Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Nutritional analysis of different millets and other cereal grains (g per 100 g) [2, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Abstract
Millets are one of the oldest food grains known to mankind. They are considered underutilized crops and can sustain in harsh environments with limited water resources where other crops grow or yield poorly. Millets are very adaptable: they thrive in dry regions, on clay soils, in wet lowlands, or alluvial lands. Their root systems are powerful, able to descend very quickly to a great depth of soil to extract water and minerals, and thus have high adaptability to climate change, especially drought. Millets have a good nutritional profile along with good nutraceutical potential and thus can be considered a great crop for combating food nutritional security globally.
Keywords
- nutrition
- medicinal properties
- millets
- value-added products
- food products
1. Introduction
Millets are considered to be one of the oldest and most important cereal grains known to mankind [1, 2, 3]. Millets are ranked as the 6th cereal crop in terms of the world’s agricultural production and are the staple diet for nearly 1/3rd of the world’s population [1, 2]. Millets constitute the staple diet in many parts of Asia and Africa since ancient times [4].
Millets are usually small-seeded annual cereal grains that are part of the Poaceae family, are cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical region [5]. Millets can be grown even in areas with limited natural resources because they need very little water for production and can be grown without irrigation or in areas with very little rainfall (200–500 mm) i.e., can withstand drought conditions, higher heat regimes, less fertile soil, pest resistance, and short growing season usually 45–60 days [2, 3, 5]. Millets are classified as C4 cereals. C4 cereals are more environmentally friendly because they use water more efficiently, convert more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to oxygen, and require less energy [6]. Millets are broadly categorized into two major groups: (1) major millets; pearl millet or bajra (
Figure 1.
Top 10 producers of millet in the world.
Figure 2.
Production share of millets by different region.
Millets were discovered to have a high nutritional content that is equivalent to that of popular grains like wheat and rice [11]. They are considered as high-energy yielding nourishing foods which help in addressing malnutrition [5]. Table 1 summarizes the average nutritious makeup of several millet grains and other significant cereal grains. Along with amazing nutritional values millets also have health benefits. A number of health benefits are associated with the consumption of millets, largely due to the bioactive phytochemicals found in these cereals, such as lignans, flavonoids, phenolics, beta-glucan, sterols, inulin, pigments, dietary fiber, and phytate [5]. They aid in the management of health issues such as diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, cancer, and cardiovascular illnesses, as well as decreasing blood pressure, risk of heart disease, cholesterol, and the rate of fat absorption, and delaying stomach emptying [2, 11]. Phenolics rich millets are of great significance in health, aging, and metabolic syndrome. The presence of phytate in the millets is allied with anticancer and cholesterol lowering property. Millets with fiber-rich content are essential for preventing the gall stone formation. Millets are most commonly thought of as a good source of proteins which play a crucial role in the suppression of malnutrition [5]. Additionally, millets are also used as an important component of many traditional diets, and are frequently utilized as food and fodder in rural areas. With time millets are used to prepare a variety of value-added products, either as the base ingredient or by substituting any other grain. Despite not being a significant component of the average American or European diet, millets are increasingly valued as a component of multigrain and gluten-free cereal products in these regions. However, millet is a common staple food in many Asian and African nations, where it is also used to make a variety of ethnic cuisines and drinks [12]. The food products are made with a combination of wheat flour and other millet flour with millet flour to enhance the sensory profile. It is used in a variety of ways to get value-added products, either by substituting any other grain or as the base ingredient.
| Grains | Protein | Carbohydrate | Fat | Fiber | Ash | Moisture | Calorific value (kcal) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barnyard millet | 10.76–13 | 55.7–74 | 3.5–4.8 | 3.9–13.6 | 3.3–4.6 | 7.78–11.24 | 300–310 |
| Finger millet | 7.3–10 | 71.52–83.3, | 1.30–1.8 | 3.4–4.2 | 2.63–2.8 | 7.68–13.1 | 328–334 |
| Pearl millet | 10.6–11.8 | 59.8–75.6 | 4.8–5.7 | 1.3–2.3 | 1.64–2.2 | 12.4 | 363–412 |
| Foxtail millet | 11.34–12.3 | 60.2–75.2 | 3.33–4.3 | 4.1–8.7 | 3.37 | 7.69–11.2 | 330–352 |
| Proso millet | 11.74–13 | 67.09–82 | 1.1–4.9 | 2.2–8.47 | 2.73–4 | 11.9 | 330–352 |
| Kodo millet | 8.3–10.2 | 63.82–73.5 | 1.4–3.9 | 5.2–9.5 | 2.83–3.6 | 8.06–10.83 | 309–349.5 |
| Little millet | 7.7–10.7 | 66.3–75 | 4.7–6 | 4–7.6 | 2.5–5.9 | 8.56–11.98 | 329–341 |
| Sorghum | 11 | 70.7–72.97 | 3.23 | 1.97–6.7 | 1.6–1.7 | 6.07–11.16 | 329–339 |
| Rice | 4.99–6.94 | 74.3–82.86 | 1.90 | 1.63 | 0.99 | 11.6 | 369 |
| Wheat | 11.6–13.78 | 69.88–75.90 | 1.5–2.81 | 1.77 | 1.63 | 9.44 | 348–438 |
Table 1.
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2.1.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.2.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.3.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.4.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.5.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.6.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.7.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2.8.1 Taxonomical classification of the
2. Nutritional, nutraceutical potential, and value-added products of different millets
2.1 Barnyard millet
2.1.1 Taxonomical classification of the Echinochloa frumentacea (common name—Indian Barnyard millet)
2.1.2 Nutritional properties of barnyard millet
Barnyard millet is a good source of protein, fat, carbohydrate and crude fiber, vitamins and micronutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, copper, and some essential amino acids, alkaloids, glycosides. It also contains phytochemicals such as phenolic acid, flavonoids, and tannins which serve as a good source of natural antioxidants [21, 22]. Barnyard millet is a rich source of several vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol), and contains some antinutrient constituents (a-amylase inhibitors, trypsin inhibitors, phytate, and tannins) [11, 22], fatty acids (linoleic acid, oleic, palmitic, stearic acid, and linolenic acid) [23]. Additionally it also contains amino acids like valine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, histidine, threonine, tryptophan, and methionine [15, 24].
2.1.3 Therapeutic attributes of barnyard millet
Barnyard millet is useful in the treatment of biliousness and constipation [25, 26] and allergic diseases such as atopic dermatitis [27]. It is best in lowering blood glucose and lipid levels therefore can be potentially recommended for patients with cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus [22]. It is also reported to have good antioxidant potential, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, having a wound healing capacity [21]. Due to its high iron content, barnyard millet can help pregnant women who suffer from anaemia [6].
2.1.4 Food products prepared from barnyard millet
Barnyard millet is generally used in the preparation of different value-added products such as vermicelli, roti/chapati, noodles, biscuits, cookies, malt-based weaning food, extruded products, snack food, ladoo, halwa, biryani, dosa [6, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
2.2 Finger millet
2.2.1 Taxonomical classification of the Eleusine coracana (common name—Finger millet)
2.2.2 Nutritional properties of finger millet
Finger millet is a very good source of micronutrients such as iron, zinc, calcium, potassium, selenium, copper, manganese, protein, fat, dietary fibers, polyphenols, pigments, phytates [22, 40, 43, 44], and amino acids such as lysine, valine, tryptophan, methionine, threonine, leucine, and isoleucine [40, 42, 45], vitamins (vitamin A, E, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folates, carotenoids) [40, 41, 43, 46], fatty acids (palmitic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic) [41]. Finger millet has the highest calcium content (344 mg/100 g) among all the food grains [1].
2.2.3 Therapeutic attributes of finger millet
Consumption of whole grain of finger millet is associated with health benefits, such as its hypoglycemic [42, 47], hypocholestrolemic characteristics, antitumerogenic, antidiarrheal, antiinflammatory, atherosclerogenic, antimicrobial, and antiulcerative properties [22, 42, 48, 49]. Additionally, it can reduce the risk of gastrointestinal malignancies, type II diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and a variety of other illnesses [22]. Finger millet also helps in maintaining young and youthful skin. It is an excellent source of calcium and iron that helps to strengthen body bones and is a boon for anemic patients and also for those with low hemoglobin levels [43, 45].
2.2.4 Food products prepared from finger millet
Finger millet is generally used in the form of the whole meal for preparation of traditional foods, such as roti/chapati, mudde (dumpling), ambali (thin porridge), porridge, malting and weaning foods, papad, bakery products (biscuit, nank-hatai, muffins, rusk, cake, and bread), fermented foods (idli, dosa), dhokla, uthapam, chikki, beverages (chang/jnard, sur, madua, Themsing, rakshi, mingri, lohpani, koozh), pasta, vermicelli, noodles, ladoo, finger millet fritters, Vada, Soup, extruded products [1, 6, 22, 40, 42, 43, 44, 48, 50, 51, 52].
2.3 Pearl millet
2.3.1 Taxonomical classification of the Pennisetum glaucum (common name—Pearl millet)
2.3.2 Nutritional properties of pearl millet
Pearl millet is significantly rich source of protein, fat, ash, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers, crude fiber, carbohydrate, resistant starch, minerals (calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, manganese, magnesium, copper) tannins, phytates, oxalates, flavanoids, vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin E, A, folates), amino acids such as threonine, tryptophan, lysine, methionine, and fatty acids omega-9, omega-6, omega-3 [14, 53, 54, 55, 56].
2.3.3 Therapeutic attributes of pearl millet
Pearl millet helps in reducing respiratory disease, migraine, and gall stones [57]. It is reported to have anticancerous, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiinflammatory property [14, 55, 58]. It helps in increasing hemoglobin, antiallergic, helps in dealing with constipation, antiulcerative properties, helps in weight loss and essential for bone growth and development, prevents cardio-vascular diseases, regulates blood pressure, helpful in celiac disease [57, 58].
2.3.4 Food products prepared from pearl millet
Pearl millet is generally used in the preparation of various value-added food products such as cutlets, weaning food, vermicelli, instant beverage powder, biscuits, upma mixes, bread, cakes, muffins, roti/chapati, instant idli, dhokla, uthapam, kheer, extruded product, cookies, snack bar, beverages (appalu, Oshikundu) [6, 10, 32, 53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66].
2.4 Foxtail millet
2.4.1 Taxonomical classification of the Setaria italica (common name—Foxatil millet)
2.4.2 Nutritional properties of foxtail millet
Foxtail millet is found to be the good source of protein, crude fiber, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins (A, niacin, thiamine, riboflavin, E), fatty acids (palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidic acid), minerals (selenium, calcium, phosphorus, copper, magnesium, iron, potassium), amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine, tryptophan). Additionally, it is abundant in phytochemicals such phytic acid [67, 68, 69], phenolic acid (chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic and p-coumaric acid) [70].
2.4.3 Therapeutic attributes of foxtail millet
Foxtail millet is suitable for individuals suffering from diabetes mellitus due to its low glycemic index. It possess several health benefits like prevention of cancer, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects, curing dementia, helps in maintaining cholesterol level, antiproliferative activity, antilipidemic activity [6, 70], reduces inflammation, potentially promoting anticancer, antiaging, and improves the overall digestive health [68], increases kidney functionality, helps in development of body tissue and energy metabolism [71].
2.4.4 Food products prepared from foxtail millet
Foxtail millet is used as an important ingredient for preparing halwa, ladoo, noodles, soup, beverages (sikhye, yakju), cereal porridges, ready to eat extruded snacks, cookies, pancakes, cupcakes, biscuits, biryani, idli, dosa, dhokla, rice, upma, baby food, bread, korramurukulu, shakkarpara, ladoo [6, 10, 36, 38, 52, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75].
2.5 Proso millet
2.5.1 Taxonomical classification of the Panicum miliaceum (common name—Proso millet)
2.5.2 Nutritional properties of proso millet
Proso millet is said to be a rich source of crude fiber, carbohydrates, and protein. It is highly rich in amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, tryptophon, phenylalanine, valine, and methionine), minerals (zinc, copper, boron, phosphorus, potassium, iron, manganese). It is also rich in polyphenolic compounds such as phytic acid, catechin, tannin [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81], vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, B6, niacin, vitamin E, and fatty acids (oleic, linoleic acid) [77, 81, 82, 83].
2.5.3 Therapeutic attributes of proso millet
Proso millet is potentially helpful in preventing cancer, heart disease and managing liver disease and diabetes [80]. Low glycemic index grains are beneficial for treating type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular conditions. It helps in reducing cholesterol and high blood pressure levesl and also helps in preventing cancer and reduces the risk of heart diseases, prevents liver injuries, celiac disease, and obesity. It also slows down the aging process and may protect against age-onset degenerative diseases [77, 78, 81].
2.6 Little millet
2.6.1 Taxonomical classification of the Panicum sumatrense (common name—Little millet)
2.6.2 Nutritional properties of little millet
Little millet is rich in protein, carbohydrates, minerals (iron, phosphorus, manganese, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, zinc), vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid), and amino acids (tryptophan, phenylalanine, lysine, threonine, valine, leucine, isoleucine) [85, 86].
2.6.3 Therapeutic attributes of little millet
Little millet is helpful for diabetic patients, reduces blood glucose level, improves heart health, good for lowering cholesterol level, helps in weight loss [2, 71, 86]. It exhibits hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects [87] and prevents metabolic disorder [88].
2.7 Kodo millet
2.7.1 Taxonomical classification of the Paspalum scrobiculatum (common name—Kodo millet)
2.7.2 Nutritional properties of kodo millet
Kodo millet is a nutritious grain being rich in protein, crude fiber, carbohydrate, minerals (iron, calium, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium), vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid; amino acids (lysine, threonine, valine, leucine, isoleucine) [6, 85, 86, 94]. It is also rich in polyphenolic compounds such as gallic acid, tannins, gentisic acid, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, para coumaric acid, transcinnamic acid, and 5
2.7.3 Therapeutic attributes of kodo millet
Kodo millet has numerous health benefits like antidiabetic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiobesity, anticholesterol, antimutagenic, antioestrogenic, anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory, antihypertension, and antiviral effects [95, 96]. It is useful in curing asthma, migraine, blood pressure, aging, heart attack, cardiovascular disease, and atherosclerosis [94].
2.7.4 Food products prepared from kodo millet
Kodo millet is used as an important ingredient for preparing roti/chapati, bread, cakes, extrusion of cereal-based products, gravy, soup, porridge, instant powders, dosa, ladoo, pudding, chakli, pongal, puttu, cutlet, methi rice, sev, idiyappam, cookies, kozhukattai, thattai, payasam, boli, sheera, pakoda, halwa, upma, idli, adai, murukkus, biscuits, yogurt, papad, thatuvadai, kolukattai, adhirasam, vermicelli, pasta [32, 37, 86, 89, 93, 95, 97, 98].
2.8 Sorghum
2.8.1 Taxonomical classification of the Sorghum bicolor (common name—Sorghum)
2.8.2 Nutritional properties of sorghum
Sorghum is the good source of protein, crude fiber, fat, carbohydrates, fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, linolenic), minerals (magnesium, sodium, selenium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc, copper, and manganese), and amino acids (alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, leucine, phenylalanine, proline, valine). Sorghum is a great source of bioactive substances such phenolic acids, flavanoids, tannins, 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, proanthocyanins, and carotenoids as well as vitamins B complex, D, E, and K, as well as β-carotene [17, 18, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106].
2.8.3 Therapeutic attributes of sorghum
Sorghum is beneficial in curing diseases such as obesity, diabetes, celiac disease, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, cancer, heart diseases, dyslipidemia, maintains cholesterol level, bone health, hypertension, and prevents anemia. The grain also has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, and anticancer activity [18, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110].
2.8.4 Food products prepared from sorghum
Sorghum is used as an important ingredient for the preparation of gluten-free breads, cookies, porridge (madeda, logma or asida), tortillas, enjera, pasta, muffins, nefro, cupcakes, kisra, ladoo, chapati, chaat, beverages (tela, arekie, pito, bouza, kunu-zaki, mahewu, tea, chibuku, bushera, burukutu, ikigage, enturire, merissa, otika, thobwa, Orubisi), juice, cake, noodles, extruded products, thekua, tender sweet sorghum (hurda) [17, 103, 105, 107, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118].
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3. Conclusion
Millets play an important role in the food security and generating economy of developing countries throughout the world. In this chapter, we have focused on the nutritional profile and medicinal properties of different millet grains and their value-added food products. According to the findings of research, millet grains are equivalent to major grains in terms of the amount of health-promoting nutrients they contain, including phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. They also offer a number of other possible health benefits. It will be beneficial to encourage the use of millet grains in urban areas in order to open new markets for farmers and improve their income if millet food products that offer convenience, taste, texture, color, and shelf-stability are made popular in society. Promoting growth and development and marketing might help safeguard food and nutrition, create jobs, and generate revenues. These healthy “super foods,” as the new health industry christened, have become a part of the modern daily diet of health-conscious people.
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