were normal in all groups of patients.
Cobalt-associated cardiomyopathy probably results from interference with energy production and contractile mechanisms. Cobalt associated cardiomyopathy has been reported in drinkers of beer containing cobalt sulfate for foam stabilization (known as Quebec beer-drinkers’ cardiomyopathy) [95], individuals with work-related cobalt exposure, and in some individuals exposed to cobalt from metal hip prostheses [96]. There have been some reported cases where degeneration of metallic hip implants can lead to cobalt cardiomyopathy [97, 98]. Antimony may cause lethal oxidative stress and cell death mediated by elevation in intracellular calcium. Proposed mechanisms for mercury toxicity include depletion of glutathione, ROS production and interruption in selenium-dependent endogenous enzymatic reactions. The existence of lithium-induced cardiomyopathy is still debated.
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients [99]. These adverse cardiovascular consequences are due to CKD related cardiomyopathy, which is termed uremic cardiomyopathy [100]. Uremic cardiomyopathy in patients with CKD or end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is the result of pressure overload, volume overload, and the uremic state itself. Epidemiological studies and studies using cardiac MRI have suggested that the primary manifestation of uremic cardiomyopathy is LV hypertrophy (LVH). It is present even in patients with very early stages of CKD. The prevalence of LVH in pre-dialysis patients is up to 65%. The pathogenesis of uremic cardiomyopathy is poorly understood and is generally multifactorial. Patients with CKD usually continue to have abnormal myocardial remodeling despite improvements made to dialysis and advancements in the treatment of CKD, hypertension, hypervolemia, anemia. Two factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of patients with CKD and mineral and bone disease (CKD-MBD) which include the hormone FGF23, and its cofactor, αKlotho. FGF23 is deleterious to the myocardium, while αKlotho is protective. Although αKlotho is an obligatory cofactor for FGF23 action as the primary phosphaturic hormone in phosphorus homeostasis, both factors are seen to have independent and antagonistic effects on the myocardium. Briefly, the main pathophysiology of uremic cardiomyopathy includes a triad of hyperphosphatemia, αKlotho deficiency, and elevated FGF23 levels [100].
The cause for very high cardiovascular risk in CKD patients can be explained by effects of traditional and non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors which are augmented by sequelae of CKD, such as uremia, anemia, hypervolemia, oxidative stress, inflammation, and insulin resistance eventually leading to faster progression of cardiovascular disease and increasing the number of cardiovascular events and mortality [101]. About 40% of deaths in dialysis patients are due to sudden cardiac death (SCD) which outweighs deaths due to HF, acute myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke in such population [102]. The major reason for sudden cardiac death in patients with uremic cardiomyopathy is fatal arrhythmia which is in contrast to the general population where the most common reason for SCD is acute MI. The risk factors for adverse cardiovascular events in dialysis patients include anemia, high parathyroid hormone levels, hypo or hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, fast electrolyte shift, chronic volume overload, inflammation, coronary artery disease, autonomic dysfunction, atrial fibrillation, heart failure with systolic dysfunction, and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) [103].
The clinical features in uremic cardiomyopathy patients are similar to that of HF patients such as dyspnea, orthopnea, fatigue, weakness, elevated jugular venous pressure, an S3 gallop, rales, and peripheral edema. ECG can show findings suggestive of LVH and may show nonspecific ischemic changes. Echocardiography may reveal LV systolic dysfunction, LV diastolic dysfunction, or valve dysfunction. Laboratory tests may show elevated natriuretic peptides and cardiac enzymes like other cardiomyopathies, but the interpretation of those tests is difficult in a patient with CKD or ESRD as these patients usually have elevated levels of cardiac biomarkers at baseline due to poor renal clearance. Thus, an entire clinical picture with lab tests, ECG findings, and echocardiogram findings should be taken to make a diagnosis of uremic cardiomyopathy.
Conventional hemodialysis is the main treatment for uremic cardiomyopathy, and it may cause regression of LVH. Hemodialysis is also known to reverse the systolic dysfunction and thus improve LVEF in some patients with ESRD. However, patients tend to continue to have cardiac dysfunction or uremic cardiomyopathy even while on hemodialysis treatment, thus conventional hemodialysis may not be adequate treatment despite being the treatment of choice. Renal transplantation has been shown to reverse uremic cardiomyopathy and to confer a significant survival advantage over hemodialysis [104]. Future therapies targeting the underlying cellular mechanisms of uremic cardiomyopathy may help to reduce the burden of uremic cardiomyopathy in the CKD and ESRD population. In a study on uremic mice, Rapamycin has been shown to reduce cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis [105]. Thus, rapamycin has the potential to be an effective therapy for uremic cardiomyopathy. LVH is the early and pertinent manifestation of uremic cardiomyopathy as well as a powerful independent predictor of survival in CKD. The regression of LVH can reduce cardiovascular risk and improve survival.
Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy (CCM) is defined as a cardiac dysfunction in patients with cirrhosis, which is characterized by impaired contractile responsiveness to stress and/or altered diastolic relaxation, with electrophysiological abnormalities, in the absence of other known cardiac disorder [106, 107, 108]. For years CCM was confused with alcoholic cardiomyopathy, but in 1953, Kowalski and Abelmann demonstrated the existence of a circulatory dysfunction specific to liver cirrhosis [109]. Since then many experimental and clinical studies have established the existence of CCM different than alcoholic cardiomyopathy. Cirrhosis of the liver leads to a hyperdynamic circulatory state, which induces cardiac dysfunctions that characterize the CCM syndrome which includes a combination of systolic and diastolic dysfunctions, prolonged ventricular repolarization, and the inability of the sinus node to increase heart rate during exercise [108].
CCM is a condition in which patients usually remain asymptomatic for months to years as they have a near-normal cardiac function at rest and develop symptoms only under conditions of physical or pharmacological stress [110]. Thus, the diagnosis of CCM is challenging and the actual prevalence of this condition remains unknown. Pathogenesis of CCM includes mechanisms such as the increased activity of the vasodilator pathway through the actions of NO, cytokines, cannabinoids, carbon monoxide, and cytokines, decreased beta-adrenergic function, and sodium and calcium transport kinetics downregulation in the cardiac muscle which can lead to an impaired contractile function of the cardiomyocyte. CCM is generally a silent condition as patients at rest do not develop any signs or symptoms of heart failure as peripheral vasodilatation protects the heart by reducing afterload [108]. However, CCM should be suspected in patients with cirrhosis presenting with a decrease in exercise tolerance and HF symptoms in the absence of any other underlying heart disease.
Echocardiogram and ECG are the most important tests to diagnose CCM. ECG can reveal prolongation of QT interval in such patients. The most common echocardiography finding in such patients is first-degree diastolic dysfunction which is characterized by reduced early diastolic ventricular filling and increased atrial filling (E/A < 1.0), deceleration time > 200 ms, and prolonged isovolumetric relaxation time (ITVR >80 ms) representing increased resistance to ventricular inflow [111]. Stress echocardiography is also a useful method that should be used in patients with advanced liver disease as it can detect subtle systolic and diastolic dysfunctions before the ventricular ejection fraction is decreased [112]. Laboratory tests usually show elevated levels of troponin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and NT-proBNP. Additionally, CMR can also serve as a useful tool in the diagnosis of CCM. In patients with CCM, late gadolinium enhancement has a diffuse myocardial distribution in MR images with the appearance of myocarditis [113].
The treatment of CCM is similar to the treatment of HF in non-cirrhotic patients. However, reduction in afterload is not recommended in patients with advanced cirrhosis as these patients are already significantly dilated. However, in patients with final-stage liver disease and associated with CCM, liver transplantation is the only effective established treatment. Liver transplantation has been shown to reverse the systolic and diastolic dysfunction and prolonged QT interval [114, 115]. However, the unavailability of organ donors and cost concerns should be considered. The candidates must be well evaluated, as patients are at risk of death by HF, coronary artery disease, tachyarrhythmias, and other cardiac deaths in the post-operative term of liver transplantation. There is no accurate data on the prognosis for liver transplantation in patients with CCM. Patients with CCM should avoid physical effort and other forms of stress and should be provided with oxygen in some situations.
Reversible cardiomyopathies have been considered as one of the under diagnosed etiologies of non-ischemic cardiomyopathy that require careful clinical insight. Although reversible in nature but if remain undiagnosed, it can lead to catastrophic effects. It is hypothesized to have better prognosis compared to ischemic cardiomyopathy. Early diagnosis is warranted to guide efficient treatment. Further research regarding diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm for this subset of cardiomyopathy is needed to improve long term outcomes (Table 1).
Etiology of cardiomyopathy | Pathophysiology | Management |
---|---|---|
Myocarditis | Inflammation due to infectious agent, most commonly viral. | Natural course with recovery, no definitive treatment. Steroid may be used in Giant cell myocarditis |
Sepsis-induced | Not well understood. Probably reaction due to cytokines release. | Treatment of underlying infection. |
Alcoholic | High incidence of cardiomegaly. Toxicity mediated due to adenosine accumulation. | Alcohol cessation |
Peripartum | Most commonly in the last trimester. Could be misdiagnosed. Not clear mechanism. | Standard CHF treatment. Bromocriptine may be helpful |
Stress Induced | Known as Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy. Caused by sudden release of catecholamine due to stress. | Spontaneous recovery |
Tachycardia induced | Arrythmia such as atrial tachycardia and PVC induced | Arrythmia ablation |
Thyroid disease-induced | It is a part of Metabolic Cardiomyopathy. Caused by hyper or hypothyroidism. Could lead to arrhythmias especially atrial fibrillation. | Treatment of underlying condition |
Hypoventilation Related | Most commonly due to OSA. Could cause structure and hemodynamic changes. | Better prognosis if early intervention of the OSA before severe changes in the intracardiac pressures. |
Toxic | Could be cause by licit or ilicit agents that results cardiotoxic | Most of the times reversible once the agent is stopped. |
Summary of Reversible Cardiomyopathies.
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Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8773.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8447",title:"Density Functional Theory Calculations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"430664e87463d090a0f03b1f096a7d9d",slug:"density-functional-theory-calculations",bookSignature:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro, Luis Henrique Da Silveira Lacerda and Renan Augusto Pontes Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8447.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Ricardo De",middleName:null,surname:"Lazaro",slug:"sergio-ricardo-de-lazaro",fullName:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9881",title:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8fa0e0f48567bbc50fbb3bfdde6f9a0b",slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",bookSignature:"Someshwar Pola, Neeraj Panwar and Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9881.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7430",title:"Magnetometers",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetism",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d7c0464c36927782cee8c9ef40efca6",slug:"magnetometers-fundamentals-and-applications-of-magnetism",bookSignature:"Sergio Curilef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:67,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50566",doi:"10.5772/63234",title:"Influences of Doping on Photocatalytic Properties of TiO2 Photocatalyst",slug:"influences-of-doping-on-photocatalytic-properties-of-tio2-photocatalyst",totalDownloads:5464,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:80,abstract:"As a kind of highly effective, low‐cost, and stable photocatalysts, TiO2 has received substantial public and scientific attention. However, it can only be activated under ultraviolet light irradiation due to its wide bandgap, high recombination, and weak separation efficiency of carriers. Doping is an effective method to extend the light absorption to the visible light region. In this chapter, we will address the importance of doping, different doping modes, preparation method, and photocatalytic mechanism in TiO2 photocatalysts. Thereafter, we will concentrate on Ti3+ self‐doping, nonmetal doping, metal doping, and codoping. Examples of progress can be given for each one of these four doping modes. The influencing factors of preparation method and doping modes on photocatalytic performance (spectrum response, carrier transport, interfacial electron transfer reaction, surface active sites, etc.) are summed up. The main objective is to study the photocatalytic processes, to elucidate the mechanistic models for a better understanding the photocatalytic reactions, and to find a method of enhancing photocatalytic activities.",book:{id:"5139",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis - Materials, Mechanisms and Applications"},signatures:"Fei Huang, Aihua Yan and Hui Zhao",authors:[{id:"178389",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"fei-huang",fullName:"Fei Huang"},{id:"185126",title:"Dr.",name:"Aihua",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"aihua-yan",fullName:"Aihua Yan"},{id:"185127",title:"Ms.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"hui-zhao",fullName:"Hui Zhao"}]},{id:"17184",doi:"10.5772/17039",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-from-synthesis-to-applications",totalDownloads:17338,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:70,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"S. Anandhan and S. Bandyopadhyay",authors:[{id:"27050",title:"Prof.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",slug:"sri-bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Sri Bandyopadhyay"},{id:"44992",title:"Prof.",name:"Anandhan",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"anandhan-srinivasan",fullName:"Anandhan Srinivasan"}]},{id:"9725",doi:"10.5772/8508",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:27961,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"3621",slug:"silver-nanoparticles",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles"},signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:null},{id:"52860",doi:"10.5772/65937",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:5467,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"Due to excellent physical and chemical properties, cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has attracted much attention in recent years. This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]},{id:"17194",doi:"10.5772/21694",title:"Properties of Nanofillers in Polymer",slug:"properties-of-nanofillers-in-polymer",totalDownloads:20422,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"Damien M. Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:4067,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3784,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2311,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. Rivero"},{id:"197277",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Arregui",slug:"francisco-arregui",fullName:"Francisco Arregui"}]},{id:"25297",title:"Nanofabrication of Metal Oxide Patterns Using Self-Assembled Monolayers",slug:"nanofabrication-of-metal-oxide-patterns-using-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:3473,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"860",slug:"nanofabrication",title:"Nanofabrication",fullTitle:"Nanofabrication"},signatures:"Yoshitake Masuda",authors:[{id:"12385",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshitake",middleName:null,surname:"Masuda",slug:"yoshitake-masuda",fullName:"Yoshitake Masuda"}]},{id:"77225",title:"Piezoelectricity and Its Applications",slug:"piezoelectricity-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The piezoelectric effect is extensively encountered in nature and many synthetic materials. Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. Chandra Sekhar"},{id:"422021",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalakshmi",slug:"b.-dhanalakshmi",fullName:"B. Dhanalakshmi"},{id:"422022",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Srinivasa",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.srinivasa-rao",fullName:"B.Srinivasa Rao"},{id:"422023",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"s.-ramesh",fullName:"S. Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79274",title:"Molecular Simulation of Cholesteric Liquid-Crystal Polyesteramides: Conformational and Structure Analysis by Rietveld Refinement",slug:"molecular-simulation-of-cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-conformational-and-structure-anal",totalDownloads:77,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100388",abstract:"Molecular modeling techniques are applied to polyesteramides designed as PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, synthesized and characterized as cholesteric liquid crystals -through the condensation reaction between 4 and 4′-(terephthaloyl- diaminedibenzoic chloride (NOBC) and racemic glycol: DL-1,2 dodecanediol, or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively, being chemical modifications of precursor multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, adding new properties but holding their helical macromolecular structures. Although the starting raw materials were racemic, these cholesteric LC polymers exhibit unexpected optical activity and chiral morphology. For that reason, conformational analysis is studied on the monomer models of PNOBDME and PNOBEE. Four helical conformers models, experimentally observed by NMR, are proposed for each cholesteric polyesteramide: Rgg, Rgt, Sgg, Sgt. Polymerization of the monomeric conformers, with minima energies, have been simulated and used to reproduce the crystalline fraction observed by x-ray diffraction. Three orders of chirality are observed in the structure of the polymer chains: One due to the asymmetric carbon atoms, a second chirality due to the two successive rotations of the benzene groups, along the main chain, within the monomer which implies the formation of helical molecules, for both R and S chirality and still, a third chirality corresponding to the twisting of the rigid/semirigid cholesteric LC polymer chains. All these factors contributing to the net optical activity observed in these materials. Crystal packing is simulated in triclinic primitive P1cells, with molecular chains oriented parallel to the z-axis (c lattice parameter equal to the pitch length of each simulated polymer helix) and parameters a, b, α, β and γ, obtained by Pawley refinement from the known structures of precursor polyesters. The simulated x-ray diffraction patterns of the proposed crystal models fit, after successive Pawley and Rietveld refinement cycles, the experimental WAXS. Powder Quantitative Phase Analysis applied to an ideal mixture with the four possible helical conformers, for each degree of polymerization, allows to refine their relative weight and determine the major phase relative amount. These results would confirm the theory of a preferable recrystallization, among the four possible helical diastereoisomers, depending on the synthetic conditions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez, José Fayos Alcañiz and Marc Meunier"},{id:"80636",title:"The LCD Interfacing and Programming",slug:"the-lcd-interfacing-and-programming",totalDownloads:203,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102408",abstract:"This chapter will discuss 10 subchapters that will make it more detailed and easier for the reader to master and implement them in their project. Before discussing the subchapters in detail the author discusses the wide use of LCD in various equipment that needs display and the superiority of it compared to the conventional existing displays especially in the low energy consumption of it compare to the rest of the displays, then the author ended this general discussion by mentioning the type of LCD known in the market right now (passive matrix and active matrix). After discussing the LCD in general, the author starts discussing the detailed 10 subchapters. The 10 subchapters are 1. 2 × 16 LCD; 2. LCD controller; 3. LCD instructions; 4. LCD initialization; 5. More instructions; 6. LCD initialization subroutine; 7. Displaying a character on the LCD; 8. Displaying more than 1 character on the LCD; 9. A 4-bit mode 2 × 16 LCD module. To give the readers with a succinct overview of important details or interesting information, the author provides the summary of this chapter in subchapter 10. The author also provided the glossary to enable the readers to quickly study the general terms used in this chapter. Finally, the author provides some questions to enable the reader to test their own knowledge of this chapter. The references is also provided to enable the readers to refer to some articles as the sources of this subchapter and to enable them to enrich their knowledge of this chapter.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Dahlan Sitompul and Poltak Sihombing"},{id:"80473",title:"Overview of Liquid Crystal Research: Computational Advancements, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applications",slug:"overview-of-liquid-crystal-research-computational-advancements-challenges-future-prospects-and-appli",totalDownloads:93,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101417",abstract:"Liquid crystal (LC) is a fascinating state of matter that combines order and mobility at multiple hierarchical levels, spanning from nanoscale to the macroscale, or from molecular to the macroscopic, and is composed of molecules and layers as thin as of a few nanometer in size. This unique combination allows such a system to adapt to a wide range of external stimuli, including temperature, magnetic field, electric field, mechanical stress, light, chemical reaction, and electrochemical response, by determining a new lowest energy configuration. Liquid crystalline nanostructures efficiently transmit and amplify information and attributes over macroscopic sizes due to their dynamic nature. The responsiveness and diversity of LCs provide enormous potential and challenges for fundamental scientific insights as well as opening the door to countless applied applications. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have boosted the discipline, both in terms of theoretical simulations and the ability to fabricate nanoscale structures such as sub-wavelength gratings, nanoporous materials, and nanoparticles. Because LC materials are switchable, a new family of active plasmonic and nanophotonic devices is emerging, describing fascinating basic research processes as well as the creation of upgraded devices. This chapter discusses the fundamentals, computational advances, future prospects and challenges, as well as potential applications of LCs.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Malik, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Wajeehah Shahid, Syed Zaheer Ud Din, Mujtaba Ikram, Nadia Anwar, Samiah Shahid and Faryal Idrees"},{id:"80010",title:"Phase Transitions and Structure of Liquid Crystalline Cellulose Ether Solutions in a Magnetic Field and in Its Absence",slug:"phase-transitions-and-structure-of-liquid-crystalline-cellulose-ether-solutions-in-a-magnetic-field-",totalDownloads:95,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101451",abstract:"The results of research studies of a magnetic field effect on structure and phase transitions of liquid crystalline polymer systems are described. Influence of intensity of the magnetic field, molecular weight, and concentration of polymers in solutions on the phase diagrams is analyzed. The dependences of boundary curves on the chemical structure of polymers and solvents are discussed. Results of theoretical researches of the magnetic field effect on the diamagnetic macromolecule orientation in solutions are described. The shift of boundary curves of liquid crystalline cellulose derivative systems is compared with the energy of magnetic field stored by solutions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey Vshivkov and Elena Rusinova"},{id:"78941",title:"High Precision Optical Wavefront Generation Using Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulator (LC-SLM)",slug:"high-precision-optical-wavefront-generation-using-liquid-crystal-spatial-light-modulator-lc-slm-",totalDownloads:180,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100379",abstract:"LC-SLM provides a flexible way to modulate the phase of light with the help of a grayscale pattern loaded on it. Nevertheless, the modulated phase profile is of relatively low accuracy due to the nonlinear and nonuniform response of the liquid crystal layer in the SLM. To improve the performance of LC-SLM on the wavefront generation, the nonlinear and nonuniform phase response needs to be calibrated and compensated effectively. In this chapter, we present some state-of-art methods to measure the phase modulation curve of the LC-SLM. Some methods to measure the static aberration caused by the backplane of the LC-SLM are then presented. Last but not the least, the future development of the LC-SLM in phase modulation is also presented.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Zixin Zhao"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. 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Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82777",title:"Sustainability and Social Investment: Community Microhydropower Systems in the Dominican Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105995",signatures:"Michela Izzo, Alberto Sánchez and Rafael Fonseca",slug:"sustainability-and-social-investment-community-microhydropower-systems-in-the-dominican-republic",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"82387",title:"Kept Promises? 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