Significance of actinobacteria associated with marine invertebrates.
Abstract
The ocean harbors a wide diversity of beneficial fauna offering an enormous resource for novel compounds, and it is classified as the largest remaining reservoir of natural molecules to be evaluated for biological activity. The metabolites obtained from marine invertebrate-associated actinobacteria have different characteristics compared to terrestrial actinobacteria as marine environments are exigent and competitive. Actinobacteria produce a wide range of secondary metabolites, such as enzymes, antibiotics, antioxidative, and cytotoxic compounds. These allelochemicals not only protect the host from other surrounding pelagic microorganisms but also ensure their association with the host. The harnessing of such metabolites from marine actinobacteria assures biotechnological, agricultural, and pharmaceutical applications.
Keywords
- actinobacteria
- marine invertebrates
- diversity
- biological activity
1. Introduction
Actinobacteria are gram-positive bacteria with high G + C DNA content [1] that can live in different habitats including the marine environment. These bacteria enclose significant biotechnological potential as they produce complex biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, extracellular and intracellular enzymes, antibiotics, inhibitors, and various metabolic products [2]. Since the discovery of streptomycin from
2. Diversity of actinobacteria associated with marine invertebrates
Invertebrate-associated bacterial communities have a significant ability to produce bio-medically relevant micro molecules. Cultivable approaches and metagenomic analysis show that many invertebrates harbor actinobacterial species. These actinobacterial species mainly belong to genera Streptomyces, Nocardiopsis, Kocuria, Salinospora, Nocardia, Rhodococcus, Nonomuraea, Actinokinespora, and Saccharopolyspora [15, 16, 17].
2.1 Sponges
The phylum Porifera harbor dense and diverse bacterial communities. According to the literature review, about 40% of the sponge biomass was due to their associated bacteria [18]. The sponges are recognized for their potential source of bioactive metabolites. These bioactive metabolites are generally produced by their associated microbial communities which suggest that associated microorganisms might play a role in the chemical defense of their host [19]. Till today, about 60 actinobacterial genera have been isolated from marine sponges [20]. Sponge-associated actinobacteria dwell in the mesohyl matrix of sponges. They may be true halobiont or taken up from nearby water through the filtration process. About 20 actinobacterial genera belonging to genera
2.2 Coral reefs
The bacterial communities associated with coral have unique properties. Bacteria inhabit coral in three different parts of the coral body that includes the surface of the mucus layer, the interior of coral tissue, and the calcium carbonate skeleton. Each of them harbors unique beneficial properties. The skeletons of corals are porous which provides micro niches for a variety of bacterial communities for colonization [21]. Cyanobacteria in the skeleton of
The actinobacterial communities associated with corals can fix nitrogen which explains their dominance in healthy corals [21, 27]. Lampert et al. reported mucus-associated bacterial diversity among which 23% were Actinobacteria [28]. Mahmoud and Kalendar reported
2.3 Shrimps
Shrimps are considered one of the most famous seafood consumed worldwide. They belong to the phylum Arthropoda, subphylum Crustacea. The exoskeleton of Shrimps contains chitin, structural proteins, and mineral deposits, and its construction is an energy-demanding process. Till today, very few studies regarding actinobacterial diversity associated with Shrimps are published. The
2.4 Ascidians
Ascidians belong to phylum Chordata, subphylum Tunicate. More than 1000 bioactive metabolites have been isolated from ascidians and their associated microbial communities. The indolocarbazoles having anticancer ability were produced by
3. Biological significance of actinobacteria associated with marine invertebrates
The actinobacteria are omnipresent in all environmental conditions. They produce a wide range of metabolites having biotechnological applications as described in Table 1. Actinobacteria is a group of organisms having the ability to produce inhibitors,
Actinobacteria | Host | Location | Significance | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nocardiopsis dassonvillei MAD08 | D. nigra | Southwest coast, India | Antibacterial activity and anticandidal activity | [36] |
Eastern Mediterranean coast, Turkey | 15 strains exhibited antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and | [37] | ||
Baltic Sea, Germany | Presence of polyketide synthases (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide synthases (NRPS) | [38] | ||
Tautra island, Trondheim fjord of Norway | Anti MRSA activity | [39] | ||
Salinispora arenicola and | Sponges | Great Barrier Reef | N-acyl homoserine lactones | [40] |
]Actinobacterial strains | Panggang Island, Taman Nasional KepulauanSeribu, Indonesia | Plant growth promoting bioactivity: Indolacetic acid production, HCN production, phosphate solubilization, and antimicrobial activity against Xanthomonas oryzae and | [41] | |
Praia Guaeca, Sao Paulo, Brazil | Antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and | [42] | ||
Streptomyces olivaceus | Larak Island, Persian Gulf | Olivomycin A: cytotoxic activity against SW480, HepG2, and MCF7 cell line | [43] | |
P. lobata and P. panamensis | Tropical central Pacific | Promotes plant growth in salt stress conditions | [44] | |
Soft coral | Indian Ocean coast, Mozambique | Thiocoraline: anticancer activity against LoVo and SW620 human colon cancer cell lines | [45] | |
Coral | Kurusadai Island, Gulf of Mannar | Antioxidant Activity: Scavenging of Hydrogen peroxide, Nitric Oxide Radical | [46] | |
Red sea | Antibacterial activity against S. aureus | [47] | ||
Myceligeneranscantabricum sp. nov | Fam. Caryophillidae | Aviles Canyon, Cantabrian Sea, Asturias, Spain | Antimicrobial activity against | [48] |
Scleractinian corals | Luhuitou fringing reef | Presence of NRPS, PKS type I and II biosynthetic gene cluster | [49] | |
Micronesian Islands, Chuuk | Antibiotic: Indolocarbazoles and Staurosporines | [34] | ||
Mactan Island, Philippines | Derivatives of Pulicatins with neurological activity | [50] | ||
Mactan Island, Philippines | Nocapyrones with neurological activity | [51] | ||
Bahia de La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico | — | [52] |
3.1 Antimicrobial ability
The
3.2 Antioxidative ability
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), nitric oxide (NO) scavenging, and DPPH radical scavenging activity were extensively used to measure antioxidant capacity.
3.3 Cytotoxic activity
Cancer treating drugs have elevated toxic effects with undesirable side effects. Therefore, the reach of new and less harmful drugs has a high demand. Progress had been made recently to reach antitumor compounds from marine actinobacteria [63]. Violapyrone H and I were isolated from
3.4 Enzymes
The significance of enzymes in food, textile, detergent, and pharmaceutical has been known for a long. The harnessing of actinobacterial-derived enzymes comprises of cost-effective and eco-friendly nature due to its mild fermentation condition, such as the use of agricultural waste as a source of nutrients, temperature, pH, agitation, and less production time [69]. Actinobacteria associated with marine hosts produce various enzymes including amylase, protease, keratinase, lipase, L asparaginase, Xylanase, chitinase, cellulase, and dextranase that embrace industrial significance [70].
Proteases hydrolyze protein molecules to peptides and eventually to free amino acids. Protease plays a significant role in the metabolic cycles of all living forms. There are several types of proteases including serine, carboxy serine, cystine, metallo, carboxy metallo, and aspartic proteases [71]. The application of protease includes animal fodder preparation, silk degumming, detergent formulation (stain remover), dehairing and dewooling (leather industry), and silver recovery from X-ray film [72, 73, 74]. Actinobacterial genera
Amylase is one of the most demanding enzymes used mainly for scarification of starch, pulp processing, bread dough making, winery, and detergent industry whereas solvent tolerant amylase was used mainly for bioremediation and improvement of detergent [78, 79]. Meena et al. isolated 10 actinobacterial genera associated with
Chitinase involves in hydrolyses of chitin polymer by cleaving β 1–4 linkages. Chitin is a polymer present in the cell wall of fungi, shells of marine invertebrates, and few insects. The use of chitinase involves the development of pesticides, management of marine wastes, biofuel production, and food and pharma industries [82]. Many actinobacterial genera, including
The pharmaceutical demand for L-asparaginase is high due to its anti-carcinogenic ability. L-asparaginase inhibits the growth of cancerous cells by cleaving L-asparagine into ammonia and aspartic acid. Mainly L-asparaginase is produced by fungi while few actinobacterial species are also reported [86].
Actinobacteria are a distinctive group of prokaryotes having similarities to both fungi and bacteria. The actinobacterial-derived cellulase has unique features in terms of adaptation to extreme environmental parameters and degradation of plant-based biomass. Cellulase is a carbohydrate degrading enzyme that hydrolyzes cellulose into mono- and oligosaccharides [89]. The
3.5 Helometabolites
Halometabolites produced by marine organisms play a significant role in host defense mechanisms by quorum sensing and production of toxins, growth hormones, or antibiotics. Helometabolites, such as chloride, bromide, and iodine are omnipresent in marine environments whereas fluoride is present in Earth’s crust [91].
3.6 Enzymes inhibitors
Enzyme inhibitors have a pivotal position in agriculture to protect crops from predators. Allosamidin derived from
4. Conclusion
The marine actinobacterial provides vast scope for therapeutically active macromolecules, such as antibiotics and halometabolites with the addition of industrially significant enzymes, such as amylase, protease, asparaginase, xylanase, cellulase, chitinase, and lipase. The presence of actinobacteria in marine habitats plays a pivotal role in their associated organisms by providing protection against harmful moieties. Harnessing host-specific actinobacterial diversity from the marine ecosystem will result in novel species with the ability to produce new and diverse secondary metabolites which will be beneficial for detergent, food, medicine, agriculture, cosmetics, paper, and pulp industries. Furthermore, the exploitation of bioactive compounds from marine microorganisms will fulfill the current demand for drug-resistant microorganisms as many more marine niches are still unexplored.
Acknowledgments
Ms. Vaishali R. Majithiya acknowledges SHODH (ScHeme Of Developing High quality research- MYSY), Gujarat, India for a research fellowship. The authors are grateful to DST-SERB, New Delhi, India for financial support (Sanction order No. ECR/2016/000928 Dated: 20.03.2017). The authors are also thankful to Saurashtra University, Gujarat, India for infrastructural facilities.
Acronyms and abbreviations
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
Nitric oxide
Vanadium dependant chloroperoxidase
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Polyketide synthases
Nonribosomal peptide synthases
Half maximal inhibitory concentration
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