Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Analysis of Social Vulnerability to Earthquake Hazards in Dhaka South City, Bangladesh Using a Modified PAR Model

Written By

Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman and Mohammad Harun-Or-Rashid

Submitted: 28 September 2022 Reviewed: 24 October 2022 Published: 14 November 2022

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.108714

From the Edited Volume

Natural Hazards - New Insights

Edited by Mohammad Mokhtari

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Abstract

The study aims at investigating the root causes, dynamic pressures, and unsafe conditions to the progression of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards among the people residing in the 22nd ward of Hazaribagh Thana of Dhaka South City (DSC) in Bangladesh. Following a purposive sampling procedure, the study selected the 22nd Ward of Dhaka South city. As part of qualitative methods, a total of 20 Key Informants Interviews (KII) were carried out and six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted. By adopting a modified Pressure and Release (PAR) model, the study revealed that the low-income status of the family, lack of proper health services, single-headed family, gender, differently able person, and the interpersonal good relation members, the availability of urban emergency center has found root causes for the progression of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards. Lack of appropriate skills, unplanned residences, and industry contribute to the production of dynamic pressures of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards. The unsafe conditions involve poor housing materials, dangerous locations for residents, and a lack of first aid documents associated with the production of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards.

Keywords

  • earthquake
  • risks and threats
  • vulnerability
  • perceptions
  • the modified PAR model
  • Bangladesh

1. Introduction

Bangladesh is located close to two active tectonic plates: the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate [1]. The country suffers from the seismic or earthquake zone of which two-thirds exists under major and moderate fault [2, 3, 4]. These fault zones were instrumental in causing some of the world’s severest earthquakes in the past. According to the earthquake zoning map of 1993, it is observed that 26% of areas of Bangladesh lie in high risk, 38% moderate, and 36% in low-risk zone regarding earthquake vulnerability [5].

As one of the most densely populated mega-cities of the world, Dhaka becomes a high-risk earthquake zone [6, 7]. Earthquake Vulnerability Index (EVI) revealed that Dhaka city is 2nd among the 20 most vulnerable cities on the earth [8]. Over the past decades, it is estimated that the factors of susceptibility and vulnerability of earthquakes were the population density, haphazard migration, unplanned rapid urbanization, quicker made of new buildings in every available space, and most garment factory buildings built in congested areas without open spaces, non-compliance of building codes and proper guidelines, fire incidences from gas and electricity line, narrow spaces of road construction, insufficient of preparedness from the responding agencies and lack of awareness among city dwellers and decision makers [9, 10]. Around 13 million larger inhabitants, enormous poorly constructed, and dilapidated structures in unplanned Dhaka city signify extremely destructive and vulnerable situations for the massive loss of lives and property during a moderately large earthquake event [5, 11].

The United Nations IDNDR-RADIUS (International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction) identified that Dhaka city is located in the high-risk zone of earthquake hazards (Integrated Regional Information Networks News 2008) considering its massive population density along with unplanned building apartments, narrow streets, poorly constructed infrastructure, exposed and risky electrical lines, lack of coordination between institutions concerned, the inadequacy of recovery tools and lack of awareness among the people [9]. An unprecedented human disaster like moderate to heavy tremor may happen in the city at any time [7]. An overwhelming number of multi-story buildings have been created without following the standard building codes set by the RAJUK (Rajdhani Unnayan Kortripokkho, the English meaning Capital Development Authority) for meeting the millions of people’s housing demands [9].

A few studies have been conducted so far for exploring the social causations of earthquake disasters. Therefore, the study aimed to explore the linkage between social causations of vulnerability and earthquake disaster perceptions in Dhaka South City. The research shed light on exploring the root causes of the progression of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards. In addition, we focus on finding out the dynamic pressure and unsafe conditions of the progression of vulnerability to observe how these factors lead to aggravating the vulnerability level to an earthquake disaster in Dhaka South City.

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2. The theoretical framework: the modified pressure and release (PAR) model

Since an earthquake hazard is a natural event that hits nature, people do not have much control over it. However, we have adequate control over the production of vulnerability because our normal activities create our vulnerability consciously and/or sometimes unconsciously. We have adopted a few factors from the PAR model [10]; which seem to be relevant to the creation of human vulnerability in the study area. Some factors have been taken out from the modified model as they are found difficult to show the linkages with the production of vulnerability. The research area, Dhaka South City, considerably differs from some factors of the macro level of ‘Dynamic pressures’ of the model to the creation of vulnerability. The macro level factors i.e. factors of arms expenditure, debt repayment, and deforestation may be found a significant relationship with the creation of vulnerability in other contexts, however not appropriate in our study area (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

The progression of vulnerability: root causes dynamic pressure unsafe conditions (source: reprinted from the book of [10]).

The political ideology determines certain people’s access to take part in major decision-making regarding disaster planning and mitigation strategies (Ibid). It limits certain people and groups’ access to political participation at local and national levels. Some people receive less attention from local NGOs and local government personnel in the event of natural hazards [5]. The economic pattern of society originates and maintains unequal access to resources and opportunities. Some people do not have equal access to land or farm, adequate access to safe water, and basic health services [10].

In terms of unsafe conditions, some segments of people live and work in dangerous locations, as they have no other choices left (Ibid). It also includes the initial level of well-being of the people which involves access to tangible (e.g. cash, shelter, food stock, etc.) and intangible resources like; networks of support, knowledge regarding survival and sources of assistance, ability to function in a crisis [10].

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3. Methods and procedures

3.1 Selection of the study area

The study selected the 22nd ward of the Hazaribagh area of Dhaka South City followed by purposive sampling, which comprises about 1.07 square kilometers with 19,599 households [5]. The density of the population in the area is 160,316 among the total population of Dhaka is 6,539,704 with 3,741,220 population in Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC) and 2,798,484 in DSCC (Population Census—2014). The research site is in the former tannery industrial area of Hazaribagh thana, just adjacent to the Hazaribagh Police Station and Hazaribagh bazaar, houses- accommodation, schools and Rickshaw stations, etc. in Dhaka South City of Bangladesh.

3.2 In-depth interviews

The study carried out a total of 20 key informant interviews (KII) as in-depth interviews between December 16, 2021, and January 22, 2022. Before running the interview schedule, the researchers tested three interview guidelines among the informants who lived outside of the research area to demonstrate that the informants find the interview guide understandable and to see if any changes or amendments to the interview guideline are necessary. The study translated the interview guide into the local language, called Bengali, before interviewing so that the informants could easily understand the questions. The study recorded all the interviews by using a tape recorder with the full consent of the participants.

3.3 Focus group discussion (FGD)

In addition, the research conducted four focus group discussions (FGDs) consisting of 30 participants which enabled us to understand the research objectives at a deeper level. The study took support from a note-taker with a tape recorder that facilitated us to carry out the FGD. Most of the FGDs ran for about an hour or a bit more.

3.4 Data analysis techniques

The study analyzed the collected data thematically by sorting out the salient themes and patterns from the narratives of the interviews. Tracing the thematic analysis, the study showed patterns of similarities and differences in data. In the next step, the study segmented, coded and presented the data. The study coded the data followed by the ideas of interpretive and narrative analysis. After transcribing the collected data, the study returned the interview information to the research participants for ‘member checks’ to establish credibility and reliability.

3.5 Ethical considerations

The study received oral consent before conducting in-depth interviewing, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and tape-recording from our participants. The study informants were assured that their responses will be held with strict confidence and shall remain anonymous. In addition, the research confirmed that they can stop answering our questions whenever they feel embarrassed.

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4. Root causes and earthquake disaster

The findings revealed that socio-economic factors along with dynamic challenges and unsafe conditions interact to pose challenges to successfully facing the potential earthquake hazards in the area. Followed by the modified PAR model, the present research categorized the causes of the progression of vulnerability to disasters into three themes: root causes, dynamic factors, and unsafe conditions. The factors have been clearly explained by Wisner et al. [10] in their research model called the Pressure and Release model (PAR).

The economically marginal people in the environmentally vulnerable areas are isolated, and disaster-prone urban locations [10]. This leads to the three often mutually reinforcing sources of vulnerability. First, Low access to resources triggers an insecure and unrewarded livelihood for the people. The vulnerability produced by their activities. Secondly, these people get less priority to reduce hazard intensity from government interventions. Finally, People lost confidence and trust for self-protection who are economically and politically marginal. This area is commonly known as a dirty and polluted (‘pocha o nongra’ in Bengali term) area due to the absence of proper waste management in these industries. Low-income poor people live here as the house rent, and education expenses (tuition fees) of a child are comparatively cheaper than that of other places of the city. In this connection, an in-depth interviewee stated that.

My parents have been suffering from many chronic diseases like heart disease, hearing problems, etc. for the last couple of years. They need to be treated properly but we do not have the required amount of money to do so. I can never think of getting treatment from a private clinic as this is quite expensive. Hence, how can I expect to avail of medical services for me and my family? Considering my poor socio-economic conditions, I am not even able to preserve a small amount of food for my children for the next day. So, how can I stock dry foods thinking of hitting potential earthquake hazards? (A 38-year-old female, own translation).

One FGD informant stated that the Health system is critical in this area. If they become ill, they must go to the Dhaka Medical College which is not near to them. However, there are a lot of private clinics which are so expensive. Finding no other alternatives, they must take treatment from non-governmental hospitals. As they are not so rich people, they must pay higher for health services that are not good for them. Getting proper health treatment from public hospital people requires strong political affiliation. It is well-documented that poor people in the study area have a lack of good connection with political parties which deprive them of health services [12].

Differently able people do not receive any funds from the Government of Bangladesh (GoB), and they become vulnerable seriously during their emergencies concerning health concerns. By highlighting a few socio-demographic conditions, like, single income generated family, gender, and disabled family members, an informant remarked that.

“When the earthquake struck in late at night on January 4, 2019, almost everyone was asleep and thrown out of their beds. I ran out with my four children onto the street, and I found the area had a blackout. Unfortunately, I forgot to help my elderly parents come out of the room and since they are disabled; they were unable to come out of their room without my help. Thanks to Allah that he saved us from any major damage caused by the earthquake. Now, I go to bed every night thinking of the earthquake and feel helpless, thinking of how I will evacuate my family in the event of an earthquake. (A 33-year-old female, own translation).

Ethnic identity played a vital role to maintain affiliation with mainstream society. The ethnic background obstructs people to receive minimum help and assistance during the time of their need. If they need money for emergencies, ethnic people can hardly get it from colleagues and neighbors. They create a lack of faith among people from different socio-cultural backgrounds in their place. Besides, the people get in trouble for speaking due to a lack of their native (Bengali proficiency) languages. Although they can speak minimal Bengali, unfortunately, they do not know the ethnic language that well. In this connection, a santal (an ethnic people) stated being a member of an ethnic community faced arrange of discrimination to get their basic needs tackling potential earthquake disasters. In this regard, a male informant said that.

“If I need money for an emergency, I can hardly get it from my colleagues and neighbors. I get in trouble due to my lack of Bengali proficiency. I think due to cultural differences (food habits, beliefs, religion, ethnicity, etc.), I cannot interact with them well. I feel uncomfortable about sharing my perceptions, regarding the precautions to take during an earthquake. (A 42-year-old Male, own translation).

The people living in this area have been neglected by the GoB officials from receiving any information regarding earthquake hazards. The people do not get any awareness message for avoiding the disastrous situation of the hazards to have occurred in the future. They do not get proper attention from either GoB personnel or NGO people. In this connection, a participant from an in-depth interviewee stated that,

“I strongly believe that people do not have any evacuation plan during an earthquake. Just a few days ago, a 5.9 earthquake struck Dhaka city. I just heard that people are screaming and that is all about! No initiatives by the government and NGOs have been taken after that! This indicates that people living in this area huge negligence from the respective authorities”. (A 40-year-old male, own translation).

The lower-income people lack the required knowledge for tackling potential earthquake disasters. They do not find time for learning lessons and preparing tools for successfully coping with probable earthquake hazards. In this connection, a rickshaw puller voiced out the following statement from an in-depth interview.

“Just a few days ago, I found some people were reading leaflets and discussing what should be done during an earthquake, whether they are inside or outside. I felt hopeless because I could neither buy helmets nor provide necessary instructions to my family, due to my illiteracy. (A 48-year-old Male, own translation).

One of our FGD participants stated that they can assert their minimum knowledge of reserving dry food, and safe water and should keep their cattle safe from the disaster. They learned it from watching television and getting information from social media. In terms of maintaining interpersonal good relations among the neighbors in the local area are vital [13]. Neighbors help people in trouble during earthquake hazards. A college teacher stated the following statement in an in-depth interview,

We need to make our relationship much stronger than before by helping each other in the event of an earthquake. If an earthquake occurs, there will be a need for cooperation and assistance from each other, to evacuate safely; provide food and shelter. (Female, 48 years).

Given the consequences, one focus group (Male guardians) pointed out that they have to work for their family members when they are in danger. Again, they live together in a building as a community. So, they have great social networking influences. All members of this building help each other at their utmost need. Social networking and kinship can work here perfectly to help each other in the face of earthquake hazards. Each of them understands to be more tolerant at the time of making buildings and during a disaster. One FGD participant opined that they have great social networking, family bondage, and kinship ties that influence them to mitigate the earthquake disaster. They think that they have to help and work for their family members, living in the same building, neighbors, and community members when they are in danger and in their utmost need.

The following diagram has been developed based on the informants’ thoughts and statements regarding their perceptions of the root causes of earthquake hazards (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Root causes of vulnerability (Source: Authors’ framework, 2022).

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5. Dynamic pressures and earthquake disaster

The dynamic pressures include rapid urbanization, foreign debt, and certain structural adjustment programs [10]. Dynamic pressures channel the root causes into forms of unsafe conditions that then must be considered concerning the different types of hazards facing people.

The dynamic factors are the appropriate skills and knowledge such as “dos and don’ts” while staying at home (e.g. under chair or table, corner to the wall, narrow space, besides hard and tall wardrobe, close the window, behind the door, on the balcony, on the bed, jump off the building), [5], while staying outside the home (i.e.- besides the building, the center of the road, beside the tree, run here and there), elderly people at home, unplanned tannery industries, unplanned commercial institutions, lack of govt. and non-govt. emergency center, and the rapid growth of unplanned residences [10].

The role of government or nongovernment organizations to make conscious people about dos and don’ts is far beyond their thinking [14]. People observe that no organizations have trained local people on how to find out escaping routes during earthquake hazards. Ironically, many unplanned high-rise masonry buildings have been built very close to the narrow roads; therefore, people have much doubt about how and where they can find out any escaping routes. In this connection, one informant stated that:

“Neither any governmental or nongovernmental organizations have made us conscious of this nor are training far beyond our thinking. I have much doubt about how and where we can find out any escaping routes. I heard that Dhaka city is very vulnerable to earthquake hazards; thus, I would like to call attention to the government that they should take the responsibility to arrange training for the local people and build some emergency centers throughout the city as early as they can. (A 50-year-old female, own translation).

During the construction, many people neither followed the proper building code of RAJUK nor left enough space for road and transportation. In the last 12 to 15 years, hundreds of multi-storied apartments have been built without following the building code and they have also left no gap in between the buildings. It is hardly possible to see the daylight from any room in these apartments. As the low-income people mostly live in this area, the house owners build the apartments only thinking of their accommodation. An interview with a house owner describing the alternative escape routes due to the occurrence of a potential earthquake. A household owner stated the following statement from the in-depth interview that.

I observed that in the last 15 years, hundreds of buildings have been built only for profit and not taken into consideration, what would happen if an earthquake struck. These compact apartments have been illegally built by bribing the authorities; otherwise, these buildings would not have been there. I think if a strong earthquake hits the area, it will damage the buildings and endanger thousands of lives. (A 68-year-old Male, own translation).

One of our informants from FGD told us that all the buildings are adjacent to one another. Besides, they think the tannery industry buildings were not built according to the rules and regulations of RAJUK and City Corporation. All building owners tried their best to capture all their room and space to make the best use of their expenditure. All the participants of the 3rd FGD think that all building owners of this area had the intention to make a profit from their building. All the buildings are too near to all others. Sometimes it is difficult to see the sky as they are so adjacent to one another. So, they have the potential to cause great damage or destruction if an earthquake happens.

Female guardians in the 4th FGD discussion echoed the present critical situation. She demonstrated that “road networks are not well constructed. The high density of the population creates a traffic jam in the area. At the time of the school closing, the road faces severe traffic jams. Government has little or no control over it”. She added that roads are full of rubbish, and they face a lot of problems even while walking in the road. The following diagram associated with dynamic pressures and earthquake disaster perceptions has been made based on the participants’ thoughts and comments on earthquake hazards (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Dynamic pressures of vulnerability (Source: Authors’ framework, 2022).

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6. Unsafe conditions and earthquake disaster

Unsafe conditions are the specific forms in which the vulnerability of a population is expressed in time and space in conjunction with a hazard. Examples include people having to live in hazardous locations, the weak pattern/structure of the house, aged and dilapidated buildings, narrow staircases, house building materials, building without fire protection, hazardous chemical industries, and residential use in others [10]. The unsafe conditions also involve congested electric wares with buildings, lack of required open spaces, overcrowded high density of population, and lack of enforcement of the law [15]). Rahman et al. [5] found that having to engage in dangerous livelihoods such as prostitution, gambling with its attendant health risks, or having minimal food entitlements poor sanitation, lack of preservation of boiled drinking water, and keeping telephone number of govt. or non-govt. emergency center, the pattern of the weak drainage system, and insufficient first aid equipment e.g., helmet, torch, and radio have a strong connection with the creation of unsafe conditions of vulnerability [16]. It is important to consider the pattern of access to tangible resources (e.g., cash, shelter, food stocks, agricultural equipment) and intangible resources (networks of support, knowledge regarding survival and sources of assistance, morale, and the ability to function in a crisis) [10]. In this sense, an in-depth interviewee illustrated the following story.

“Most dangerous thing is that maximum tanneries do not have the proper drainage system of their toxic wastages. Moreover, most of them are kept uncovered here. I am afraid thinking of that if these poisons leak out on the ground due to the earthquake tremor, it will cause extremely hazardous living conditions for the people as the whole area will be enormously contaminated. (A 45-year-old-male, own translation).

In line with the previous interview, another in-depth interview informant added the following issues:

“As the people in this area are comparatively poor, they build their housing in such a way so that they can collect rent from the people. The house owners do not intend to let City Corporation to have enough place for road construction; as a result, the road pattern remains very narrow here”. (A 45-Year-old male, own translation).

Few FGD participants echoed the statement of the previous in-depth interviewee. They said that the authority of RAJUK had never come to them. They have neither any idea about RAJUK policy nor about following the proper guidelines of RAJUK/Government. One participant said that even though there is any regulation from RAJUK/Government authority they do not abide by these regulations specifically in the tannery industry. Tannery industries are, undoubtedly, posing an environmental threat in the area as well as, causing health hazards among the people. In this connection, a tannery owner stated the following case.

“During the initial stages of this industry, we did not follow the Central Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) process. As a result, huge amounts of toxic liquid wastage have been discharged into the rivers, canals, and ponds that run alongside the road, followed by uncovered drains. Recently, the Government of Bangladesh decided to relocate the tannery industry from Hazaribagh to the city outskirts called Savar. Hence, we have to buy most of the machines for Savar anew. A huge amount of money is required to build new buildings which we lack at the moment. Moreover, mortgaging the tanneries to banks for the loan has prompted several complexities to relocate the industry (A 67-year-old male, own translation).

Focusing on the previous statement, one FGD participant stated that on a rainy day the road is drowned with the dirty color water from the tannery, and water logging arises this day. The participants of the 2nd FGD told that most of the drains are interrupted for wastage of tanning industries before following into the canal. The association between unsafe conditions and the progression of earthquake hazards has been developed relying on the current perceptions of the people involved with the research. The diagram revealed that factors of unsafe conditions are closely connected with the earthquake hazards in the studied area (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Unsafe conditions of vulnerability. (Source: Authors’ framework, 2022).

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7. Discussion

Studies pointed out that the socio-economic conditions of the people significantly impact people to understand and perception exposure of to earthquake hazards. People’s economic class, age group, gender, ethnicity, disability, and migration status have vital roles in the progression of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards [310]. Social vulnerability is a multidimensional concept that is historically produced by excluding some groups of people from accessing the production and allocation systems of economic resources [5, 10]. The socio-demographic features enable people to successfully respond to earthquake hazards [5]. Recent studies showed that the geographic location, unplanned establishment of buildings, and high density of development contribute to the production of the vulnerability of some areas [3, 15]. The present study revealed that the dangerous location, unplanned buildings, and narrow road patterns contributed to the progression of the vulnerability of the people living in the area.

The city has experienced massive population growth, high density of population, unplanned urbanization, high level of corruption, political instability and violation, gender discrimination, and lack of social services. Certain individual characteristics and social factors contribute to the production of vulnerability in the event of earthquake hazards [5]. People who have adequate access to a decent home, safe water, and other economic, as well as political resources, are less susceptible to any natural hazard events. The study pointed out that individual characteristics and social factors have a very significant role in determining where people will live and work, what kind of buildings, their level of hazard protection, information, preparedness, wealth, and health which place some segments of people most at risk in the process of earthquake disasters.

The gendered people, such as women, differently able and aged people living in poverty [17], cannot stay safely puts them vulnerable in the event of earthquake hazards [5]. The study showed that women and aged people suffer from a range of chronic diseases and become susceptible in the face of earthquake hazards. Rahman et al. [3] argued that these people are more at risk to the impacts of earthquake hazards as they are more dependent on others and are less capable of evacuation. Earthquake vulnerability largely depends on its geology, population density, building density and quality, and finally the coping strategy of its people and it shows clear spatial variations [18, 19].

Therefore, the study pinpointed that earthquake hazards become a disaster only for the people who have a certain pattern of social, physical, and other facilities. The study revealed that the rich have more money and have a high status which can be used to solve the critical condition better than the poor people as they are rich and know well. Social participation in natural hazards plays a crucial role to mitigate hazardous events [20]. The study showed that relatives can be more tolerant and sacrifice their shared room after shaking the earthquake and help them to evacuate from the earthquake and after the earthquake. During earthquake hazards, safe people can work for saving people as a part of a family and social networking system, etc.

People’s prior knowledge of potential earthquake hazards would help the people to take necessary steps before, during, and after earthquake hazards [3, 15]. Educated people possessed a comparatively clear understanding of ‘do’s and don’ts’ in the event of an earthquake disaster and explained more details about earthquakes. Rahman et al. [3] revealed that people can save themselves hiding under the wooden furniture during the time of earthquake. They added that by watching television, and social media, people acquired the relevant knowledge like reserving the dry food, safe water and should keep our cattle safe from the disaster. The absence of basic social services, polluted air, and water resources; and the absence of educational opportunities make people more vulnerable in the face of earthquake hazards [10]. The study found that all the roads are narrow and congested and full of rubbish. Thus, these all factors contribute to the deteriorating physical environment in the study area.

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8. Conclusion

The study is an effort to explore the social vulnerability of earthquake disasters from the insights of the people living at the 22nd Ward of Dhaka South City, Bangladesh. The socio-demographic features of the people have significant relations with the production of the vulnerability of earthquake hazards in the studied area. The root causes of the production of vulnerability found that socio-economically poor people have less capacity to face the potential earthquake hazard. Moreover, ethnic identity, differently able people, and social networking play a vital role to produce vulnerability once they are hit by the hazard. The dynamic pressure includes the increasing number of people living in unplanned congested buildings exposed to the earthquake hazard. The study showed that the risk is high in Dhaka South City, as the area is located in the high natural seismicity along with unplanned urbanization, poorly designed and constructed structures, extremely dense population, and poor preparation for the eventually necessary response to an earthquake have produced social vulnerability among the respondents.

There has been an increasing concern about the earthquake vulnerability of the present built environment of Dhaka South city. There have been many campaigns run by the government to make people aware of earthquakes and its devastating effects. However, people living in the study area are less concerned about the dos and don’ts of the potential threat of earthquake hazards. The poor housing materials, unsafe drainage systems, and lack of emergency equipment in the building make the people more vulnerable in the face of an eminent earthquake hazard. The Government of Bangladesh has been trying to provide necessary knowledge and information about the earthquake hazards among its people. However, people living in dangerous areas having less socioeconomic strength and poor political connections get less attention from the higher authority of the government.

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Written By

Mohammad Mahbubur Rahman and Mohammad Harun-Or-Rashid

Submitted: 28 September 2022 Reviewed: 24 October 2022 Published: 14 November 2022