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Based on the history of urban form and the history of disasters, and the current issues in Japanese society such as depopulation and expansion of the cities in the areas with high disaster risk, the formation of a compact city with safety to natural disasters is required. To realize the sustainable cities mentioned above, the necessity for plans and activities to (1) induce residents from areas with high disaster risk to safer areas with long-standing perspectives, (2) to improve the safety of areas that promote induce residence and increase population density, and the areas with the difficulty of induce residents are explained. As one of the means to support such plans and activities, the importance of the development and utilization of planning support tools was shown. Especially, through some examples, it showed the usefulness for substantiating discussions and considering safe and sustainable urban structures.
Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi, Japan
Akira Ohgai
Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi, Japan
*Address all correspondence to: k-karashima@maebashi-it.ac.jp
1. Introduction
The country where the aging society is progressing due to depopulation, such as Japan, many researchers have suggested that urban planning should consider an intensive urban structure, such as the “compact city,” as the future vision of an aging society. In addition, Japan is one of the countries with high risk of natural disasters, such as the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and frequent huge flood damage. This chapter first explains the recent trends of urban planning in Japan and the policy of mitigation of natural disaster risks in this context. After that, we will explain the measures to reduce the risk of natural disasters in urban areas, and the role of planning support system (PSS) for their examination, including some examples.
During the Edo era (1603–1868), Edo, the city, with one of the largest populations in the world, was formed in Japan. Nationwide, many cities such as castle towns and post towns were created. According to the formulation of the cities, the population increased in whole country and concentrated into the cities.
During the Meiji era (1868–1912), the modernization of urban infrastructures such as railways, roads, buildings, and industry progressed, and urbanization and population growth accelerated.
World War I (1914–1918) brought rapid growth to the Japanese economy. As a result, the urban environment has also changed significantly. Buildings made of bricks began to be built on the wooden urban area constructed in Edo era. In addition, various functions of the city were spatially differentiated, and the formation of a complex city began.
Against the background of such urban growth, the Urban Planning Low and Urban Building Law was promulgated in 1919. For this, application of building layout and structural standards, classification by zoning into residences, factories, commercial areas, fire zones, esthetic zones, scenic zones, etc., restrictions on construction in each zone, creation of urban facilities such as roads and parks have been possible [1].
Around this time, the concentration of the population in the big cities became noticeable. In addition, the problems such as the mixture of housing and factories, overcrowding of population and buildings, and the occurrence of slums in inner urban areas began.
After World War II (1939–1945), 115 cities were designated as war-damaged cities because major cities had extensive damage.
The basic policy for the reconstruction of war-damaged areas was officially announced as follows: (1) to curb the growth of oversized cities and (2) to promote the development of small and medium-sized local cities.
In addition, following were officially announced:
(1) Industrial location and population distribution, (2) guidelines for land use planning, and (3) planning standards for major facilities such as streets, plazas, and green areas. According to these policies, reconstruction plans were drafted in each city.
Against the background of the confusion in land use such as height control (high-level), advanced use of existing urban areas, and the emergence of urban sprawl due to rapid urbanization accompanying rapid economic growth, the enactment of the New Urban Planning Law (1968) and revision of the Building Standards Law (1970) were conducted. As a result, the division of urbanization promotion areas and urbanization control areas, and the development permit system linked to the division of areas were implemented.
After that, making the master plan of urban planning as the basic policy on urban planning in each municipality (1992) was implemented.
Then, due to the appearance of the signs of low growth and maturity such as the decline of central urban areas, the policy for restructuring existing urban areas, compact cities, and intensive urban structures had begun to emphasize.
In 2014, the system of the Location Normalization Plan was established. This aim is to reorganize the urban structure into a “compact city plus network of public transportation” model by gently guiding the development of private facilities. Since then, many local governments have drawn up a Location Normalization Plan to designate urban function induction areas and residential promotion areas within urbanization promotion areas [2].
2.2 History of urban disaster prevention
In Japan, during the Edo era, the main issue of urban disaster prevention is fire spread. The towns in this era consisted of one-story wooden buildings although having one of the most populations in the world. During the 250 years of Edo, about 50 large fire spreads occurred.
Through the Meiji Era, the modernization of the urban structure and buildings was emphasized as one of the goals of modernization.
In the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1919, huge damage was caused by the collapse of buildings. In addition, the damage caused by fire spread with unfortunately strong wind speeds of 10 m/s or more was remarkable. After that, as the policy to improve the urban structure, the strong urban structure for fire spread (noncombustible and fireproof cities) was promoted.
After WW2, Japan experienced a lot of typhoon damage. These damages were expanded due to the damage to urban infrastructures by WW2. In particular, the damage caused by the Isewan Typhoon in 1959 was enormous. This became an opportunity, and the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Law to prevent damage by huge natural disasters was enacted in 1960. This Law promotes each municipality preparing comprehensive disaster prevention including making disaster prevention plans.
Figure 1.
Example Designation of residential promotion area [4]. Residential promotion areas are designated considering to avoid flood inundation areas. However, the central area around the railway station is overlapped with the flood risk.
Around the 1980s, the areas with high risk of fire spread by huge earthquakes such as densely built-up areas by wooden apartment buildings and the areas not designated as fire prevention areas were aimed to promote safety. Especially, improvement of the evacuation routes and the areas around the designated evacuation areas was emphasized. Therefore, construction of fire prevention zones such as surrounded by wide-width roads and fire-proof buildings around designated evacuation sites was promoted [1].
Figure 2.
Summary of examination of guideline for disaster prevention [6].
In addition, the concept of “disaster prevention living area” was proposed. This aims to promote the activities for disaster mitigation such as the planning and development of disaster prevention roads and parks and support the activities for disaster mitigation through community-based activities. This area was based on the daily living area, the same as an elementary school area surrounded by fire prevention roads.
Figure 3.
Image of countermeasures for disaster mitigation [6].
During the period to promote the activities mentioned above, in 1995, the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake occurred. Due to the weak wind speed, the damage caused by the collapse of the building was more serious than the damage caused by the fire. The inner area surrounded by wide roads, which is a fire barrier, had serious damage.
For this reason, after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, urban disaster prevention measures for the inner areas such as improvement of densely built-up areas and making houses earthquake-resistant were actively discussed.
In addition, “mutual assistance,” the community-based activities to mitigate the damage caused by disasters such as the support of evacuation and rescue to the person buried by the collapsed building, has begun to be emphasized. Most of the communities such as disaster prevention organizations formed by neighborhood associations carry out disaster mitigation activities such as firefighting drills and evacuation drills [3].
In 2011, the Great East Japan Earthquakes occurred. The damage by the tsunami was enormous.
In recent years, many flood disasters and landslides due to heavy rain such as localized downpours of short duration occurred.
3. Measures to reduce natural disaster risk in residential areas
Already explained in Section 2.1, the system of the Location Normalization Plan was established in 2014. To achieve the urban structure into a “compact city plus networks of public transportation”, designating (1) urban function induction areas and (2) residential promotion areas and considering the accessibility to public transportation are required.
The policy to designate these areas that the national government has explained, the areas with high risk of natural disasters should be excluded. However, it is difficult for many municipalities to fulfill the policy (Figure 1).
For example, the results of the survey on the presence or absence of disaster risk in residential promotion areas have been published [5]. The survey targeted 275 cities that announced Location Normalization Plan by December 2019. There were 13 cities with red zones and 254 cities with yellow zones.
Based on the result, the national government published the policy that municipalities should make the “guideline for disaster mitigation” as the countermeasure to the risk of the designated induction areas (Figure 2).
Specifically, to accelerate community-based activities and the improvement of urban structure that incorporates the perspective of disaster prevention, the “disaster prevention guideline,” the countermeasure for disaster mitigation in the designated residential promotion areas is described as one of the items in the Location Normalization Plan. This is expected that promote the mainstreaming of disaster prevention in formulating compact cities.
The following criteria for making the guideline for disaster mitigation were published.
The future vision and aims of disaster mitigation activities should be clearly explained. The countermeasures for disaster mitigation and both urban infrastructure improvement and activities to respond to disasters are necessary (Figure 3).
In this way, the designation of the induction areas excluding high disaster risk areas from the long-standing perspective, the difficulty of excluding high disaster risk areas within the induction areas, mitigating the disaster risk by the countermeasures for disaster mitigation and both urban infrastructure improvement and activities to respond to disasters are important.
4. Role of planning support tools for urban planning
As mentioned in sections 2 and 3, in order to induce residents to the areas with a low risk of natural disasters and to conduct measures for disaster mitigation in the areas where it is difficult to induce residents, it is necessary to proceed with planning through discussions involving not only the local government but also residents and the relevant parties.
One of the support methods for that purpose is the development and utilization of planning support systems (PSSs). This section introduces examples of PSS and indicates its role.
4.1 Induction of residents considering improvement of mutual assistance ability
4.1.1 Background and objective
When a large-scale earthquake occurs, many residents need rescue and evacuation support at the same time. In this situation, only assistance activities by organizations of the national government and local government (public help) are not able to support all persons who need someone’s help. This generates an increase in human damage. In order to reduce such human damage, mutual assistance activities among residents are important. Therefore, enhancing the mutual assistance capacity of the district is important. For this reason, it is important to secure people who can carry out mutual assistance activities, such as leading young households to the areas with low capability of mutual assistance.
Based on that mentioned above, in this section, through the practice in the model area, the examination method of improving the capacity of mutual cooperation introduces the concept of improving the capacity of mutual assistance and the role of planning support technology.
In addition, the importance of a compact urban structure will be mentioned from the perspective of improving the ability of mutual assistance activities.
4.1.2 Outline of the PSS and the concept of the mutual assistance
The PSS for promoting the ability of mutual assistance was developed by the authors. The details of the PSS are described in the reference [7]. This section shows the outline of the PSS.
The mutual assistance activities described in this paper mainly consisted of these two activities: (1) evacuation support behavior to nearby residents who were unable to evacuate alone due to declining physical functions due to aging or disabilities. (2) When a resident discovered a victim such as a buried person by rubble in need of help within the evacuation route during the evacuation, they take part in the rescue activities within a reasonable range while ensuring safety.
In order to extract the areas where the ability of mutual assistance activities is low, the authors’ laboratory has developed a PSS to evaluate the ability of mutual assistance using GIS that enables quantitative evaluation by building units (Figure 4). In this evaluation method, based on the number of local residents, gender, and age, physical strength, implementation rate, and activity rate (1) are multiplied according to Table 1). Then the expected value of mutual assistance activities under the situation of a large-scale earthquake disaster is calculated. After that, the expected value is weighted by distance based on the assumption that residents take some time to discover or recognize those persons who cannot evacuate without some assistance, in accordance with the distance.
Figure 4.
Image of the PSS.
Age
Men’s strength
Women’s strength
Executing rate
Men’s activity rate
Women’s activity rate
Men’s expected value
Women’s expected value
10
1
0.85
0.228
0.76
0.24
0.1733
0.0465
20
1
0.76
0.228
0.76
0.24
0.1733
0.0416
30
0.96
0.76
0.229
0.72
0.28
0.1583
0.0487
40
0.93
0.73
0.298
0.72
0.28
0.1995
0.0609
50
0.9
0.72
0.228
0.63
0.37
0.1293
0.0607
60
0.84
0.7
0.191
0.74
0.26
0.1187
0.0348
70-
0.78
0.65
0.129
0.75
0.25
0.0755
0.021
Table 1.
The expected value in accordance with age and gender.
It is indicating that if one person is caught in the rubble generated by the collapse of the building with less than one ability of mutual assistance capacity, the person does not receive sufficient mutual assistance from the surroundings.
4.1.3 Evaluation of the ability of mutual assistance in model district
The model district is located in the Ushikubo district of Toyokawa City, Aichi prefecture in Japan. The Ushikubo district was selected according to the result of the evaluation and extraction of the districts with a high risk of the earthquake disaster in Toyokawa city, which was carried out in cooperation with Toyokawa city and the authors’ laboratory in 2014 [8].
Based on the results of the survey, from 2015, the district started specific community-based activities for disaster mitigation with a view to improving densely built-up areas. The model area is one of the residents’ associations included in the Ushikubo district. It has a high awareness of disaster prevention activities and has been proactively continuing disaster prevention efforts for more than 10 years.
The location of the model area is within walking distance from the railway station (JR Ushikubo Station). It is included in the residential promotion area announced in Toyokawa City’s location optimization plan (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Location of the target area.
Regarding the data collection, first, a questionnaire was done for all households in the district in order to obtain the necessary information for evaluating mutual assistance. Distribution and collection of the questionnaire were carried out through the cooperation of the neighborhood association.
For those households that did not join the neighborhood association, questionnaires were distributed directly to their mailboxes and collected by mail. The recovery rates were 97% (128/132) and 14% (7/50), respectively. The items of the questionnaire were the number of household members, gender, age group, and the number of people who required special care.
The evaluation results of the ability of mutual assistance and the number of people who need assistance are shown in Table 2. The followings are the details of each items in Table 2. The maps of the evaluation are shown in Figure 6.
Person who needs assistance: Person who is difficult to evacuate when a huge earthquake occurs, such as the elderly, disabled people, infants, pregnant women, and foreigners without Japanese language knowledge.
The value subtracting the number of people under 10 years old from the number of people who need assistance.
Items
The number of small groups
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1): People who need assistance
6
2
6
1
1
3
2
0
3
5
6
5
2
3
2
47
2): 1) - people under 10 years old
6
2
4
1
1
2
0
0
3
4
3
3
2
2
0
33
3): Ability of mutual assistance
1.3327
0.9839
3.0331
1.6542
2.8272
1.3194
0.4674
1.3514
2.5286
2.2181
2.4041
3.451
1.2214
2.3447
3.0414
30.1786
4): Surplus or shortage by 3) - 1)
−4.6673
−1.0161
−2.9669
0.6542
1.8272
−1.6806
−1.5326
1.3514
−0.4714
−2.7819
−3.5959
−1.549
−0.7786
−0.6553
1.0414
−16.821
5): Surplus or shortage by 3) - 2)
4.6673
−1.0161
−0.9669
0.6542
1.8272
−0.6806
0.4674
1.3514
−0.4714
−1.7819
−0.5959
0.451
−0.7786
0.3447
3.0414
−28,214
Table 2.
Evaluation results of the ability of mutual assistance.
Figure 6.
Map of evaluation results of the ability of mutual assistance.
In the questionnaire, a person under 10 years old was regarded as a person who needs assistance. However, if it is an infant, it can be carried by one adult. If it is older than an infant who can walk, it is thought that one adult can hold hands and guide him/her to evacuate.
Therefore, the number of people under 10 years old was grasped in the questionnaire.
The ability of mutual assistance: If the value is more than 1, a person can receive enough assistance from neighbors. If the value is more than 2, two people can receive enough assistance.
The value subtracting the number of people who need assistance from the rescue expectation value. The blue letter means shortage. The red letter means surplus.
The value subtracting the number of people who need assistance from the rescue expectation value according to the consideration of (2).
4.1.4 Possibility of improving mutual assistance through residential induction
From the perspective of improving the ability of mutual assistance, if residential induction of young households, such as those of the child-rearing generation, is encouraged in the areas where the ability of mutual assistance is low, it is thought that the ability of the area will increase.
As a method of residential induction, for example, in Toyokawa City, the model area is located, new residents who move into the urban function induction area from other cities or from the designated disaster-predicted areas in Toyokawa city have been given Machinaka subsidy.
The subsidy is such as equivalent to the property tax of housing and land for up to 3 years (with an area limit) and a child-rearing incentive (100,000 yen per person for junior high school students and younger, one-time only).
By applying such a subsidy system to the areas where improvement of mutual assistance is necessary within residential promotion areas where improvement of mutual assistance, it is conceivable to strategically induce young households.
Of course, it seems not easy to guide the selection of residential areas into the residential promotion areas. Furthermore, induction into the narrowed areas is more difficult.
However, the areas like the model district of this study, which are close to railway stations, have high population density even within the city and are close to facilities for child-rearing such as elementary schools, have a high potential for inducing residents. Therefore, it seems to be worth considering induction the residence.
As already mentioned in Section 3, in June 2020, the preparation of “disaster prevention guidelines” was added to the Location Normalization Plan.
The areas with high disaster risk should be excluded from residential promotion areas in order to suppress new location in principle. In the areas with high risk in the residential promotion area, the plan to mitigate the disaster risk should be incorporated in the Location Normalization Plan and conducted to achieve the contents in the plan.
Considering the policy, although it is not a designated disaster risk area, a district like a model district with a high density of old wooden buildings in a densely built-up area and a high disaster risk against earthquakes might be examined to exclude from the residential promotion area.
On the other hand, the countermeasures for disaster mitigation as the disaster prevention guideline, the model area has enough activities for disaster mitigation such as grasping the people who cannot evacuate alone, examining evacuation support for those who need support, and activities for improving the ability of mutual assistance.
The areas with active activities for disaster mitigation such as the model area might be examined to include in the residential promotion area as an incentive. The promotion of activities for disaster mitigation might be expected if the discussion of this incentive system is deepening.
4.2 Improvement in densely built-up areas of the residential promotion area
4.2.1 Background and Objective
In Japan, there still remain many densely built-up areas, and the promotion of safety in these areas is a pressing issue for urban planning. However, improvement in these areas has been very slow. Exploring draft plans through collaborations between local governments and local residents is essential in order to promote improvements aimed at the improvement of safety, living environment, and townscape.
Therefore, citizen participatory workshops are used nationwide to reach a consensus among stakeholders. However, it is difficult to reach a consensus. This is a key factor to promote improvements in these areas [9].
This study aimed to try to develop a PSS for discussion of workshops to examine draft plans and to verify the usability of using PSS to reach a consensus.
Authors focus on the following two issues as inhibiting consensus building: (1) The lack of a method that can quantitatively and objectively evaluate the earthquake disaster vulnerability of the subject area in order for participating residents to easily understand the effects of improvement plans; (2) The lack of a method for participants to share their understanding of spatial townscape images in combination with disaster mitigation performance evaluation (DMPE) during the discussion exploring the draft plans. The authors explain the outline of a PSS for exploring improvement draft plans of unified DMPE1) in real time with a function providing spatial townscape images by coupling Web-GIS and Virtual Reality in order to solve the above issues.
4.2.2 Outline of the developed PSS
Constitution
The PSS we propose in this paper primarily consists of a Web-GIS system incorporating the DMPE method (Web-GIS support system) and a system for exploring spatial townscape images using a VR viewer (VR support system) (Figure 7). The details of the PSS are described in the reference [10]. This section shows the outline of the tool.
Function of the Web-GIS support system
The Web-GIS system we developed has two functions. The first function computes DMPE and compares the results. By using this function, users can evaluate current disaster risk conditions or improvements in safety after the contents of draft plans have been implemented in the form of visual information. The other function is the support for the exploration of draft improvement plans. This system can be used in various types of community-based activities such as those geared toward increasing disaster mitigation awareness and exploring draft plans for disaster risk improvements. We assume that this system is operated by local governments and helps community-based activities geared toward disaster mitigation.
Figure 7.
System configuration of the PSS.
In order to tightly couple the system that uses a VR viewer to explore spatial images to the Web-GIS support system, we added a function that outputs the information contained in draft plans to the system (Function c). Using this function, users create “the text data to transfer the information in the draft plan” and save it on the client PC. After that, users read it and display spatial images reflecting the contents of the draft plan using the VR support system. In the draft plans, the proposed improvements can include road improvement such as the widening of narrow roads and the establishment of new roads in densely built-up areas; building improvements such as the reconstruction of those with high fire hazard risk and risk of collapse; establishment of new parks to create evacuation sites, fire prevention zones, green space, community space, etc. Thus, users can visualize the effect of building reconstruction and removal, the establishment and widening of roads, and the removal and establishment of parks as specified in the VR data applied to the current condition by using the support tool. When reconstructing a building, ideally the support tool needs to have a function that allows users to freely change the elements of the building such as figure, size, texture of wall and roof, etc. To achieve this, the support tool needs vast amounts of VR data. However, if the method adopted directly allows users to select the texture of a building from an overwhelming amount of data, users may feel that the tool is too difficult to use. Thus, a method that allows users to select the data from some options carefully selected in advance is more useful than the way mentioned above. Moreover, our aim is to contribute to community-based planning by facilitating collaboration between local governments and local residents using a method that enables gradual improvements over time until consensus among participants is achieved. We cannot assume that the improvement method will achieve consensus all at once. Therefore, the range of design for reconstruction needs options that blend in with the around present townscape so as to keep the district townscape harmonized after improvement. Consequently, we added a function for a library of rebuilding plans with a tool that users can use to select building data from the library when exploring a draft plan (Function d). This library consists of several rebuilding explored by expert in advance and register them in the database of the server.
We assume that these rebuilding data are changed and updated based on opinions participants said in the WS exploring draft plans.
4.2.3 Using method of the PSS
Before exploring the draft plans, users access the Web-GIS support system from the client PC and download the VR support system. Users start by exploring the draft plans and create a draft plan. They enter the contents of the draft plan on the interface of the tool using a function that facilitates exploration of the improvement plans (function (a)). Using function (d), a function for the library of rebuilding plans users can enact a rebuilding plan by clicking an arbitrary point on the map of the interface after selecting a building icon.
After entering the contents of the draft plan, users can calculate the DMPE of the draft plan and display the result of comparison with the current condition using (b) a function for computing and comparing the DMPE. When creating the spatial townscape image, first, users save information about the improvement plan as text data using function (c) a function for outputting the information about the improvement plan. After that, users can display the VR image reflecting the draft plan read in as text data using function (e) a function for reading information about the improvement plan (Figure 8).
Grasping natural disaster risks is very important for planning urban sustainability.
In the cities like Japanese cities, where the population is declining, it is necessary to induce residents to withdraw from the areas with high disaster risk, and the induction of the relocation to the areas without disaster risk from a long-term perspective was explained.
In order to promote the formation of such cities, the development of planning support technology introduced in this chapter is one of the useful means. Especially, it is expected that the PSS is useful to provide quantitative information such as the ability of mutual assistance, to support the examination of initial response activities, and to examine the plans that minimize damage from natural disasters.
In the future, with the spread of technologies such as AI and big data analysis technology, the role of PSS is expected to become more common. It is preferable to include a Conclusion(s) section, which will summarize the content of the book chapter.
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Written By
Kazuki Karashima and Akira Ohgai
Submitted: 09 December 2022Reviewed: 12 December 2022Published: 09 January 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
