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Mercury (Hg) is a toxic heavy metal with interesting properties such as silvery-white liquid at room temperatures, volatile, a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity. Mercury contamination in soil, water, and the air are associated with potential toxicity to humans and ecosystems. The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury. Exposure to high levels of any type of mercury can permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus. Mercury can build up in the bodies of fish in the form of methyl mercury(organic mercury) which is very poisoning and largely linked to eating seafood, mainly fish. The mechanism of the mercury poisoning treatment involves adsorption, oxidation, and reduction processes. The major aim of these technologies is to separate mercury from the contaminated media or transform toxic mercury species into less toxic ones.
College of Pharmacy, University of Babylon, Hilla, Iraq
*Address all correspondence to: alzahraafatema6@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Mercury (Hg) is an element like lead or arsenic, and it is classified as heavy metal. It is the only metal present in liquid form as shown in Figure 1. It has many interesting properties. The most important properties was listed in Table 1.
Figure 1.
Drops stock of mercury.
Mercury is a naturally occurring mineral found primarily in a mineral called cinnabar, which can contain up to 86 percent mercury. It is released through natural rock weathering and (or) volcanic activity [2].
Metallic mercury is used in the production of chlorine gas and caustic soda, and it is also used in thermometers, dental fillings, and batteries. Mercury salts are sometimes used in skin-lightening creams and as antiseptic creams and ointments [3].
1.1 Facts about mercury
Highly toxic to the nervous system and damages memory, cognitive thinking, language abilities, attention, and fine motor skills [4].
Mercury (Hg) is ubiquitous, naturally enriched in volcanic regions
Bio-accumulative (higher concentrations in tissues of aquatic plants and animals than in water) [5].
Biomagnified (higher concentrations at increasingly higher levels in the food chain) [6].
Many chemical forms in the air, water, sediment, and living organisms
1.2 Sources of mercury
Natural levels of mercury exist in soil, air, and water around the world [7]. Mercury is introduced into the environment in three ways.
Mercury is naturally emitted into the air by volcanoes, rocks, and forests fires and soil. Mercury is released into the atmosphere due to its evaporation, it can easily move through the air and end up thousands of kilometers from where it was first released, and traveled hundreds of miles with the wind before being deposited on the surface of the earth [8]. Sedimentation can occur as little as five to fourteen days afterward Mercury is released into the air, or it can take up to one year - during which time the mercury can they reside in the air and are transported to distant places around the world. Once deposited on Earth, mercury can onto the surface waters of the state [9].
Mercury is emitted into the air from the combustion of fossils Fuel and municipal or medical waste. Mercury can enter the environment through human activities such as burning coal, extracting minerals from ore, manufacturing cement, and using and disposing of mercury-containing products, such as fluorescent lamps and some types of batteries [10]. In certain regions of the world, small-scale gold mining with mercury is an important source of mercury pollution. Human emissions account for 40% of the mercury deposited in Canada each year, and 97% of these emissions come from other countries [11].
Mercury can be reintroduced into the environment through natural processes such as the evaporation of ocean waters. Mercury persists in the environment for long periods by circulating back and forth between air and soil [12], every time chemical shapes change. Atmospheric ages can be oxidized and combined with other elements, such as chlorine, sulfur, or oxygen, to form inorganic mercury)compounds (HgS, HgCl, HgO). These inorganic compounds are estimated to be up to 2 years,
Also, elemental mercury can be combined with carbon to form more toxic organic methyl mercury(CH3Hg) which remains in the soil for decades. Mercury is never removed from the environment; It was moved to other sites and eventually buried under soil and sediment. Figure 2 [13] shows the Inter-phase transfer and transport of mercury in soil, water, and air.
Figure 2.
Inter-phase transfer and transport of mercury in soil, water, and air. Acronyms: Hg(0), elemental mercury; Hg(II), divalent mercury; MeHg, methyl mercury.
1.3 Dangers of mercury exposure
Three different types of mercury are harmful to the human body:
Elemental mercury (liquid mercury, mercury silver): They are found in fluorescent lights, switches, glass thermometers, and dental fillings.
Inorganic mercury: It is found in chemistry laboratories, certain types of disinfectants, and in batteries.
Organic mercury: It is found in the fumes of coal and fish that have ingested methylmercury and disinfectants (germ killers such as red mercury) [14].
The human body can be exposed to mercury through [15]:
The skin by touching it
Air by inhalation
Eating or drinking contaminated food or water
The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury. Exposure to high levels of any type of mercury can permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and fetus. The effects on brain function may cause irritability, shyness, tremors, changes in vision, or problems with hearing and memory [16]. High exposure to mercury vapor can cause chest pain, shortness of breath, and fluid buildup in the lungs (pulmonary edema) that can be fatal [17].
Elemental mercury can turn into more toxic inorganic compounds as oxidized mercury (Hg2+) combines with other elements, or it can combine with carbon to form an even worse pollutant known as methyl mercury (CH3Hg). These compounds may fall to land or water through precipitation, or they may fall as dry particles and find their way into a lake or ocean [4].
Methyl mercury and metallic mercury fumes are particularly harmful because more mercury reaches the brain. Long-term exposure may cause blurring of the eye. Contact with mercury chloride can cause skin burns and permanent eye damage. Mercury also accumulates in the body [18]. Most metallic mercury will accumulate in the kidneys, but some metallic mercury can also accumulate in the brain. Most of the metallic mercury that is absorbed by the body is eventually left in the urine and feces, while small amounts leave the body in the same exhalation [19].
Humans are exposed to mercury in two ways:
Eating fish contaminated with organic methyl mercury
Symptoms of organic mercury poisoning from long-term exposure include a feeling of numbness or pain in certain parts of the body, tremors (uncontrollable shaking), unsteady walking, double vision, or blurry vision. Blindness, memory loss, and seizures [20].
Mercury can enter the open seas and oceans as a result of downstream movement and re-deposition of polluting sediments from urban estuaries. The reduction and oxidation of mercury mostly occur near the surface of ocean waters. These are either driven by sunlight or microbial activity. Under ultraviolet rays, elemental mercury oxidizes and dissolves directly in ocean waters or binds to other molecules [21]. The reverse reaction reduces some Hg2+ to elemental Hg0 and returns to the atmosphere. Atmospheric fine aerosols such as ocean water droplets can act as small reaction chambers in this process providing the required special reaction conditions. Oxidation and reduction of mercury in the ocean are not very simple reversible reactions. The proposed photochemical pathway for mercury surrounding ocean aerosols was shown in Figure 3 which indicates that it occurs through a reactive medium [22].
Figure 3.
Photochemistry of mercury on oceanic aerosols.
Photo-oxidation is suspected to be OH-driven. Roots and reduction are driven by wind and perturbations of the surface layer.
In the dark, mercury redox reactions continue due to microbial activity. Biological transformations vary and have a lower rate compared to the above sunlight-driven processes. Inorganic mercury Hg2 + and methyl mercury can adsorb in molecules. A positive correlation was observed between the amount of organic matter versus the concentration of these types of mercury, indicating that most of them are associated with organic matter [23]. This phenomenon can determine the bioavailability and toxicity of mercury in the ocean. Some methyl mercury is released into the ocean through river run-off. However, most of the methyl mercury found in the ocean is produced in ceto (within the ocean itself). Inorganic Hg methylation can occur via biotic and abiotic pathways. However, biosynthetic pathways are the most prevalent. The reactions shown in the simplified diagram below are parts of the complex enzyme-driven metabolic pathways that occur within microbial cells [24].
In abiotic reactions, hemic substances act as methylating agents, and thus this process occurs at shallow sea levels where decomposing organic matter is available to combine with inorganic Hg2+. Mercury methylation studies in polar regions have also shown a positive correlation between methylation and chlorophyll content in water. The potential for biological pathways to produce methyl mercury is shown in Figure 4 [25]. The methyl mercury produced accumulates in microbes. Due to the high permeability and absence of methyl mercury degradation in other species that depend on those microbes, this highly biotoxic compound is amplified through marine food chains to top predators. Humans consume many types of marine fish that are the number one predators in food chains, putting their health at great risk. Therefore, finding possible solutions to further reduce mercury emissions and clean up existing mercury emissions and clean up existing mercury pollution [26].
Figure 4.
Microbial chemical conversions of mercury.
Methyl mercury is toxic and can cause very harmful effects when consumed, which can happen when humans eat highly contaminated fish. Through the process of biomagnification, as shown in Figure 5, the concentration of methyl mercury within fish increases as one goes up the food chain. This makes eating apex predators dangerous, and especially dangerous for pregnant women and young children to do so.
Figure 5.
Methyl mercury concentrations within the fishes.
Mercury levels in fish are measured in either part per million (mg kg−1) or dry weight micrograms (mcg). Table 2 explains some common types of tuna and the concentrations of mercury in them [27].
Values
Properties
Molecular formula
Hg
atomic number
80
Atomic weight
200.592 amu
Valence
1, 2
Melting point
−39°C
Boiling point
357°C
Specific gravity
13.6
Vapors pressure
0.0012 (mm Hg/21°C)
Odor
Odorless
Stability
Stable and does not tarnish and is slightly volatile at ordinary temperatures
Solubility
Not soluble in water or most other liquids, but will dissolve in lipids (fats and oils)
Some common types of tuna and the concentrations of mercury in them.
The effects of methyl mercury can lead to risk neurological problems, especially in young children and infants, by affecting the brain and nervous system. Possible problems include cerebral palsy, delayed walking or speech, learning difficulties, tremors, irritability, poor coordination, and memory loss. Pregnant mothers in particular should not eat large fish because their babies are susceptible to these chemicals that attack developing organs [28].
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that 0.045 micrograms of mercury per pound (0.1 micrograms per kilogram) of body weight per day are the maximum safe dose of mercury. This amount is known as the reference dose [29].
The daily reference dose of mercury is based on body weight. Multiplying that number by seven gives you the weekly mercury limit. Table 3 shows some examples of reference doses based on different body weights [30].
Body weight
Reference dose per day (in mcg)
Reference dose per week (in mcg)
100 pounds (45 kg)
4.5
31.5
125 pounds (57 kg)
5.7
39.9
150 pounds (68 kg)
6.8
47.6
175 pounds (80 kg)
8.0
56.0
200 pounds (91 kg)
9.1
63.7
Table 3.
Some examples of reference doses based on different body weights.
Since some tuna species are very high in mercury, a single 3-ounce (85-gram) serving may have a mercury concentration that equals or exceeds a person’s weekly reference dose.
Inhalation of elemental mercury (Hg) or inorganic salts (Hg2+)
Elemental mercury is toxic when ingested. When the chemical enters the body by inhalation, it travels through the bloodstream and attacks the brain and kidneys. Symptoms of inorganic mercury poisoning involve a burning feeling in the throat and/or stomach, vomiting or nausea, diarrhea, the color of the urine changes and blood in stool or vomit [20].
The atmosphere is the primary pathway for mercury transport emissions, while land and ocean processes play an important role Its role in the redistribution of mercury in terrestrial water, freshwater, and Marine ecosystems and CH3Hg production that drives The main human exposure route, fish consumption, Especially marine fish. Temporal and spatial scales of Atmospheric transport of mercury to aquatic organisms and Terrestrial ecosystems depend primarily on chemicals and physical forms. Figure 6 illustrates Mercury Cycle in the Environment [31].
Figure 6.
Mercury cycle in the environment.
After emission, elemental mercury (Hg0) can be transported over long distances before oxidation and removal by dry precipitation of particles or gas in the phase or cleaning by scavenging precipitation. The atmospheric residence time of Hg0 is from several months to years and therefore mercury can be transported and deposited in remote locations such as the Arctic and Antarctic [32].
The ionic particle bound Hg2+ has a shorter Atmospheric residence time of Hg0 (atmospheric residence hours to days), as a result of which it is generally deposited locally or regionally. Inputs to ecosystems occur to a large extent Hg2+, while most CH3Hg is produced within ecosystems. It is important to distinguish between primary and secondary mercury emission sources. Primary sources, both natural and Man-made mercury from the long-lived lithosphere atmospheric reservoirs. This mercury is deposited in the earth and oceans. Precipitated mercury can be reduced to Hg0 and then re-emitted [33].
Re-emissions are secondary sources of the exchange of mercury between surface reservoirs using the atmosphere car. Primary sources increase the global pool of mercury in Surface reservoirs, while secondary sources redistribute Between and within ecosystems [12].
Mercury is deposited into the atmosphere primarily as oxidized mercury (II).
By precipitation and falling or picked up by plant stomata and deposited with excreta. In soil, Hg(II) can be reduced by different pathways:
(i) Photochemical, (ii) microbial, or (iii) abiotic non-chemical reduction by natural organic matter (NOM), followed by re-emission back into the atmosphere. All forms of mercury are subject to leaching from soils with runoff or groundwater into aquatic ecosystems. Figure 7 shows emission and re-emission sources of Hg0 [34].
Figure 7.
Current estimates of the fluxes and pools of mercury at the Earth’s surface.
As known, even a small amount of mercury can affect the digestive, nervous, and immune systems. Also, it can be a threat to the development and growth of a child in early life. Mercury products are hazardous waste. When this waste is placed in the trash, it does not decompose. Instead, they find their way into lakes, rivers, or soil [35].
Mercury like other heavy metals, cannot be degraded in ecosystems, thus treatment should be based on removals or installations. Removal techniques include adsorption mechanism, Adsorption, oxidation, and reduction [36]. The main objective of these techniques is the separation or conversion of mercury from contaminated media toxic mercury species to less toxic species. The most widely adopted installation techniques are stabilization and containment, Which prevents the transfer of mercury by chemical complexity or physical baiting, respectively [37].
Novel materials, especially materials that possess high Surface area, large porosity as well as adsorption active sites It has been extensively examined in recent studies Regardless of the absorption capacity which is the main determinant of these materials, and other issues such as the method of generation, Stability, and reusability should also be seriously considered compared to traditional processing techniques such as heat absorbent or activated carbon adsorption, innovative [38].
The methods have proven to be more cost-effective and environmentally friendly. Interestingly, most of these techniques treat contaminated mercury Soil, water, and air can depend on the emerging materials or metabolizing organisms, i.e. plants, algae, and bacteria. Figure 8 [15] shows the main mechanisms involved in Hg treatment.
Figure 8.
Major mechanisms involved in Hg treatment. Acronyms: WFGD, wet flue gas desulfurization; ESP, electrostatic precipitation.
Major mechanisms involved in Hg treatment from the air, water, and soil can be explained as follows:
The catalyst oxidation method is commonly used for gaseous phase mercury removal. Oxidation is a more cost-effective method to remove Hg0 from the flue gas. Several studies have focused on new oxidation, regardless of the oxidation method of the catalyst, the advanced free radical oxidation of Hg0 is also sometimes used, but the removal capacity of Hg0 using this technology is still limited [39].
The synthesis of a functional covalent thioether of triazine nanoparticles for Hg2+ and Hg0 is absorbed by water studies and the results show an excellent adsorption capacity (1253 and 813 mg/g for mercury Hg2+ and Hg0, respectively). The maximum adsorption capacity was reached 172.6 mg/g by using silica-coated magnetron nanoparticles for Hg(II) extraction from wastewater and adsorption of mercury ions on imine groups (C-NH-) on the surface of nanoparticles [40].
Reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 is often applied to prevent the formation of Methyl mercury (MeHg). Methyl mercury is the most bioavailable form of Mercury. Oxidation-reduction conditions in wetland sediments enhance formation From MeHg. The high concentration of mercury (II) species results in production from MeHg. Therefore, an effective way to control the production of methyl mercury is to reduce the Hg(II) concentration. Zerovalent iron (ZVI) or Fe (II) is often used. To reduce Hg(II) to Hg(0), thus inhibiting the production of MeHg [41].
Adsorption methods by using adsorbents usually possess high surface area and high porosity and the formation of chelates is the major approach to removing Hg(II) from water solution [42].
Stabilization approaches freeze the movement of mercury into contaminated sites. Through chemical complexity to reduce solubility for Reduce exposure to mercury in the environment During chemical fixation Sulfur-containing reagents such as elemental sulfur and pyrite (FeS2) or thiosulfate are commonly used to react with Hg(0) in pollutants oil to form HgS, which is very insoluble [43].
Soil can be dealt with either on-site or off-site, the former requires less energy and labor cost. However, fine mixing is still very difficult on-site stability. The basic defect in stability is that mercury is not removed from contaminated media, Thus it requires permanent prospective monitoring of contaminants on site. Similar to installation, pollution is left on site during containment treatment. Low permeability physical barriers (eg clay plaster walls, coverings, or curtains) around contaminated soil To isolate and contain the soil, thus preventing the migration of mercury to the surrounding environment. These material Barriers can be divided into three types: barricades, vertical barricades, and horizontal barriers [44].
Nano-materials are gaining more and more attention in mercury remediation of soil, water, and flue gas, owing to their high adsorption capacity, small dimension, and another unique electrical, mechanical and chemical properties. There are several major types of nanoparticles and nanocomposites such as carbon nanotubes (CNT) [45], Zinc oxide (ZnO) [46], and Ferro ferric oxide (Fe3O4), [47] nanoparticles can be used for Hg remediation in the wastewater.
Mercury is one of the most dangerous pollutants which cycles through the atmosphere, water, and soil in various forms to different parts of the world. High levels of Mercury exposure cause damage to the brain, kidneys, and fetus. The effects on brain function may cause irritability, shyness, tremors, changes in vision, or problems with hearing and memory. Humans are exposed to mercury either by Eating fish contaminated with organic methyl mercury or Inhaling elemental mercury (Hg) or inorganic salts (Hg2+). Mercury poisoning treatment techniques include adsorption, oxidation, and reduction mechanism. The catalyst oxidation method is commonly used for gaseous phase mercury removal, while nanoparticles and nanocomposites can be used for mercury remediation of soil, water, and flue gas due to their high adsorption capacity.
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Written By
Fattima Al-Zahra Gabar Gassim
Submitted: 08 July 2022Reviewed: 30 September 2022Published: 14 June 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
