Land-Based Marine Pollution: An Emerging Threat to Bangladesh

Abstract

Bangladesh is a densely populated coastal country in South Asia. The country has enormous resources in the coastal and marine environment of the northern Bay of Bengal. After the final settlement with India, Bangladesh has had an independent ocean boundary since 2014, but the country has no national policy to protect the environment from marine pollution. The chapter explores the applications of protection and prevention of the marine environment in Bangladesh from land-based marine pollution (LMP) as land-based sources have become the emerging threat to the Bay of Bengal in respect of marine pollution. Several relevant national laws and policies have been analyzed to examine the problems of LMP control in Bangladesh. This chapter also identifies the sources and effects of land-based pollutants, including the analysis of national activities, action plans, and management strategies to discover the challenges and gaps of the present regime for LMP control in Bangladesh. Finally, the chapter suggested a comprehensive approach to establishing national legislation to control LMP in Bangladesh by implementing the national and regional strategy.

1. Introduction

Bangladesh is the country of conglomerate islands in South Asia and one of the world’s largest deltas. The country is mainly formed by the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) river system and consists of flat and low land. The total land area is 147,570 sq. km. It has a network of many rivers with tributaries and distributaries crisscrossing the country, whereas 405 are recognized in ‘Nod-Nodi’ [1]. It has a population of about 164 million, and 35.6% of the population is urban [2]. It is estimated that the country’s population will be 172.4 million by 2025 [3]. Increasing trends of population increase human activity, which is dependent on the earth’s environment and its natural resources system but due to industrialization and various effects of human activities cause, environmental pollution, including the marine environment. The marine environment of Bangladesh is situated at the coast of the Bay of Bengal (BOB), which is the northeastern extension of the Indian Ocean [4]. Being an extension, BOB shares many oceanic characteristics of the Indian Ocean and has active connections with the Andaman Sea, Malacca Strait, Palk Strait, etc. Bangladesh has received 118,813 sq. km. of maritime area in the BOB after the final dispute settlements with Myanmar and India in 2012 and 2014, respectively [5]. In Bangladesh, the BOB coast covers 710 km in length, and about 36 million people live in this area for their livelihoods like agriculture, fishing and aquaculture, salt farming, forest resources, and nearshore transportation. Over 90% of living and non-living resources of the world are found within a few hundred kilometers of the coast, and nearly two-thirds of the global population lives on the coast [6]. Rapid urbanization, deforestation, and unplanned extraction of marine and coastal resources aggravated the environment complex.

The ocean produces 70% of the oxygen and 80% of the world’s animals and plants [7]. It is a part of the cultural and natural heritage of the world [8] and has great importance for tourism, mineral extraction, recreation and transportation, waters, beaches and cliffs, coral reefs, islands, mangrove forests, port, harbors, etc. The ocean compromises 95% of the global water supply [9], and the ocean water covers 72% of the earth’s surface. Because of the importance of the world’s oceans, the marine environment may have been called the ‘lungs of the earth.’ However, the marine environment is deteriorating due to unsustainable utilization and exploitation of ocean resources and various sources of pollutants released into the ocean. Several studies have revealed that preserving and protecting the marine environment from different deteriorating agents affects directly or indirectly like marine pollution [10]. As the marine environment is the vital diversity of marine resources, including marine animals and plants, prevention and control of marine pollution are significantly important and interlinked. Marine environmental protection is generally considered ‘protection from pollution’ [11], whereas pollution has a significant threat to ocean life and affects the marine species, ecosystem, and human health. Bangladesh’s marine pollution is mainly caused by land-based and sea-based sources [12]. Several point and non-point sources are the leading causes of land-based sources pollution, whereas sea-based sources pollution occurs mainly due to shipping activities in the Sea [13]. Marine oil pollution can expose human health and other species to diseases [14]. Organic and inorganic pollutants from land-based, including ship-breaking activities in Bangladesh, affect the marine ecosystem essentially [15]. Although various sources of pollution affect the marine environment, several studies have indicated that the sources of land-based marine pollution (LMP) are the dominant threat in Bangladesh [16]. Hence, it has become urgent to enact legislation to regulate marine resource exploitation and utilization and marine environmental Protection regarding the sources of LMP.

Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 states about the Marine Environment Protection from LMP sources like: ‘Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range of sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 percent of marine pollution, while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities contribute 10 percent each. The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the marine environment are invariable order of importance and, depending on differing national or regional situations, sewage, nutrients, synthetic organic compounds, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many polluting substances originating from land-based sources are of particular concern to the marine environment since they exhibit toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation in the food chain. Currently, there is no global scheme to address marine pollution from land-based sources’ [17]. The above section of Agenda 21 proved that prevention and control of LMP are significantly essential and linked with ocean resources conservation and management, ocean health improvement, and maritime security regarding marine environment protection. Subsequently, arguments for protecting the marine environment of Bangladesh have been put forward by devising relevant national and international legislation to achieve the goals.

2. LMP status in Bangladesh

According to National report of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME), LMP is discharged directly into the Bay of Bengal through rivers, floods, tides, groundwater, or atmospheric deposition [18]. This report also identified two kinds of land-based sources of marine pollution in Bangladesh: point and non-point (Table 1). A point source of pollution is those for which a particular point of entry into the environment can be identified, whereas non-point sources are harder to identify and cannot be as readily identified as originating from a single source [19]. LMP can also inflict oil sewage and industrial waste, chemical fertilizer and pesticides, water from power stations, atmospheric discharges from vehicles, chimney fumes, and sprayed agricultural chemicals [20]. In Bangladesh, industrial wastes contain high organic pollutants, and most importantly, there is no waste treatment plant inside the industries [21]. Municipal garbage is also one of the leading factors for LMP in Bangladesh due to rapid urbanization, indiscriminately dumping into the drain, canal, or river directly [21]. Agriculture activities are also the reasons for LMP as pesticides and fertilizers are carried out by rivers, canals, or drains to the sea during the rainy season [21]. The causes of land-based sources of marine pollution are the same in other countries except for ship-breaking pollution because almost all shipyard in Bangladesh is located near the coast, and their recycling operation is done through the ‘beaching’ method. According to the National Program of Action (NPA), to protect the coastal and marine environment from land-based activities in Bangladesh, reported ‘ship-breaking pollution’ is one of the critical issues for land-based marine pollution at BOB [10].

Land-based sources of marine pollution
Point sources	Non-point sources
Wastewater treatment plants; Untreated sewage/outfalls; Partially treated/ untreated Industrial effluent outfalls; Aquaculture effluents	Agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes); Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production Coliform Bacteria and pathogens; Sediments (from construction), hill cutting and deforestation.; River runoff

Table 1.

Critical sources of LMP in Bangladesh [18].

Municipal waste comprises household, industrial, commercial, agricultural, street sweeping, construction debris, sanitation residues, etc. The total amount of municipal waste generated in the country appears to be related to socioeconomic factors, and also, the total amount of solid and liquid wastes of Bangladesh that could either directly or indirectly find their way to the coast of the BOB has not been estimated yet [22]. In 2005, the average per capita municipal waste generation rate was estimated to be 0.41 kg/capita/day, and it assumed that by 2025, the total waste generation would be 47,064 tons/day with a waste generation rate (WGR) of 0.6 kg/capita/day [23].

As Bangladesh has no domestic waste treatment facilities yet, effluents from city areas directly or indirectly enter the river. Increasing human settlement in the coastal areas is also the factor for increasing pollutants in the coastal environment and, in general, dumping excreta in drains and canals that go to nearby rivers and ultimately falls into the Bay of Bengal. Septic tank effluents are also dumped into the rivers and canals directly or indirectly and cause localized water pollution surrounding the drainage outfalls. The rivers, including the Karnafuly and Passur, receive raw excreta daily from dense populations on both sides of these towns. Every day a considerable amount of blood and intestines of slaughtered animals from the Firringee Bazar slaughterhouse of Chittagong find their way into the River Karnafuly and hence to the Bay of Bengal. The most common system currently adopted for the disposal of solid wastes is to dump vast quantities of the collected solid wastes on the outskirts of townships as landfills, creating a breeding ground for houseflies and mosquitoes. The decomposition process pollutes the area emitting poisonous and obnoxious smells. The major channels that carry domestic wastes and spread into the coastal city areas cause pathogenic microbial pollution and severe health hazards during the rainy season, and the severity of floods is more in the Bay [24]. Solid waste is washed by rain, the leachate mixes with the water, goes to the river, then to the Sea, and ultimately pollutes the total water body.

Pathogenic organisms are usually present in the soil and solid wastes. These pathogens are causative agents of different diseases in human beings [25]. There is a very high abundance of oligochaetes and other pollution indicators of benthic organisms near sewage outfalls in the Karnaphuli River estuary, which indicates localized pollution in the estuary [26]. High BOD indicates oxygen depletion, endangering fish and aquatic species; deoxygenation induced by toxic waste occurs in the Sea. Harmful effects of the Chittagong Urea Fertilizer Limited (CUFL) effluents on aquatic organisms, particularly on plankton and fish [27]. The pollution caused by the tannery industry, which ranks fourth in earning foreign exchange, causes phenomenal environmental pollution to the soil, ecology, and human body [28]. Especially children and aged people suffer most from the emission of sulfur dioxide gas, which causes respiratory problems, and damages the lungs of the human body [29]. Toxic metals can pass through the food chain to human beings and damage the brain and nervous system. Mercury contamination on some commercially important shrimp and finfish species from the Bay of Bengal off the coast of Bangladesh [30]. The mercury concentrations show that in estuarine shrimp, contamination is higher than in the coastal or open sea shrimps. Heavy metals like mercury are serious pollutants because they are stable compounds that are not readily removed by oxidation, precipitation, or other natural processes. Lower concentrations of methyl mercury may kill aquatic organisms.

The reduction of oxygen in water affects aquatic flora and fauna [30]. As a result of ship scrapping activities, various refuse and disposable materials are being discharged and spilled from the scrapped ships and often get mixed with soil and seawater. Due to shipbreaking pollution, there is a significant difference in the physio-chemical properties of the beach soil within and outside of the areas [31]. Phytoplankton organisms and algae suffer from reducing light intensity beneath an oil film, which inhibits photosynthesis. Coating feathers with oil, which causes buoyancy and insulation losses, sometimes cause damage to the marine bird [29]. Persistent toxic metals that settle down on the sediment from various sources threaten the survival of health of all organisms and biodiversity, besides several environmental consequences resulting from coastal aquacultures such as Shrimp farming, hatcheries operation, and shrimp and fish processing units. Encroachment and unplanned expansion of shrimp farming within the coastal belt are responsible for the destruction of forest and agricultural land, thus reducing agricultural production and endangering biodiversity. Residues in seafood, along with those in paddy-cum-shrimp culture, salt-cum shrimp culture, and several agrochemicals used in the seashore culture, ultimately go to the Sea and have an adverse impact [32].

3. Importance of LMP control in Bangladesh

Several scholars have argued that environmental quality conservation and prevention is the cry of the day [33]. During the last few centuries, with the growth of the population, the environment has been subject to harsh treatment by various human activities [33]. Around 1.8 metric tons (MT) of pesticides enter the BOB, and Bangladesh imports approximately 3.5 million tons of refined and crude oil from different countries, contributing to around 4–6 MT of oil pollution in the BOB [34]. According to World Casualty Statistics 2011, the largest five-ship scrapping countries in the world are India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, and Turkey, which recycle 97–98% of the world’s tonnage [35]. Presently, Bangladesh is the first largest country for ship scrapping worldwide [36]. Each ship released more than 250 kg of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in the BOB, whereas 194 ships were dismantled in 2015 on the Bangladesh coast [37]. This toxic, hazardous waste threatens marine and coastal environments and public health. Marine microbial pollution also occurs due to the excess discharge of city garbage and industrial waste, which helps grow health hazard pathogenic bacteria in the marine environment [38, 39]. Bangladesh has no domestic waste treatment facilities; therefore, all townships and human effluents, directly and indirectly, fall into the river with the untreated condition and hence to the BOB through the estuary. All the coastal city areas carry household wastes and cause pathogenic microbial pollution and severe health hazard diseases for coastal residents [26]. Although a variety of sources of pollution affect the marine environment and the sources of LMP are the dominant threat in Bangladesh [34] so, it has become an urgent task to enact legislation to regulate marine resource exploitation and utilization as well as marine environmental protection regarding the control of LMP. Bangladesh has ratified most international conventions regarding marine pollution to protect the marine environment but has yet to initiate domestic laws to affect international commitments. Bangladesh has no domestic law regarding marine pollution control or prevention except ‘Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act (TWMZA’). In the context of maintaining the ecological balance in the Bay of Bengal (BOB), the TWMZA) adopted in 1974, the only act regarding the marine sector in Bangladesh, but there were no provisions to control marine pollution. Section 8 of this Act implies that ‘the government may take the initiative to make comprehensive rules regarding marine environmental pollution’ [40]. As Bangladesh’s final settlement of maritime boundary delimitation issues finished in 2014 with the ITLOS verdict, it is time to comply with the duty to protect the marine environment and adopt laws and regulations to control, reduce and prevent the sources of LMP in Bangladesh.

Globally, Marine environmental protection regarding the LMP threat is also an emerging issue as marine pollution has devastating impacts on the marine environment. Efficient management, comprehensive regulation, and regional cooperation are necessary to overcome the LMP threat [41]. Before 1954s, there was no convention to combat marine pollution; no emphasis was placed on the importance of LMP control [41]. At last, in the 1960s, the Paris Convention relating to LMP control [42] was negotiated, and other multilateral conventions, including the Helsinki Convention, were adopted with the provisions of LMP control [41]. The [43] was the most important, updated, and comprehensive international agreement regarding previous marine environmental protection laws [44, 45], which provides a comprehensive framework for protecting and preserving the marine environment [43]. UNCLOS contains various sources of marine pollution, including LMP, and provides a framework for developing and conserving marine living resources [44, 46]. According to Chapter 17, Agenda 21, UNCLOS is a necessary tool for developing and utilizing international and regional agencies regarding ocean pollution prevention [47]. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development’1992 (UNCED) also considered the LOSC a significant contribution to marine Protection and International Law. The United Nations (UN) Secretary-General states about the marine environmental Protection regarding international Law at the conference of UNCED’1992; The UNCLOS ‘provides a model for the evaluation of International Law and its incorporation of several newly developed concepts and principles, such as the prevention of Transboundary pollution; assessment; habitat protection; and ecosystem considerations; an integrated approach to the various source of pollution; and contingency planning against pollution emergencies’ [48]. As Article 207 and 213 of the UNCLOS provides, state shall prescribe and enforce legislation to reduce, prevent and control LMP [49], which is the only global treaty with special provisions for LMP. In advance, Montreal Guidelines were adopted with a comprehensive management framework to protect LMP, and the Global Program of Action (GPA), 1995 represents the significant development regarding global arrangements of LMP control [50].

According to Sir Edmund Hillary, ‘Environmental problems are social problems. They begin with people as the cause and end with people as victims’ [33]. As I mentioned, land-based pollution has been subject to harsh treatment by various human activities, and we have made this by our irrational and selfish conduct, so all these environmental problems and crises have to be analyzed and judged in the context of LMP control. Hence, the development and implementation of legislation are required to protect the marine environment regarding LMP control in Bangladesh. Ensuring good governance in the Sea, promoting economic growth, ensuring the security of maritime recourses from pollutants, improving the value of the maritime environment and ensuring their sustainability, adoption of a comprehensive Land-Based Marine Pollution Control Act (LMPCA) for Bangladesh is urgently needed with the implementation analysis of regional and international cooperation. LMPCA can be a safeguard for the sustainable Protection of the marine environment in Bangladesh.

4. Present status of responsible national organizations in Bangladesh

Enacting enabling legislation nationally is vital, but implementing domestic legislation remains the major challenge. Indeed, several institutions are responsible for protecting the marine environment of Bangladesh. The Ministry of Shipping (MoS) is the lead ministry, and the Department of Shipping (DoS) is the lead agency dealing with vessel-source pollution. This department is aided by several subordinate offices under its administrative control, including the mercantile marine department, marine academy, government shipping office, and seamen’s training school [51]. The ports of Bangladesh, Chittagong, and Mongla were established by a different law and treated as autonomous bodies. Other institutions like the coast guard, DoE, and Bangladesh Navy (BN) are entrusted with respective responsibilities to protect the marine environment. Besides the association of social development, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association (BELA), the Center for Environmental Studies and Disaster Management, the Centre for Environmental Studies and Research, and Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna Universities, and Bangladesh Agriculture universities are also engaged in marine environmental research, monitoring and enforcement opportunities (Table 2) [52].

Name	Roles
Ministry of Shipping; Department of Shipping; Mercantile Marine Department; Government Shipping Office; Marine Academy; Seamen’s Training School	Implementation of all IMO Conventions; Liaison with IMO and other International Organizations; Inspections of ships; Enforcement of Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1893, and all other relevant legislation.; Registration, survey, and certification of ships.; Training and certification of marine officers, engineers, and seamen.
Chittagong and Mongla Port Authorities	Management and development of ports; Prevention of pollution in the port area.
Coast Guard	Patrolling in the maritime area of Bangladesh.; Detection of activities causing pollution of the environment in the maritime zones of Bangladesh and taking measures for their stoppage; Enforcement of any warrant or any other order of any court or other authority in respect of any ship, which has entered the territorial waters of Bangladesh. (Section 7 of the Coast Guard Act 1994)
Bangladesh Navy	Safeguarding the country’s sovereignty over the internal waters and territorial sea, and sovereign rights over the Contiguous Zone, Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and Continental Shelf.
Department of Environment	Overall management and protection of the environment; Enforcement of Environment Conservation Act 1995

Table 2.

Key government agencies involved in the prevention of marine pollution.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) ensures a sustainable environment and optimum forest coverage through ecosystem and biodiversity conservation; controlling environmental pollution; addressing climate change; research, floristic survey, and developing forest resources. Section 3 of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995, establishes the DoE. The headquarters of the environment department is currently organized into two main functional areas ‘Administration, Planning and Development, and ‘Technical’ [53]. A director heads each, and there is a lack of knowledge or professionalism regarding marine environment protection. They have no data or do not provide proper knowledge regarding the current status of marine pollution and their mitigation steps.

The MoS is the highest governmental institution in Bangladesh to implement IMO Conventions in Bangladesh. The ministry encompasses within its fold shipping and port sectors, including national waterways, inland water transport, ports, and ocean shipping, and oversees the safety and environmental matters and the regulatory aspects of maritime shipping and maritime education. The ministry is responsible for formulating policies and plans for these subjects and facilitating the quick implementation of various projects. Besides, this ministry also cares about maintaining and expanding viable, efficient, and dependable water transportation and communication systems as the cheapest way of economic activities in rural and urban areas. The DoS is an agency under the MoS, Bangladesh. Bangladesh’s maritime safety administration is responsible for formulating and implementing the national policies and legislation to ensure the safety of life and ships at Sea, development of the shipping industry, maritime education and certification, employment and welfare of seafarers, and other shipping-related matters. The department is also responsible for ensuring compliance with international conventions relating to maritime matters (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Organization under the Ministry of Shipping.

Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute (BORI) has started its journey at Cox’sbazar under the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) for all types of oceanographic research, including environmental impact assessment and oil-spill risk assessment. A law named ‘Oceanographic Research Institute of Bangladesh 2015’ (Act No. 7 of 2015) has been passed in the parliament. This act provides for the creation of the Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute. It establishes the composition, duties, and responsibilities of the Institute mentioned above, entitled to undertake the research and disseminate related information results and activities of all concerned operations, management, and control of the Bangladesh oceanographic sector. Chittagong and Mongla seaport is considered the center of the economy of Bangladesh. Both port authorities were established under the Chittagong and Mongla Port Ordinance 1976, amended in 1995. Recently, the Chittagong port authority initiated Environment Management Unit (EMU), which will focus on protecting the marine environment, but it is yet to get approval from the ministry. The BN is entrusted with the responsibility to protect the maritime boundary of Bangladesh. The BN is mainly limited to coastal patrolling, yet it is an enormous scope to protect the marine environment from pollution. Bangladesh Coast Guard is the principal Law enforcement authority that implements national and international maritime laws. However, the Coast Guard of Bangladesh deals with only piracy operations rather than marine environmental Protection. Mercantile Marine Department was established under the Bangladesh Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1983. The department has an essential responsibility to deal with the accidents that may cause marine pollution, but it lacks effectiveness in dealing with the issue.

5. An emerging threat and regional activities on LMP control

Generally, a regional approach is based on the mechanisms of interest, traditions, and values of neighboring countries [54] under common interests or problems. It also depends on political, social, economic, and cultural cooperation and interaction [54]. Marine environment pollution in the Bay of Bengal sub-region is a common problem because every year, this Bay receives many pollutants from land-based and other activities [55]. These pollutants reach the marine and coastal waters through rivers, canal systems, or the atmosphere [55]. For example, it is estimated that in Delhi, 5 million gallons of water containing DDT wastes are dumped into the Jamuna river daily, which ultimately falls through the Bay of Bengal. The South Asian Seas Action Plan, Colombo Workshop on LMP Control, and Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) program are vital regional approaches for researching marine environmental Protection from pollution directly or indirectly in this region.

South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASAP) South Asia is one of the most diverse regions in the world. They are bordered to the north by the Himalayas and to the south by the Indian Ocean. Many countries have taken action to protect and manage the environment. They are also parties to many multilateral environmental agreements requiring them to work cooperatively to mitigate concern issues. The South Asian Seas Action Plan (SASAP) is a Regional Action Plan (RSP) under the UNEP Regional Seas Program (RSP) adopted in 1995. The Regional Seas Programs of UNEP have several common elements. Establishing a Regional Seas Program usually begins with developing an action plan outlining the strategy and substance of a regionally coordinated program to protect a typical body of water. The action plan is based on the region’s environmental challenges and socio-economic and political situation. It may cover issues ranging from chemical wastes and coastal development to marine species and ecosystem conservation.

In most cases, the action plan is underpinned by a solid legal framework in a regional convention and associated protocols on specific problems. The legally binding convention expresses governments’ commitment and political will to tackle common environmental problems through joint, coordinated activities. The South Asia Cooperative Environment Program (SACEP) has been privileged to participate in developing the RSP in the SASAP.

The overall objective of the SASAP is to protect and manage the region’s marine environment and related coastal ecosystems in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner. In addition to specifying the needs under the main components of Environmental Assessment, Environmental Management, Environmental Legislation & Institutional, and Financial Arrangements, the Action Plan identified the areas where priority activities need to develop for implementation. The action plan is designed to develop financial and institutional mechanisms for protecting marine and coastal environments from different activities, including LMP control. The Plan focuses on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), oil-spill contingency planning, human resource development, and land-based activities’ environmental effects. For LMP control, they suggest a regional action plan for reducing nutrient loading into the coastal waters of the South Asian Seas Region. The key activities of the action plan included Inventory of point or non-point sources of nutrients that end up in the coastal waters, developing and undertaking actions to reduce nutrient inputs to agriculture, and developing a regional action plan to pursue by member countries [56]. Although there is no regional convention, SASAP follows existing global environmental and maritime conventions and considers the Law of the Sea’s umbrella convention.

5.1 Colombo workshop on LMP control

On 22–25 October 1997, the UNEP organized a workshop on the Implementation of the GPA for the Protection of the Marine Environment from LMP in the South Asian Regions, also known as ‘Colombo Workshop on LMP Control.’ The workshop deliberated a draft about the overview of land-based sources and activities that affect marine, coastal and freshwater environment, regional action program, and their implementation process, including institutional activities, financial consideration for the Protection of the marine environment from land-based activities in the South Asian Seas (SAS) [57, 58]. As India, Maldives, Nepal, Srilanka, and Pakistan are the representative countries of the Workshop and SACEP acted as Secretariat for the Workshop, the participants need special attention to protect the marine environment from LMP control. The Colombo workshop also suggested an integrated approach to developing national action programs to implement national environmental strategies and policies, including a regional action plan and financial cooperation among the related stakeholders [57]. However, Bangladesh was not attending this workshop so that Bangladesh could follow the recommendations of the Colombo workshop for effective involvement with GPA in the control of LMP in the SAS region.

5.2 Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME)

The BOBLME Project has been working closely with various bodies and organizations operating in the Bay of Bengal to improve the coordination of activities and enhance impacts. Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand are collaborating through the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Project to better the lives of their coastal populations by improving regional management of the Bay of Bengal environment and its fisheries. A proposal was made to develop a strategic action program (CAP) to protect the ecosystem’s health and manage the living resources of the Bay of Bengal. SAP-based on the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) was endorsed in March 2012 by the BOBLME countries. The TDA identifies the main transboundary issues and their causes. It reviews the driving forces at work in the BOBLME, such as the socio-economic, institutional, legal, and administrative circumstances and the projected impact of climate change on the region. The negotiated policy document sets out a program of actions that address the causes of the major fisheries, environmental, social, and economic issues. However, the program did not directly relate to LMP control. However, they aimed to assist the countries of this sub-region in meeting their obligations to manage the marine and coastal environment, which is directly related to SASAP, GPA, etc. Therefore, this program is indirectly relevant to LMP control in this region [41].

6. Challenges in dealing with such an emerging threat in Bangladesh

Degradation of the marine and coastal environment can result from various sources. A precautionary and anticipatory rather than reactive approach is necessary to prevent the further degradation of Bangladesh’s coastal and marine environments. These require the integration of social and economic components along with environmental components. Environmental concerns, experimental programs, sustainable livelihood, economic considerations, poverty reduction, coastal development, and other stakeholders’ involvement are the key objectives of the national management strategy for LMP control in Bangladesh [10].

Innovative strategies and practices compatible with environmental sustainability are required to protect Bangladesh’s overall coastal and marine environment from land-based activities. Developing and implementing conservation practices aiming at harmonizing the efforts from different sectors with environmental conservation as the ultimate goal targeted. Strengthening and upscaling the ongoing conservation program activities and strategies are necessary. Moreover, efforts should have been made to protect the marine ecosystems of Bangladesh from further degradation by proposing and improving the application of legal instruments to protect the marine environment and strengthen existing control systems. Large-scale shrimp farming and disposal contribute to high coastal and marine pollution. Organic shrimp farming should practice and develop a sustainable model like the mangroves—aquaculture. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) formulated its 1995 GPA to protect land-based activities’ coastal and marine environment. In 2003, a meeting was held in Sri Lanka on GPA for South Asia Region. Several projects like coastal mangrove ecosystem, adverse impact on the marine environment and human health, shipbreaking activities, Coastal fisheries management, solid waste management, environmental flow requirement, assessment, etc., are funded by UNEP/GPA at an experimental scale.

Marine and coastal protection strategies would necessitate interventions to improve people’s capacity for sustainable livelihood. To conserve and preserve natural resources, including agriculture and fisheries, management activities would include education, training, and awareness of the local people to sustainable production concepts. To improve coastal water quality, the Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper (PRSP) set the strategic goals by installing (Effluent Treatment Plant) ETP in all industries, including shipbreaking. To ensure the proper utilization of resources and comprehensive development of the coastal and marine areas, the Bangladesh government approved the 2005 ‘Coastal Zone Policy’. The policy focused on the economic development of the coastal area, including livelihood improvement, mitigation, coastal resources management, land utilization planning, Protection of salinity intrusion, etc.

The MoEFCC of Bangladesh has developed relevant environmental laws like Environment Policy 1992, Environment Conservation Act 1995, Environment Conservation Rules 1997, and Environment Court Act 2000. It has also set up offices at the divisional level to implement environmental rules and regulations. It appears that the existing institutional capacity and allocated resources are inadequate compared to the scale and magnitude of the prevailing environmental problem. Addressing environmental problems related to land-based activities in Bangladesh is new and institutional collaboration and integration with other sectoral programs are limited.

Globally, LMP control has specific problems due to geographical location, ecological factors, social structure, economic activity, and scientific evidence [59]. Besides the lack of scientific and technical data, industrial production restrictions on sovereignty are also fundamental obstacles to controlling LMP [41]. Besides the concept of marine pollution and its impacts, lack of legislation, separate marine environmental protection department, political wellness, an unstable political situation, lack of coordination of the government officials, institutional incapacity, etc., make the challenges to control LMP in Bangladesh. This section also discusses the scientific, economic, and transboundary problems and issues to control the LMP in Bangladesh. Data collection, source identification, and damage determination from land-based sources are the main elements of scientific problems. Industrial production versus marine environmental pollution issues are elements of economic problems. Types of contaminants, regional consensus, and social priorities are the main factors for transboundary problems.

7. Suggested framework

In 2004, the Department of Shipping (DOS), Bangladesh drafted a ‘Marine Environment Conservation Act 2004,’ which has not been ratified yet. It hoped that the government would enact comprehensive maritime environmental protection laws and regulations, including LMP control, to protect the BOB from land-based sources of pollution. In 2006, the National Program of Action (NPA) under the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) identified 12 major issues that are the critical sources of land-based pollution at BOB. Generally, climate change, industrial waste (including ship breaking yards), land-use change, deforestation, coastal zone erosion, sewage disposal, agrochemicals, solid waste management, salinity intrusion, rapid urbanization, and coastal tourism is the main creature of pollution in the marine environment. To prevent LMP, international soft laws, complex laws, and conventions are available to deal with marine environmental pollution worldwide. However, Bangladesh ratified some of the laws and conventions but has not yet enacted any law regarding marine pollution control due to a lack of proper national legal framework and willingness of the government; these conventions have not yet been ratified. On the other hand, Bangladesh cannot fully implement international marine environmental pollution related to legal issues due to a shortage of financial reasons [21]. As Bangladesh has an ocean boundary but no marine policy to restore the ocean resources at BOB, it is necessary to set up a marine policy emphasizing LMPCA.

LMPCA framework for Bangladesh can be developed based on active approach, responsibility, indigenization, standards, norms, practices, monitoring, assessment, legal compliance, etc. The layout and contents of the LMPCA can be categorized into four segments. The first segment covers the mission, vision, objectives, goals, and guiding principles. The second segment should contain the LMPCA domain discussing sea area, geography, resources, economy, sources, and impacts of marine pollution with an example. The third segment contains the proposed framework’s challenges, implementation, and monitoring mechanisms. The last segment sets out detailed policy guidelines for all stakeholders and leads actors. The Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF) and the Ministry of Shipping (MOS) can jointly create legislation for favorable economic and environmental conditions in ship recycling areas by implementing hazardous waste treatment facilities and ensuring logistic support for enforcing Law and order against marine pollution. Besides, the Department of Tourism ensures the sea beaches management and formulation of strategies to strengthen eco-tourism. Department of Fisheries (DOF) carries out R&D in marine fishing. Department of Science and Technology (DOST) undertakes research and projects to conserve marine landscapes and ecosystems for sustainable management of marine living resources from marine pollution.

The MoEFCC, MoS, and other related departments (Figure 2) should jointly advise the act’s functions. The policy guidelines will be standard for their sectors but preliminary. The policy can follow the TWMZ act, 1974, and MEC act, 2004, to organize the policy structure. Comprehensive policy guidelines for marine environment protection from marine pollution are set out for all sectors and stakeholders related to maritime activities. So all the guidelines are directed towards the lead ministries where some are very common for all, and some are specific to marine environment protection. MoEF takes all measures to prevent pollution and Implements laws and regulations to protect the marine environment from land-based sources and sea-based activities. This ministry also develops a marine environmental and coastal protection strategy and conservation. MoS take measures to develop an eco-transport network during the seaborne trade. Create a conductive eco-friendly policy for flourishing private shipping industries regarding marine environmental pollution. The ministry also takes adequate measures to ensure the environmental safety of Bangladeshi vessels.

Figure 2.

A suggested framework for implementing LMPCA in Bangladesh.

8. Conclusion

Bangladesh ratified the [43] on 27 July 2001. Bangladesh needs to enact a comprehensive law on marine pollution because there is no uniformity among the national laws; moreover, penalties are different for the same offenses in different laws. Bangladesh has plenty of mineral resources in the coastal marine area. However, there is no law regulating Bangladesh that defines and incorporates provisions on marine pollution, and the government should initiate effective mechanisms to solve this serious problem. To implement international legislation on land-based sources of marine pollution, the country should immediately undertake capacity-building projects for its marine and port administration. A budget section should be allocated on a priority basis to establish reception facilities and collect pollution detection equipment.

Moreover, the government may wish to seek private partnerships to provide reception facilities. The government should enact a comprehensive law focused on protecting the marine environment, including LMP control or, more specifically, the Land-based Marine Pollution Control Act (LMPCA), as land-based pollution is dominant in Bangladesh. However, Bangladesh has enormous resources in the coastal and marine areas, so the Protection of this region should be increased through the proper legislative framework. Furthermore, there are no rules to govern solid waste and land-dumping, which are the critical causes of LMP. Improving international cooperation, regional frameworks, public participation, and awareness would have to be built up to a high pitch of sensitivity for controlling land-based marine pollution to ensure a sustainable environment.