Biofortification of Millets: A Way to Ensure Nutritional Security

Abstract

Malnutrition poses significant socioeconomic challenges worldwide, with its most acute impact felt in developing and impoverished nations. This issue is exacerbated by the reliance on cereal-based diets, which often lack essential micronutrients, as the world’s population continues to grow. Millets and whole grains emerge as promising solutions to this dilemma. Although millets have historically served as a primary energy source in regions like Asia, Africa, and other semi-arid tropical areas, their nutritional value has been underrated. Beyond their carbohydrate content, millets are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and crucial amino acids. Biofortification, the practice of enhancing the nutrient content of staple crops, offers a cost-effective approach to address micronutrient deficiencies. Initiatives like Harvest Plus in India have introduced biofortified millets to combat widespread deficiency disorders. The global distribution of biofortified millets is supported by non-governmental organisations, the business sector, and government regulatory bodies. This book chapter delves into these critical efforts, emphasising their role in ensuring nutritional security and effectively tackling malnutrition on a global scale.

1. Introduction

Malnutrition has substantial socioeconomic repercussions everywhere, but is more prevalent in developing and underdeveloped countries. Malnutrition, which is caused by insufficient intake of a balanced diet, compromises health, increases vulnerability to numerous diseases, and causes a large loss in annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which can reach 11% in Asia and Africa [1]. Around 2 billion people around the world are undernourished, and 815 million are malnourished. Malnutrition has the greatest impact on children, who account for 151 million stunted children under the age of 5 and 51 million who do not weigh enough for their height (wasting) Malnutrition is linked to over 45% of fatalities in children under the age of five [2]. The issue is so pervasive that hunger in two or more forms affects 88% of the world’s nations. Malnutrition is most prevalent in Southern Asia, where 33.3 and 15.3 percent of children (>5 years) are stunted and wasted, respectively, compared to the global averages of 22.2 and 7.5 percent [3].

The process of “biofortification” involves using standard plant breeding or agronomic techniques, like fertiliser administration, to increase the amount of micronutrients in food crops during plant growth [4]. It is an agricultural-nutrition strategy that addresses the most prevalent and avoidable global micronutrient gaps in populations that depend on staple food crops for sustenance and have little access to alternative sources of micronutrients, such as fortified foods, supplements, or more varied diets, and have physiological needs that differ from intake [5, 6].

Millets, which produce an average of 14.2 and 12.4 million tonnes annually and are consumed in resource-poor nations in Asia and Africa, make about 75% of the total calories consumed. About 80% of the world’s millet production is produced in India, making it the top producer of millets [7]. The term “small seeded grasses” is often used to describe millets, which include pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn), foxtail millet (Setariaitalica (L.) Beauv), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), barnyard millet (Echinochloa (Panicum sumatrense) [8, 9, 10, 11].

Pearl millet accounts for 95% of the production of the millets, The second-largest crop of millets, foxtail millet (S. italica (L.) P. Beauv) is grown for food in Asia’s semi-arid tropics and for forage in Europe, North America, Australia, and North Africa [12]. The sixth-largest crop now grown, finger millet is the main source of nutrition for rural inhabitants in southern India, East and Central Africa. A short-season crop called proso millet is grown in arid areas of Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, and North America [13, 14]. Barnyard millet is the fastest growing among the millets with a harvesting period of 6 weeks [15]. It is mostly grown for food and fodder in India, China, Japan, and Korea. Native to South America’s tropical and subtropical climates, kodo millet was domesticated in India. Before 3000 years [16, 17].

Because millets are rich in proteins, dietary fibres, iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin B, and vital amino acids, they are nutritionally superior to wheat and rice [18, 19]. Phytates, polyphenols, and tannins, however, are antinutrients that chelate multivalent cations including Fe2+, Zn2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ to lower the bioavailability of minerals [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Additionally, the digestibility of millet grains is impacted by high levels of protease and amylase inhibitors [25, 26, 27]. Millets are now considered to be an economic outcast on the global stage due to the domination of antinutritional elements. With the exception of Golden rice, biofortified crops have generally been generated through conventional breeding that takes use of the genetic diversity present in the environment (www.harvestplus.org). When compared to other cereal crops, millets have significantly higher genetic variability for important mineral elements including iron, zinc, and calcium [28]. Moreover, millets are drought tolerant crops [29], resistant to pests and diseases offering good insurance against crop failure in developing countries [30, 31]. Despite millets’ higher quality, India has solely prioritised pearl millet as the preferred crop for iron biofortification. As a result, there is enormous potential to use the minor millets for biofortification. Millets can be biofortified using one of two methods: either increasing the nutrient accumulation in milled grains or lowering the antinutrients to boost the bioavailability of minerals. This book chapter will emphasise in-depth details on millets’ biofortification.

2. Methodology for the review of the literature

PubMed, Google, and other databases are searched for relevant material. We conducted a search of all review papers using the keywords “Millets, Bio fortification, Nutritional Security.” Additionally, the global scenario, efforts, critical evaluations, government reports, agency reports, and publicly available data were analysed. The necessary data was gathered, compiled, and analysed.

3. Nutrients and their functions

3.1 Nutritional factors

1. Protein: It provides the necessary amino acids for tissue repair and growth. Poor intellectual growth, disorganised physical functioning, and even fatality result from its lack. Humans that consume inadequate amounts of protein develop the conditions kwashiorkor and marasmus [32].

2. Lysine: Along with acting as a precursor for a number of neurotransmitters and metabolic regulators, it is a component of protein synthesis. Lysine deficiency causes exhaustion, nausea, dizziness, anaemia, slowed growth, appetite loss, and deterioration of reproductive tissue.

3. Tryptophan: It serves as a precursor for a number of neurotransmitters and as a regulator of metabolic pathways in addition to being a protein building block. Lack of it causes irritability, anxiety, and depression. The main signs of tryptophan insufficiency in children include weight loss and delayed growth.

4. Iron: The healthy functioning of the brain and muscular tissues depends on this mineral element. Oxygen is transferred from the lungs to other tissues via red blood cell haemoglobin. The most typical sign of iron deficiency in humans is the development of anaemia. Growth and development are also delayed by iron deficiency.

5. Zinc: It is a mineral substance that serves as a cofactor in more than 300 vital human enzymes. Controlling the production and breakdown of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids depends on it. Zinc deficiency causes growth slowdown, appetite loss, compromised immune system function, and increased susceptibility to infections.

6. Calcium: It is a mineral element necessary for the development and maintenance of healthy bones and teeth. Additionally, it affects how your heart and muscles move. Osteoporosis, which results from a calcium deficiency, makes bones fragile. The other related symptoms include dental issues, cataracts, and changes in the brain.

7. Vitamin-A: It is essential for the immune system, reproduction, growth, and development, the maintenance of epithelial cell integrity, and the regular operation of the visual system. It is also referred to as “retinol.” The defining symptom of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. Conjunctival and corneal structural changes may also result in xerophthalmia and keratomalacia. Additionally increased risks include those for anaemia, diarrhoea, measles, malaria, and respiratory infections.

8. Vitamin-C: Many tissues, including cartilage, bone, skin, and teeth, require it for metabolism and repair. The digestive system’s capacity to absorb iron is improved by vitamin C. Gum bleeding, bruising, and a poor ability to heal tooth wounds are symptoms of scurvy, which is brought on by a deficiency. Muscle and joint issues are also connected to it.

9. Anthocyanins: These pigments give plant parts their red, purple, and blue hues. Anthocyanins function as antioxidants and aid in the removal of dangerous free radicals generated within the body. In addition to preventing cardiovascular illnesses, anthocyanins have anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-cancer properties.

10. Oleic acid: It is a mono unsaturated fatty acid present in oil. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and the risk of coronary heart disease are both associated with dietary monounsaturated fat intake.

11. Linoleic acid: It is a type of oil-found polyunsaturated fatty acid. Because it lowers total and LDL cholesterol, it’s beneficial for cardiovascular health.

3.2 Anti-nutritional factors

1. Erucic acid: Mustard,rapeseed oils etc. contain this monounsaturated fatty acid. High erucic acid content in edible oils raises blood cholesterol in children, decreases cardiac conductivity, and results in lipidosis [32].

2. Glucosinolates: This group of thioglucosides is mostly found in the Brassicaceae family. When myrosinase breaks down glycosinolates, additional compounds, including glucose and sulphate, are produced. Excessive intake is detrimental to the health of animals since it reduces the appeal of feed and obstructs the thyroid gland’s capacity to absorb iodine, which decreases feed efficiency and weight growth, especially in non-ruminants like pigs and poultry.

3. Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI): It is a non-glycosylated protein that stunts human growth, especially by preventing the digestive enzyme trypsin from working and producing dyspepsia. Most trypsin inhibitors in soybeans, including KTI, are thought to be hazardous to human health.

4. Lipoxygenase: It is an enzyme that aids in the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which imparts an unpleasant flavour to foods made from soybeans. The off-flavour of beans makes customers less likely to prefer soybean as food.

4. Sustainable development goals (SDGs)

The United Nations (UN) developed 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 to chart a route for meeting present-day human needs without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve the same. The core goals of the SDGs are to safeguard the environment, ensure that everyone lives in peace and prosperity, and eradicate extreme poverty, hunger, and malnutrition by 2030. 12 of the 17 goal-indicators have a connection to nutrition [33].

5. Status of malnutrition: Indian scenario

• 35.7% of kids are underweight, 21.0% are wasted, and 38.4% are stunted before the age of five. The population’s extreme poverty rate is 21.9% [33].

• Stunting rates vary greatly among districts (12.4–65.1%), and out of 640 districts, 239 have stunting levels above 40% [34].

• 53% of adult women, 22.7% of adult males, and 58.4% of newborns (6–59 months) are affected by anaemia [35].

• According to estimates, 38% of children (under the age of 5) are zinc deficient, and 70% of children (under the age of 5) are iron deficient, which costs India’s GDP roughly USD 12 billion yearly [36].

By the creation of high-yielding biofortified crop varieties, ICAR is dedicated to the SDGs by taking into account all of these factors.

6. Biofortified crop cultivars

The National Agricultural Research System (NARS), which consists of ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities, has significantly contributed to India’s achievement of food self-sufficiency (SAUs). The amount of food produced in India increased from 50.82 mt in 1950–1951 to 284.8 mt in 2017–2018. (Fourth Advance Estimates) 24. Horticulture crops also increased, going from 96.56 mt in 1991–1992 to 306.8 mt in 2017–2018. (Third Advance Estimates) 24. The tremendous increase in yield potential has been made possible through the development and application of high yielding cultivars and heterotic hybrids, activities that began during the Green Revolution. As of this writing, NARS has produced 4723 unique field crop varieties. Yet during the process of yield augmentation, nutritional quality was not given the attention it required, and as a result, the bulk of these varieties lack the proper level of nutritional quality. Recognising the crucial importance of nutritional quality, NARS’ research has now produced and distributed a variety of biofortified varieties for different crops through All Indian Coordinated Research Programmes (AICRPs). The biofortified varieties also offer enough calories while also supplying the requisite nutrient(s) for healthy growth and development [7].

Similar advantages More than 2 billion people, or one in three people, experience vitamin deficiencies globally. Such deficiencies occur when dietary intake and mineral absorption are insufficient to sustain healthy growth and development. Agricultural research for developing countries has boosted the production and accessibility of calorically dense staple crops during the past 50 years, but not in a proportionate way for non-staples like vegetables, pulses, and animal products, which are high in micronutrients. It has become increasingly difficult for the poor to afford dietary quality as the price of non-essential goods has constantly and considerably grown [7].

Through increasing production of foods high in micronutrients and diversifying diets, long-term reductions in micronutrient shortages will be possible. Eating crops that have been biofortified can help reduce short-term micronutrient shortages by increasing daily adequacy of micronutrient intakes across persons throughout their lives. Biofortification is a helpful complement to other therapies, such as dietary supplements and commercial food fortification, for treating micronutrient deficits that cannot be remedied with a single action. To reach underserved rural populations and to be long-term cost-effective, biofortification offers two important comparative advantages. Contrary to the ongoing financial commitments required for supplementation and commercial fortification projects, a one-time investment in plant breeding yields micronutrient-rich biofortified planting material for farmers to grow at nearly zero marginal cost [37].

After being grown, crops with improved nutrition can be evaluated and adjusted to different environments and areas, double the benefits of the initial investment. When the micronutrient trait is incorporated into the fundamental breeding objectives of national and international crop development programmes, ongoing expenses for monitoring and maintenance by agriculture research institutes are minimal. Another practical aim of biofortified crops is to reach rural populations that might struggle to acquire healthy food or other micronutrient treatments. The target micronutrient levels for biofortified crops are determined to meet the specific nutritional needs of women and children based on current consumption trends. Farmers now have a choice thanks to biofortification, which combines the micronutrient trait with other desired agronomic and consumer qualities [37].

6.1 Crop development

Plant breeding can increase staple crop nutrient levels to target levels needed for increasing human nutrition without losing yield or farmer-preferred agronomic traits. It is required to screen germplasm for genetic diversity, design and test germplasm that is rich in micronutrients, conduct genetic research, and develop molecular markers to expedite and lower the cost of breeding in order to create novel crops. After being created, promising lines are evaluated in various locations throughout target habitats to determine the genotype x environment interaction (GxE), or the effect of the growing environment on micronutrient expression. Strong regional testing enables the reduction of time to market for biofortified cultivars Nutritional breeding targets for each crop were established early on in the conceptual development of biofortification by a working group comprising nutritionists, food technologists, and plant breeders. These goals were established based on the food consumption habits of the target groups, expected nutrient losses during storage and processing, and nutrient bioavailability [38].

When developing breeding targets for biofortified crops, consideration was given to the particular dietary needs and eating patterns of women and children. Targets were set so that, for preschoolers ages 4–6 and for non-pregnant, non-lactating women of reproductive age, the total amount of iron in iron beans and iron pearl millet will provide roughly 60% of the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) (30% of the EAR for iron at baseline before breeding for high iron); the amount of zinc in zinc wheat and zinc rice will provide 60–80% of the EAR (40% of the EA); and the total amount of zinc in (zero provitamin A at baseline). The breeding aim is the total of the baseline micronutrient content and the required increase in micronutrient content for each crop and micronutrient combination [38].

6.2 A framework for the breeding of bio-fortified germplasm

The major procedures for producing biofortified germplasm are depicted in Figure 1. To ensure nutrient impact and farmer and consumer consent, activities outside of crop development are indicated in the left column [39]. A decision-tree that allows for tracking progress and making strategic decisions when goals are not fulfilled is placed above the right columns, which present the stages and milestones of crop development in sequential order. To design crops for biofortification, the first step is to look into the genetic variety that is now available for iron, zinc, and provitamin A carotenoids (yellow boxes). Characterisation of agronomic and end-use characteristics occurs immediately with or during subsequent screening.

Figure 1.

Crop development framework [39].

When investigating the genetic diversity that exists, the following goals need to be noted:

1. Parental genotypes for cross-breeding, genetic research, creating molecular markers, and parent-building.

2. For “fast-tracking,” choose pre-varieties that have already been released or finished germplasm products. Fast-tracking is the process of releasing, commercialising, or introducing genotypes that have the desired agronomic and end-use features as well as the target micronutrient density so they may be distributed right away.

If variation is present in the strategic gene pool (only in unadapted sources), pre-breeding is necessary before employing the trait in final product creation; if variation is present in the adapted gene pool, the materials can be used right away to create competitive variations (purple boxes). Prebreeding and product improvement activities are combined in the majority of breeding efforts to produce germplasm with high levels of one or more micronutrients. In the later stages of breeding, micronutrient-rich germplasm is developed and evaluated, genetic studies are conducted, and molecular markers are developed to speed up breeding. In trial locations and in farmer’s fields in the target countries, the impact of the growing environment on the expression of micronutrients is then determined (orange boxes). The most promising varieties are chosen by national research partners for multi-locational testing over several seasons, and after being submitted to national government agencies for testing for agronomic performance and release, a procedure that typically takes 2 years, occasionally longer, are then tested for their performance in the field (Figure 1).

6.3 Transgenic approaches

When the desired nutrient does not naturally occur in the hundreds of varieties in germplasm banks at the necessary quantities, transgenic plant breeding is a promising way to generate biofortified crops with the requisite nutrient and agronomic properties. Restricted field tests, for instance, have been carried out on transgenic iron and zinc rice, which may provide 30% of the EAR for both elements [40]. As golden rice contains beta carotene, it can provide more than 50% of the EAR for vitamin A. Since early 2000, there has been a prototype of Golden Rice, but it has not yet been made available for purchase in any country, partly due to the regulatory clearance processes’ extreme risk aversion [41]. Despite the fact that the introduction of these transgenic cultivars to farmers is still a few years away and is dependent on their approval through national biosafety and regulatory processes, they offer a large nutritional potential. For HarvestPlus efforts, all of the crops that have been produced or will be released soon employ traditional breeding rather than transgenic breeding. HarvestPlus thinks that because traditional breeding does not encounter the same regulatory hurdles and is widely accepted, it is the fastest way to get more nutrient-dense crops into the hands of farmers and consumers. The focus of this essay is the data offered in support of conventionally grown biofortified crops.

6.4 International nurseries/global testing

HarvestPlus has used two tactics to shorten the time to market for biofortified crops: Two techniques are being employed to quicken release operations while cultivars with the necessary micronutrient content are still being developed: (1) Choosing adapted varieties with high micronutrient contents for release and/or distribution as “quick track” varieties, and (2) conducting multi-location Regional Trials in numerous locations across a variety of countries and sites. Regional trials comprise biofortified varieties that have previously been released and generate data on their regional performance in order to benefit from regional variety release schemes, such as those under the SADC (Southern African Development Community). These regional agreements harmonise seed regulations among participants and enable the simultaneous distribution of any variety tried, approved, and released in one participant country in participants with comparable agro-ecologies [39].

6.5 Low-cost, high throughput methods

Biofortification breeding required the development or use of rapid, inexpensive analytical methods for micronutrients due to the necessity of analysing hundreds of samples for mineral or vitamin content each season. These trait diagnostics include methods like NIRS (near-infrared spectroscopy) and colorimetric carotenoid measurements. Since it involves minimal pre-analytical preparation and permits non-destructive inspection, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) has emerged as the method of choice for mineral analysis [42, 43].

6.6 Releases of biofortified crops

More than 150 biofortified cultivars of ten different crops have been sent to 30 different nations overall. A total of 12 different crops’ potential biofortified types are being considered for distribution in 25 more countries. Figure 2 depicts the areas where biofortified cultivars have been tested and made accessible thus far. Countries in the dark purple have already made biofortified crops available, while those in the light purple are still testing them. In the countries depicted on this map, the orange sweet potato has been propagated by the International Potato Center (CIP). You may get more particular information about the cultivars that have been assessed and made available in each country on the HarvestPlus website.

Figure 2.

Biofortified crop map. Source [39].

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has improved the nutritional value of high yielding varieties of grains, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits through breeding techniques [44, 45]. Special efforts were started during the 12th Plan with the development of a specific project on the Consortium Research Platform on Biofortification. 71 different varieties of rice, wheat, maize, pearl millet, finger millet, groundnut, linseed, mustard, soybean, cauliflower, potato, sweet potato, greater yam, and pomegranate have been developed as a consequence of coordinated efforts in collaboration with other national and international initiatives. Advanced elite materials in considerable quantities are also in development and will be made available when the time is appropriate. The nutritional security of the country is greatly enhanced by these biofortified types. A lot of effort is put into promoting the biofortified millet cultivars.

High-quality cultivar-specific seeds that have been biofortified are developed and made available for commercial production. The Extension Division of ICAR has also introduced the Value Addition and Technology Incubation Centers in Agriculture (VATICA) and Nutri-sensitive Agricultural Resources and Innovations (NARI) special programmes to scale up the biofortified cultivars through its Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) [44].

6.7 ICAR Released some bio fortified Millets which are enlisted below:

1. Pearl millet: HHB 299 (Hybrid)

   Compared to popular varieties’ and hybrids’ 45.0–50.0 ppm iron and 30.0–35.0 ppm zinc, this variety is rich in iron (73.0 ppm) and zinc (41.0 ppm). Adaptation: Kharif season in Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Punjab [32]. Development: CCS-Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar and ICRISAT, Patancheru as part of the ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Project on Pearl Millet. Maturity: 81 days. Grain yield: 32.7 q/ha. Dry fodder yield: 73.0 q/ha. 2017 is the release year.

2. Pearl Millet: AHB 1200Fe (Hybrid)

   Grain yield of 32.0 q/ha, dry fodder yield of 70.0 q/ha, maturity of 78 days, and adaptation to Kharif season in Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu. High in iron (73.0 ppm), as opposed to popular types and hybrids that only contain 45.0–50.0 ppm. It was created by Vasantrao Naik Marathwada. For the ICAR’s All India Coordinated Research Project, which will be published in 2018, Krishi Vidyapeeth in Patancheru and ICRISAT are working together to do research on pearl millet. 2018 is the project’s publication year.

3. Pearl Millet: AHB 1269Fe (Hybrid)

   High quantities of iron (91.0 ppm) and zinc (44.0 ppm), as opposed to hybrids’ (30.0–35.0 ppm) and popular varieties’ (45.0–50.0 ppm) lower levels. Grain yield: 31.7 q/ha; dry fodder yield: 74.0 q/ha; maturity: 82 days; adaptation: Kharif season in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Haryana • Created by Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, as a component of the ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Study on Pearl Millet. The release year is 2018.

4. Pearl Millet: ABV 04 (Open Pollinated Variety)

   High in iron (70.0 ppm) and zinc (63.0 ppm), unlike common types and hybrids’ 45.0–50.0 ppm iron and 30.0–35.0 ppm zinc • 86-day maturity • Maturity: 86 days • Grain yield: 28.6 q/ha • Dry fodder yield: 58.0 q/ha • Kharif season in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu • Released in 2018 and produced by the ARS at Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University in Ananthapuram as a component of the ICAR’s All India Coordinated Research Initiative on Pearl Millet.

5. Pearl Millet: Phule Mahashakti (Hybrid)

   High in zinc (41.0 ppm) and iron (87.0 ppm), as opposed to hybrids’ and popular types’ 45.0–50.0 ppm iron and 30.0–35.0 ppm zinc, respectively. Kharif season in Maharashtra is an adaptation. Developed by the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth in Dhule as part of the ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Study on Pearl Millet, it has the following characteristics: • Grain yield: 29.3 q/ha • Dry fodder yield: 56.0 q/ha • Maturity: 88 days, and it was released in 2018.

6. Pearl Millet: RHB 233 (Hybrid)

   Instead of the hybrids’/common varieties’ 45.0–50.0 ppm iron and 30.0–35.0 ppm zinc, these plants are rich in iron (83.0 ppm) and zinc (46.0 ppm). • 80-day maturity • Kharif season in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, and Delhi. • Grain yield: 31.6 q/ha; dry fodder yield: 74.0 q/ha; maturity: 80 days • Released in 2019 and developed by the Sri Karan Narendra Agricultural University in Jobner as a component of the ICAR’s All India Coordinated Research Initiative on Pearl Millet.

7. Pearl Millet: RHB 234 (Hybrid)

   High in zinc (46.0 ppm) and iron (84.0 ppm), as opposed to common types’ and hybrids’ 30.0–35.0 ppm and 45.0–50.0 ppm, respectively. • 81-day maturity Grain yield: 31.7 q/ha; dry fodder yield: 70.0 q/ha; maturity: 81 days; adaptation: Kharif season in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu. Released in 2019 and developed by the Sri Karan Narendra Agricultural University in Jobner as a component of the ICAR’s All India Coordinated Research Initiative on Pearl Millet.

8. Pearl Millet: HHB 311 (Hybrid)

   Grain yield of 31.7 q/ha, dry fodder yield of 72.0 q/ha, maturity of 81 days, and adaptation to Kharif season in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu • Released in 2020, the Pearl Millet was developed at the CCS Haryana Agricultural University in Hisar as a component of the ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Project on Pearl Millet.

9. Finger Millet: VR 929 (Vegavathi) (Pure line variety)

   With grain yields of 36.1 q/ha and dry fodder yields of 72.0 q/ha, this variety is rich in iron (131.8 ppm), as opposed to popular cultivars’ 25.0 ppm. The cultivar, which has a 118-day maturation period, was created by Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University in Guntur as part of the ICAR-All India programme. The Co-ordinated Small Millets Research Project is scheduled for delivery in 2020.

10. Finger Millet: CFMV1 (Indravati) (Pure line variety)

    This variety has 428 mg/100 g calcium, 58.0 ppm iron, and 44.0 ppm zinc, whereas standard types have 200 mg/100 g calcium, 25 ppm iron, and 16 ppm zinc. • Good for rainfed situations; Maturity: 110–115 days • Maturity: 110–115 days • Dry fodder yield: 84.4 q/ha • Grain yield: 31.1 q/ha The Kharif season is observed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Puducherry, and Odisha. The publication year is 2020.

11. Finger Millet: CFMV 2 (Pure line variety)

    High in calcium (454 mg/100 g), iron (39.0 ppm), and zinc (25.0 ppm), as opposed to common versions. 25 ppm iron, 16 ppm zinc, and 200 mg/100 g calcium • Good for rainfed situations, maturity: 119–121 days Grain yield was 29.5 q/ha, and dry fodder production was 86.1 q/ha. Kharif season as an adaptation in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha Developed by the Hill Millet Research Station at the Navsari Agricultural University in Waghai, this research is being done as part of the ICAR-All India Coordinated Research Project on Small Millets. produced in 2020 and released.

12. Little Millet: CLMV1 (Pure line variety)

    High in zinc (35.0 ppm) and iron (59.0 ppm), as opposed to popular varieties’ 25 ppm and 20 ppm, respectively Release year 2020; ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad; yields of grain: 15.8 q/ha; yields of dry fodder: 55.5 q/ha; maturities: 98–102 days; suitable for rainfed conditions; adapted to Kharif season in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry.

7. Components for global delivery

In order for biofortification to be extensively used and truly sustainable, several institutions must be involved in building an enabling environment. This includes adoption by the private sector, inclusion in multilaterally financed development policies and programmes, and incorporation into actual development initiatives that are being carried out on the ground, both inside and outside of target nations. This enabling environment is essential for fostering the growth of biofortified crops and supporting national actors across a range of sectors [46].

7.1 Standards and regulatory

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) jointly administer the Codex Alimentarius, the organisation that sets food standards and is acknowledged as the reference organisation by the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) (FAO). There are projects in place to incorporate biofortification into these international standards and guidelines. The Codex Alimentarius is still working on defining biofortification and developing a set of guidelines for it. The widely accepted Codex reference standard, once it is adopted, aids in promoting biofortified foods and crops across borders, standardising labelling and health claims, and decreasing the prevalence of misleading claims [47].

7.2 Multi-lateral institutions

Beyond their particular investments and activities, multilateral organisations like the World Bank, the African Development Bank, the World Food Programme, and the World Health Organisation collectively have an impact on national government policymakers and operational partners. One of the World Bank’s current biofortification-supporting programmes is the Multisectoral Food Security and Nutrition Project in Uganda, which is quickening the scale-up of orange sweet potatoes and iron beans. The Bank is instrumental in advancing nutrient-sensitive agricultural practises, such as biofortification, in forums like the Global Donor Forum for Rural Development. The African Development Bank’s new “Banking on Nutrition” technical collaboration is implementing a multi-sectoral and integrated strategy to nutrition interventions, including the use of biofortified crops. The World Food Programme’s (WFP) Buy for Progress programme, which is very interested in local purchases of biofortified crops, is forming partnerships in a number of countries. For instance, local iron bean produce is purchased and stored in WFP facilities in Rwanda in case of future disasters. In 2017, the WHO Nutrition Guidelines Expert Advisory Group is anticipated to issue recommendations and guidelines for biofortification as a public health nutrition intervention. One phase in the process will be the publication of papers discussed in 2016 during an expert consultation held at the New York Academy of Sciences [47].

7.3 Private sectors

As a result of agricultural development programmes, more biofortified crop varieties are being published, therefore farmers need to have access to seeds from these types. Private seed companies are a natural partner in countries with robust private seed systems that reach smallholder farmers. To ensure that there would be a market for the private sector’s seed and reduce the risk associated with that investment, HarvestPlus has negotiated partnerships in some cases between seed producers and interested NGOs or governments. Despite the fact that the private sector has mostly accepted hybrid crops, interest in a wider range of crops has increased as the commercial rationale for them has been established. Private sector seed businesses are brought in to assist with marketing, development, and testing of biofortified cultivars, thereby reducing time to market and establishing the groundwork for sustainability. Food processing companies are developing a significant portion of the value chain for foods manufactured from biofortified crops. Small and medium-sized firms can help increase demand even before supplies of biofortified grain and food are scaled up. For certain commodities and nations, like cassava in Nigeria, small and medium-sized food processors predominate the food value chain. The interest of multinational firms in biofortified crops is still growing, but many are already experimenting with them in their food products. These companies add to the corpus of knowledge on vitamin and mineral retention by analysing various methods of processing for minerals and vitamins [47].

7.4 NGOs

Although while private sector participation is vital for creating sustainable markets for biofortified seed and foods, NGOs nevertheless play a significant role in providing this nutrition intervention to those that are most in need. The present global relationship between World Vision and Harvest Plus serves as an example of how a leading development NGO may integrate biofortified crops into its ongoing agricultural efforts and link them to health and nutrition initiatives. Currently, Harvest Plus provides technical support while World Vision, which operates in 15 countries, leads in delivery. This kind of collaboration, where biofortified crops are incorporated into already-existing agriculture and nutrition projects or included in newly developed projects developed collaboratively, will continue to be essential to reach the most vulnerable households, which may also be the most likely to experience micronutrient deficiencies [47].

7.5 Extending beyond target nations to partnering country strategies

The government-sponsored biofortification programmes in Brazil, China, and India that are not in the target countries have received funding from Harvest Plus, their support has been extended, and they now work closely with them. Through the Harvest Plus Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) programme, which is run by the Research Corporation of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Harvest Plus provides technical support and assistance to government-led biofortification programmes in Bolivia, Colombia, Guatemala, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Panama (EMBRAPA). Harvest Plus is also researching initiatives in a number of other nations. Such a collaborative effort is essential as biofortification gets momentum. While Harvest Plus continues to provide technical support and promote links between groups, other organisations and individuals will increasingly take the lead in delivery on the ground [39].

8. A prospective scenario: institutional leadership directing and driving mainstreaming

For biofortification to reach its full potential, it must be included as a primary activity within a number of international organisations. Three crucial elements are required, and they are as follows [47, 48]:

8.1 Supply

Agricultural research organisations, both public and corporate, now recognise high mineral and vitamin content as crucial plant breeding goals. In order to be approved for release, varieties must now meet minimal requirements for vitamins and minerals (in addition to the standard agronomic traits, such as high yield).

8.2 Policy

Many domestic and international public leaders start to recognise the significant contribution biofortification makes to maintaining and improving public health, as well as the high economic return on investment in biofortification and the legitimacy afforded by universal acclaim (especially by standards bodies).

8.3 Demand

Customers in both urban and rural areas are beginning to appreciate and demand foods with high mineral and vitamin concentrations. The secret to guaranteeing a consistent supply of biofortified crops goes beyond a breeding programme focused on biofortification, with funding committed explicitly.

9. Conclusions

Millets being an immense source of essential nutrients are dietary staple for a wide range of population both in Asian and African countries especially of those belonging to economically weaker sections of the society. Still so many developing countries are facing micro and macro nutrient deficiency. Sustainable development goals have gave more focus on nutritional aspects.

In light of newly discovered information in the genome sequences of several minor millets, now is the ideal time to utilise genomic areas determining nutritional properties in breeding programs. Because of these breeding programmes so many biofortified varierties have been introduced to combat the nutrition related issues to give the food security. Government, private sectors, NGO’s have joined their hands to solve problem. As a result of recently revealed insights in the genome sequences of several minor millets, it is now time for breeding efforts to make advantage of genomic areas determining nutritional properties. Overall, millets could be promoted as a model system for the advancement of quality traits and used as a staple crop in the global economy by combining conventional and traditional breeding with the collective approach utilising all of the omics tools, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics.