Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
Health and nutrition values force the lifestyle to embrace functional food which accommodates health-promoting nutrients. Root vegetables are an excellent source of health-promoting phytoconstituents, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, essential oils, proteins, and bioactive pigments. These bioactive compounds impart broad-spectrum pharmacological activities, including anti-hepatotoxicity, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertension, anti-depressant, and anti-hypoglycemia. In this context, quantification via a compatible extraction technique is essential. However, these bioactive compounds are sensitive to heat processing, growth conditions, pre-extraction treatments, and extraction techniques. The recovery of bioactive compounds and their health benefits can be further enhanced by suitable processing, storage, and proper supplementation. The present review aims to comprehensively discuss the bioactive compounds of root vegetables along with factors influencing these compounds and the involvement of root vegetables in oxidative stress reduction, as reported in the literature (2001–2022).
Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education Lahore, Pakistan
Samra Tabassum
Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education Lahore, Pakistan
Ayoub Rashid
Department of Chemistry, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
Shafiqur Rehman
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Chemistry, University of Central Punjab, Pakistan
Ahmad Adnan
Department of Chemistry, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
Rabia Ghaffar
Department of Botany, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education Lahore, Pakistan
*Address all correspondence to: rashida.bashir@ue.edu.pk
1. Introduction
Vegetable-rich diets are highly recommended owing to their health-promoting functions. Whereas, vegetables with modified roots (edible roots) possess bioactive compounds with diverse biological activities, most prominently antioxidant properties [1]. Analysis has indicated a significant association between vegetable consumption with haemorrhagic and ischaemic stroke protection. This association is a major reason behind the increased consumption of vegetables in the past few years [2]. However, worldwide dietary intake of fruits and vegetables is still low, which may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. According to a survey, 2.635 million deaths per year are linked to the insufficient consumption of fruits and vegetables. It is important to mention that 600 g per day per individual consumption of fruits and vegetables can result in a 1.8% reduction of the worldwide disease burden [3]. Root vegetables such as carrot, sweet potato, turnip, radish, rutabaga, beetroot, etc. (Figure 1) tend to possess bioactive compounds at varying extents as different factors can influence the accumulation and recovery of these bioactive compounds. The present review summarizes the contents of major natural products and bioactive compounds of commonly consumed root vegetables, along with the factors influencing these bioactive compounds and their role in oxidative stress management. Electronic databases are used for data collection. Authentic databases such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Pubmed, and Scopus were preferred for reviewing appropriate and quality publications (2001–2022).
Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of biologically active plant metabolites (see Table 1, bioactive phenolic compounds) involving phenols with one or more hydroxyl groups. These phenolic compounds are divided into two main subclasses, phenolic acids, and polyphenolic compounds. Phenolic acids involve hydroxycinnamic acid and hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives [24]. Polyphenolic compounds constitute a diverse subclass, further divided into different groups such as flavonoids, stilbenes, coumarins, and lignans, depending upon the number of phenolic rings and structural diversity [25]. Root vegetables serve as a major source of phenolic compounds, and the phenolic content of some root vegetables is reported to be higher than non-root vegetables [26]. Among root vegetables, radish has a high phenolic content of 1315.83 μg gallic acid equivalent/g of extract, even higher than potatoes and kohlrabi [26]. The phenolic compounds tend to vary in different parts of the plants [27]. Carrots peels are reported to have more phenolic acids than vascular tissues. 5′-Caffeoylquinic acid is a major compound in different carrot varieties with the highest content value in peels (15.04 mg/100 g FW), followed by cis-5′-chlorogenic isomer (3.51 mg/100 g FW) of Caffeoylquinic acid [9]. Another study has reported higher phenolic content in rutabaga sprouts (reaching up to 125.7 mg GAE/g DW) as compared to seeds (6.9 mg GAE/g DW) and roots (5.1 mg GA/g DW) [28]. Phenolic accumulation also differs depending upon the varieties, as a study has indicated higher phenolic content in black radish (13.7 mg GAE/g DW) compared to white and red varieties [29]. Higher phenolic content of plants correlates with antioxidant activity, such as parsnip, a carrot-related root vegetable rich with phenolic glycosides that positively correlate with antioxidant activity [15]. Beetroot with high phenolic content of 56.65 mg GAE/100 ml of juice, encapsulated as soybean proteins reaching up to 150 mg GAE/100 ml [11]. Turnip is reported to contain flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic derivatives. HPLC analysis of turnip tops has identified flavonoid glycosides and total phenolic content reaching up to mg 191.39 mg/100 g fresh weight [30]. Because turnip is usually consumed in processed form, phenolic compounds are negatively impacted upon applying heating procedures for processing. Franciso et al. [31] have studied the impact of different heat treatments on the turnip. Flavonoid content decreased to 4.58 μmol/g dry weight upon conventional boil initially at 13.85 μmol/g DW in raw samples. Likewise, high-pressure cooking also deteriorated flavonoids (5.00 μmol/g DW). A post-processed vegetable, Taro has high flavonoid content such as luteolin (44.5%), apigenin (52.7%), and chrysoeriol glycosides (2.63%) in dry land growth conditions [32]. On the other hand, sweet potato contains phenolic acid derivatives, including isomers of caffeoylquinic acid and dicaffeoylquinic acid, whose content is also reduced by applying processing techniques. Boiling is the least favored technique for preserving phenolic compounds in sweet potatoes [18]. Cassava roots are widely consumed in African countries. Milled flour of dried cassava is used in many delicacies; however, drying impacts the phenolic composition of cassava. A study has indicated that roasting reduces the phenolic content (51.35 mg/g in roasted flour) as compared to sun drying (64.82 mg/g in sun-dried flour) [22]. However, other than processing techniques, extraction methods and parameters greatly impact the recovery of phenolic compounds from a vegetable source. A study has compared different techniques for black carrot extraction, reporting optimized microwave-assisted extraction (power = 348.06, time = 9.86 min, solvent: solid ratio = 19.3 g/mL, solvent = 19.8% ethanol) to be best suited for phenolic recovery with the content value of 264.9 mg GAE/100 ml while conventional extraction to be least suited with approximately 2.5 times less phenolic yield than former technique [33].
Major Bioactive phenolic compounds and bioactivties of some common root vegetables.
Vegetables stored at room temperature lose sensory and composition quality due to the action of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase enzymes. A study has recommended “refrigerate storing” to prolong the shelf life of vegetables [34]. Peels of vegetables are often discarded during food processing; however, incorporation of peels in food can be beneficial, as a study carried out on rutabaga has indicated higher phenolic content in peels (18.14 mg/GAE/g) as compared to a pulp (11.57 mg GAE/g) using ultrasound-assisted extraction [8].
Glucosinolates are sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds predominantly occurring in brassica vegetables (see Table 2). Depending on their structure, these compounds are further divided into three subclasses, aliphatic, aromatic, and indole glucosinolates [43]. Glucosinolates, well-known cancer-preventing bioactive compounds, and isothiocyanates (Figure 2) provide characteristic flavors to brassica vegetables [44]. Turnip is an excellent source of glucosinolates with 100–130 mg /100 g FW total glucosinolate content [45]. When compared with other Chinese leafy vegetables (cabbage, pakchoi, cai-Tai, choy-sum) of the brassica family, the turnip has shown the highest glucosinolate content, with gluconapin being the highest accumulated glucosinolate (65.84 mg/100 g FW) [45]. UPLC/MS analysis has indicated progoitrin as another high accumulated glucosinolate in turnip [38]. Rutabaga is a hybrid plant of cabbage and turnip with a considerable amount of glucosinolates (7.34 μmol/g DW), with progoitrin as major glucosinolate; however, total glucosinolate content is reduced upon cooking(6.86 μmol/g DW) [46]. Boiling and high-pressure cooking can reduce glucosinolate content by three times [31].
Glucosinolates of root vegetables of the Brassicaceae family.
Figure 2.
Glucosinolate conversion into isothiocayanate by the action of myrosinase.
Glucosinolate content of radish varies depending upon the radish cultivar; however, glucoraphanin is a major constituent of the glucosinolate profile of all radish cultivars. Red radish has reported glucosinolate content of 163.91 mg sinigrin equivalent/100 g FW [47]. 4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate is prominent in white radish, which is converted into 4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate by the action of myrosinase enzyme. The resulting metabolite is responsible for the specific pungent flavor of radish. 4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate comprises 90% of the total glucosinolate profile in Japanese varieties [48]. Spanish black radish also has identified radish-specified glucosinolates, which induce detoxification enzymes in HepG2 cell lines. However, the glucoraphanin (4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate), a major glucosinolate of radish, is not preserved in black radish-based dietary supplements [35, 36]. Tissue damage during cutting, chewing, cooking, and fermentation leads to glucosinolate degradation into isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, and cyanides. The major degradation product of radish glucosinolates other than erucin is 5-(methylthio)-4-pentenenitrile [49]. Mustard is also reported in the literature for high glucosinolates levels and isothiocyanate byproducts. A study on mustard seeds has indicated higher levels of aliphatic glucosidase in all mustard varieties, with total glucosidase content ranging from 51.96 to 64.36 umol/g FW in root mustard [50]. Glucosinolates are highly sensitive to extraction techniques and pre-extraction treatments. A study conducted on brassica vegetables has indicated cold methanolic extraction with conventional wet tissue freeing is suitable for glucosinolate recovery compared to hot methanolic extraction. Also, freeze-drying was found to be avoidable for short time storage [51].
Root vegetables possess natural-colored pigments that give them their characteristic colors (see Table 3). Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments generated from glycosylation of the anthocyanidin class of flavonoids. Till now, 670 such compounds have been isolated and identified from colored plants and flowers [52]. These pigments cover a wide spectrum of colors, from red to purple, depending on their structure [63]. Red radish contains anthocyanins that have similar properties as synthetic Red No. 40 and is stable to be used commercially [64]. The extraction and post-extraction concentration procedure affects the recovery of these natural colorants. Hydroethanolic and acidified water extraction system with membrane pertraction concentration is suitable for high anthocyanin recovery and led to 62.58 mg/100 ml anthocyanin recovery from red radish [65]. Hydrogen-rich water is reported to influence anthocyanin accumulation in the Yanghua cultivar of radish [66]. A study has indicated radish growth under UV-A light with hydrogen-rich water, and calcium chloride treatment promotes the accumulation of anthocyanins (reaching a relative anthocyanin content value of 42.06, which was at 9.72 in control plants) [67]. Purple yam is a rich source of anthocyanins with antimicrobial activity [21]. HPLC-DAD analysis has quantified 31 mg/100 g DW anthocyanin content in fresh yams. Cyanidin and peonidin glycosides acylated with hydroxycinnamic acids are leading anthocyanins of purple yam; however, processing of yams by blanching leads to a total anthocyanin loss of 60% [20]. Purple radish has also identified the presence of acylated cyaniding sophoroside glycosides and diglycosides [52]. Within the biological system, anthocyanins are generated under the influence of light in the presence of chalcone synthase enzymes. Light-responsive genes are expressed in turnip at different levels in anthocyanin biosynthesis [68]. Among other sweet potato varieties, purple-fleshed sweet potatoes have indicated high amounts of peonidin anthocyanins (1039 mg//100 g DW), which is almost three times higher than cyanidin-based anthocyanins [53]. Purple Carrots are found to be a good source of anthocyanin, with content value reaching up to 33,876 mg/kg DM; however, air or freeze-drying of fresh carrots leads to anthocyanins loss [56]. A study on black carrots also has identified a considerable amount of anthocyanins [69].
Carotenoids represent a class of natural products with lipid-soluble vibrant color pigments. These pigments are responsible for the yellow to red spectrum of colors in plants and other organisms [70]. Unlike flavonoid-based anthocyanins, carotenoids are tetraterpenoid molecules containing eight isoprenoid units that generate a C40 carbon skeleton [71]. In green tissues, carotenoids are located in chloroplasts, while in colored vegetables, accumulation occurs in chromoplasts imparting different colors to the plant [72]. Among root vegetables, carrot is the most prominent source of carotenoids. Carotene content varies depending upon the carrot cultivars. It is reported to be in the range of 58.15–102.02 mg/kg FW) with β-carotene constituting the major portion of total carotenoid content [73]. Studies have indicated the immense impact of light on carotenoids [74]. In carrots, the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids is influenced by light, as it can induce repression of gene expression of β-carotene and α-carotene biosynthesis [75]. Parsnip, on the other hand, despite being a carrot-like root vegetable, only has minor amounts of carotenoids [76]. β-Carotene is also dominant in sweet potato varieties with orange flesh. The carbon chain of the majority of carotenoids contains trans double bonds. In sweet potatoes, 127 μg/g of total β-carotene contains 123 μg/g of all-E-β-carotene [58]. Turnip leaves are also reported to possess carotenoids with content values reaching up to 250 μg/g [77]; however, a study on white radish leaves has shown higher carotenoid content (486.95 μg/g DW) as compared to turnip leaves. Moreover, despite being a white-fleshed variety, a minute amount of carotenoids is also identified in radish roots [59].
4.3 Betalains
Betalain pigments are betalamic acid derivatives divided into two subclasses: betacyanin (red-violet pigments) and betaxanthin (yellow pigments), depending upon cyclo DOPA and amine condensation on betalamic acid, respectively [61]. Black radish peel extracts appears yellowish and is reported to contain 22.5 mg/100 g DW of betaxanthin while only 7.7 mg/100 g DW of betacyanin pigments [78]. Beetroot is the richest vegetable source of betalains (17.24 mg/g DW), most prominently betacyanins responsible for its bright red color. A study has indicated approximately three times higher betacyanin content than betaxanthins in peels and other root sections of beetroot [61]. Beetroot peels are also betalain rich. An optimized study on betalain extraction from beetroot peels has identified 1.5% citric acid, 50% ethanol, and 52.52°C temperature and 49.9 min extraction time to be best suited for betalain recovery with the content value of 1.20 mg/g DW [79].
Vitamins are necessary for normal growth, and their deficiency can cause health Complications (see Table 4). Vitamin C or ascorbic acid is a natural antioxidant that helps prevent different diseases by reducing oxidative stress [93]. Radish is a major source of vitamin C with 38.83 10–2 g/kg of vitamin C as compared to turnips and carrots; however slight change in vitamin C accumulation is seen in plants grown in high CO2 conditions [86]. The ascorbic acid content of sweet potato is comparable to radish. Different cultivars, including white, orange, and purple sweet potato, have indicated vitamin C content ranging from 17 to 37 mg/100 g DW [94]. Turnip greens and turnip tops are good sources of vitamin C; however, the heat processing leads to a significant loss of vitamin C. Steaming can result in approximately 60% vitamin C loss, while boiling and high-pressure cooking can completely diminish vitamin C content from a turnip [31]. Other than heat treatment, the vitamin C content is also sensitive to long-term storage. A study on carrot cultivars reported 88–132 mg/kg vitamin C content in fresh carrots, which decreased by 58% (on average) upon 30 days of storage [95]. Vitamin E refers to a group of lipid-soluble antioxidants that play an essential role in cell signal regulation and proliferation [96]. Among different types of vitamin K, α and γ tocopherol are the most prominent types [89]. Carrots serve as an excellent source of vitamin E; however, orange and purple carrots varieties have higher vitamin E content than white carrots [90]. Green leafy plant sections contain higher vitamin E content than roots, as determined in radish leaves containing up to 48.5 μg/g DW of vitamin E with α-tocopherol as major vitamin E. At the same time, roots only contain up to 0.17 μg/g DW with γ-tocopherol in the highest quantity; however, vitamin C and E are also sensitive to post-harvest storage. Vitamin K is also found in root vegetables but is predominant in green leafy portions. Phylloquinone, commonly known as vitamin K1, is the predominant form of vitamin K and is reported in considerable amounts in radish leaves [89]. As discussed in the previous section, carrots are rich in carotenoids, among which α-carotene and β-carotene are major pro-vitamin A compounds that are converted into vitamin A (retinol) in a biological system. According to the US National academy of science, 24 μg of pro-vitamin, A carotenoid is equivalent to 1 μg of vitamin A (retinol) [80, 81].
Phytosterols are plant-based steroid molecules with cardioprotective and anti-tumor activities. Seeds are a rich source of bioactive phytosterols, such as radish seeds with good phytosterol profiles mainly consisting of brassicasterol, campesterol, and sitosterol [97]; however, considerable quantities of phytosterols are also reported in edible roots. A study has shown 366.16 mg/100 g phytosterol content in carrots with campesterol and sitosterol as major constituents [98]. Radish sprouts also have shown campesterol (947 μg/g) and β-sitosterol (899 μg/g) in considerable amounts [99]. Sweet potato contains anticancer phytosterol, daucosterol linolenate, daucosterol linoleate, and daucosterol palmitate that regulate gut microbiota [100]. Saponins compounds such as steroidal saponins are reported to possess anti-proliferative activities. Yams are an excellent source of saponins with a content range of 37.36–129.97 mg/g. While individual steroidal saponins include dioscin, gracilllin, protodioscin, and protoracillin [101]. Dioscin, a steroidal saponin, has been extracted from wild yams and has shown a promoting effect on GATA 3 expression, a tumor suppressor in breast cancer [102]. Diosgenin is also a major steroidal saponin in yam with high antioxidant activity [103]. Other than steroidal saponins, root vegetables have reported triterpenoid saponins with antioxidant activity. Beetroot is a rich source of triterpenoid saponins. Triterpenoid aglycones of saponins include oleanolic acid, hederagenin, akebonoic acid, and glycogenin, which were linked with hexose, uronic, deoxyhexose, and pentose sugar to generate terpenoid saponins [104]. Other than beetroot, sweet potatoes also have reported triterpene saponin with antioxidant properties. Sandrosaponin is a major triterpene saponin of sweet potatoes with a content value of 161.20 mg/100 g, constituting approximately 81% of the total saponins of sweet potatoes [105]. Volatile fractions of plants contain useful alcohols, terpenes, and hydrocarbons, among which terpenes are the most important due to their significant role in providing aroma and the flavor to vegetables. The accumulation of terpenes in root vegetables varies depending upon the color variation. Orange carrots have a high accumulation of β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, and bornyl acetate, while the yellow variety contains β-bisabolene and γ-bisabolene in higher amounts [106]. Likewise, hydrodistillation of radish has also identified phytol as a major terpene with the highest abundance (69.7% of total compounds identified) in the white variety, followed by neophytadiene (1.5%) in the black variety and β-damascone (1.4%) in the red variety [49].
7. Vegetable supplementation against oxidative stress
Oxidative stress can lead to many health complications such as cancer, inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and aging [107]. As vegetables’ secondary metabolites act as natural antioxidants, dietary supplementation of vegetable products can help reduce oxidative stress. The following section addresses the effect of vegetable supplementation on oxidative stress. A study on Wister rats under cadmium-induced oxidative stress has indicated that five days of intake of carrot juice as drinking water before stress induction can lower cadmium concentration in both liver and kidney along with the oxidative stress as determined by a lower concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) (see Table 5) in pretreated rats [108]. Similar results, i.e., malondialdehyde reduction, were seen with beetroot juice and radish supplementation, proving the positive effect of raw consumed root vegetables on oxidative stress management [110, 112]. A study has shown betanin, a major beetroot compound, as an efficient antioxidant against oxidative stress in rats with acute kidney damage [115]. In hepatotoxic conditions, the oxidative stress on the cells increases; however, black radish extract treatment to human hepatocyte carcinoma (HepG2) cells and rats with liver injury has indicated a dose-dependent increase in hepatic proteins expressions along with radical scavenging by 3-(E)-(methylthio)methylene-2-pyrrolidinethione, a compound isolated from black radish and lipid accumulation prevention which collectively produce a hepatoprotective effect [116]. Commercially available purple sweet potato pigments are also suitable for lowering oxidative stress resulting from hepatic injury in mice [117]. Antioxidants such as vitamin E and anthocyanins of purple carrots act as oxidative damage protectors in rat organs, and when provided in a combination, MDA level drops significantly [118]. A study has indicated 2, 4-di-tert-butylphenol as a prominent antioxidant of sweet potato, lowing oxidative stress in neuronal cell damage in mice [119]. Leave supplementation also effectively reduces oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner. A study on rats (fed on a cholesterol-rich diet) has indicated an improvement in cholesterol profile along with lower MDA levels upon turnip leaves supplementation, compared to positive control [120]. A similar kind of study on cholesterol-fed hamsters has also shown a reduction in oxidative stress upon supplementing sweet potato leaves [121]. Yams extract has also shown a reduced hyperhomocysteinemic-induced oxidative stress in rats [114].
Supplement
Subject
Study design
MDA level
Refs.
Carrot juice
Wister rats
Pretreatment with carrot juice for five days followed by two days cadmium treatment
This chapter has comprehensively and effectively addressed the bioactive compounds in commonly consumed root vegetables. Root vegetables are rich in phenolic compounds, glucosinolates, bioactive pigments, and vitamins, as well as saponins, phytosterols, and volatile aromatic components. The content value of these compounds varied in different root vegetables to a great extent; however, glucosinolates were majorly confined to brassica vegetables. Likewise, anthocyanins and carotenoids were dominant in purple and orange to red-fleshed root vegetables, respectively, and betalains were hardly reported in any vegetable other than beetroot. Moreover, saponins, phytosterols, and terpenes are also reported in considerable amounts. The accumulation of these bioactive compounds was found to be dependent on plant varieties and plant parts, and growth conditions. Also, the post-harvest treatments (heat processing, storage, extraction techniques and parameters, pre-extraction drying) greatly influenced the bioactive compound’s recovery. Notably, phenolic compounds, glucosinolate, and vitamin C were highly deteriorated upon heating, while carotenoids were found to be extremely light sensitive. As oxidative stress is related to many health complications, root vegetable supplementation against oxidative stress was reported in this chapter as well. Root vegetables were found to be suitable against oxidative stress in hepatic injury, kidney damage, neuronal cell damage, hyperlipidemic, hyperhomocysteinemic, diabetic, and pre-cancerous conditions due to their antioxidation properties. In the light of all the stated information in the present review, fresh root vegetables can serve as an essential part of the routine diet with only a gentle heat processing if necessary. However, factors affecting the bioactive compounds of root vegetables need to be further studied to improve their accumulation, recovery, and stability to attain more nutraceutical benefits.
A special thanks to INTECHOPEN LIMITED, for funding this book chapter entitles “Bioactive Components of Root Vegetables” as well as their Author Services Manager for time-to-time discussion and solutions.
high performance liquid chromatography-diode-array detection
References
1.Marić L, Malešić E, Jurinjak Tušek A, Benković M, Valinger D, Jurina T, et al. Effects of drying on physical and chemical properties of root vegetables: Artificial neural network modelling. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 2020;119:148-160
2.He FJ, Nowson CA, MacGregor GA. Fruit and vegetable consumption and stroke: Meta-analysis of cohort studies. The Lancet. 2006;367(9507):320-326
3.Lock K, Pomerleau J, Causer L, Altmann DR, McKee M. The global burden of disease attributable to low consumption of fruit and vegetables: Implications for the global strategy on diet. Bulletin of the World health Organization. 2005;83:100-108
4.Li Z, Lee HW, Liang X, Liang D, Wang Q , Huang D, et al. Profiling of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of 12 cruciferous vegetables. Molecules. 2018;23(5):1139
5.Chihoub W, Dias MI, Barros L, Calhelha RC, Alves MJ, Harzallah-Skhiri F, et al. Valorisation of the green waste parts from turnip, radish and wild cardoon: Nutritional value, phenolic profile and bioactivity evaluation. Food Research International. 2019;126:108651
6.Francisco M, Moreno DA, Cartea ME, Ferreres F, García-Viguera C, Velasco P. Simultaneous identification of glucosinolates and phenolic compounds in a representative collection of vegetable Brassica rapa. Journal of Chromatography A. 2009;1216(38):6611-6619
7.Jakopic J, Veberic R, Slatnar A. Changes in quality parameters in rutabaga (Brassica napus var. napobrassica) roots during long term storage. LWT. 2021;147:111587
8.Stefanucci A, Zengin G, Llorent-Martinez EJ, Dimmito MP, Della Valle A, Pieretti S, et al. Chemical characterization, antioxidant properties and enzyme inhibition of Rutabaga root’s pulp and peel (Brassica napus L.). Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2020;13(9):7078-7086
9.Zhang D, Hamauzu Y. Phenolic compounds and their antioxidant properties in different tissues of carrots (Daucus carota L.). Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment. 2004;2:95-100
10.Metzger BT, Barnes DM. Polyacetylene diversity and bioactivity in orange market and locally grown colored carrots (Daucus carota L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2009;57(23):11134-11139
11.Tumbas Šaponjac V, Čanadanović-Brunet J, Ćetković G, Jakišić M, Vulić J, Stajčić S, et al. Optimisation of beetroot juice encapsulation by freeze-drying. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2020;70(1):25-34
12.El-Beltagi HS, Mohamed HI, Megahed BMH, Gamal M, Safwat G. Evaluation of some chemical constituents, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities of beta Vulgaris L. root. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. 2018;27(9):6369-6378
13.Shepherd AI, Costello JT, Bailey SJ, Bishop N, Wadley AJ, Young-Min S, et al. Beet the cold: Beetroot juice supplementation improves peripheral blood flow, endothelial function and anti-inflammatory status in individuals with Raynaud’s phenomenon. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2019;127(5):1478-1490
14.Siervo M, Shannon O, Kandhari N, Prabhakar M, Fostier W, Kochl C, et al. Nitrate-rich beetroot juice reduces blood pressure in tanzanian adults with elevated blood pressure: A double-blind randomized controlled feasibility trial. The Journal of Nutrition. 2020;150(9):2460-2468
15.Nikolić NČ, Lazić MM, Karabegović IT, Stojanović GS, Todorović ZB. A characterization of content, composition and scavenging capacity of phenolic compounds in parsnip roots of various weight. Natural Product Communications. 2014;9(6):1934578X1400900620
16.Kumar V, Sharma HK. Process optimization for extraction of bioactive compounds from taro (Colocasia esculenta), using RSM and ANFIS modeling. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 2017;11(2):704-718
17.Kundu N, Campbell P, Hampton B, Lin C-Y, Ma X, Ambulos N, et al. Antimetastatic activity isolated from Colocasia esculenta (taro). Anti-Cancer Drugs. 2012;23(2):200
18.Jung J-K, Lee S-U, Kozukue N, Levin CE, Friedman M. Distribution of phenolic compounds and antioxidative activities in parts of sweet potato (Ipomoea batata L.) plants and in home processed roots. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2011;24(1):29-37
19.Guo H, Kong F, Yan C. Optimization of polysaccharide ultrasonic extraction conditions using purple sweet potato tubers based on free radical scavenging and glycosylation inhibitory bioactivities. Pharmacognosy Magazine. 2017;13(51):504
20.Fang Z, Wu D, Yü D, Ye X, Liu D, Chen J. Phenolic compounds in Chinese purple yam and changes during vacuum frying. Food Chemistry. 2011;128(4):943-948
21.Mahmad N, Taha RM, Othman R, Abdullah S, Anuar N, Elias H, et al. Anthocyanin as potential source for antimicrobial activity in Clitoria ternatea L. and Dioscorea alata L. Pigment & Resin Technology. 2018;47(6):490-495
22.Adefegha SA, Okeke BM, Oyeleye SI, Oboh G. Effects of processing on starch composition, glycemic indices, phenolic profile, and possible antidiabetic properties of cassava (Manihot esculenta) flours. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2021;45(7):e15586
23.Yi B, Hu L, Mei W, Zhou K, Wang H, Luo Y, et al. Antioxidant phenolic compounds of cassava (Manihot esculenta) from Hainan. Molecules. 2011;16(12):10157-10167
24.LI L, Shewry PR, Ward JL. Phenolic acids in wheat varieties in the HEALTHGRAIN diversity screen. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. 2008;56:9732-9739.
25.Dinelli G, Segura-Carretero A, Di Silvestro R, Marotti I, Arraez-Roman D, Benedettelli S, et al. Profiles of phenolic compounds in modern and old common wheat varieties determined by liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2011;1218(42):7670-7681
26.Farahnaky A, Kamali E, Golmakani MT, Gavahian M, Mesbahi G, Majzoobi M. Effect of ohmic and microwave cooking on some bioactive compounds of kohlrabi, turnip, potato, and radish. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 2018;12(4):2561-2569
27.Goyeneche R, Roura S, Ponce A, Vega-Gálvez A, Quispe-Fuentes I, Uribe E, et al. Chemical characterization and antioxidant capacity of red radish (Raphanus sativus L.) leaves and roots. Journal of Functional Foods. 2015;16:256-264
28.Pasko P, Bukowska-Strakova K, Gdula-Argasinska J, Tyszka-Czochara M. Rutabaga (Brassica napus L. var. napobrassica) seeds, roots, and sprouts: A novel kind of food with antioxidant properties and proapoptotic potential in Hep G2 hepatoma cell line. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2013;16(8):749-759
29.Bors MD, Semeniuc CA, Socaci S, Varva L, Moldovan O, Vlaic R, et al. Total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of radish as influenced by the variety and vegetative stage. Bulletin UASVM Food Science and Technology. 2015;72(1):77-81
30.Romani A, Vignolini P, Isolani L, Ieri F, Heimler D. HPLC-DAD/MS characterization of flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic derivatives in turnip tops (Brassica rapa L. subsp. sylvestris L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2006;54(4):1342-1346
31.Francisco M, Velasco P, Moreno DA, García-Viguera C, Cartea ME. Cooking methods of Brassica rapa affect the preservation of glucosinolates, phenolics and vitamin C. Food Research International. 2010;43(5):1455-1463
32.Gonçalves RF, Silva AM, Silva AM, Valentão P, Ferreres F, Gil-Izquierdo A, et al. Influence of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Shott) growth conditions on the phenolic composition and biological properties. Food Chemistry. 2013;141(4):3480-3485
33.Kumar M, Dahuja A, Sachdev A, Kaur C, Varghese E, Saha S, et al. Valorisation of black carrot pomace: Microwave assisted extraction of bioactive phytoceuticals and antioxidant activity using Box-Behnken design. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019;56(2):995-1007
34.de Brito FAL, Rãbia K, Jãnior LFC, Coelho DG, da Silva Vieira MR, do Nascimento Simãμes A. Changes in phenol metabolism of minimally processed baby cassava under different temperatures: An alternative to commercialization. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2017;16(17):928-936
35.Hanlon PR, Webber DM, Barnes DM. Aqueous extract from Spanish black radish (Raphanus sativus L. Var. niger) induces detoxification enzymes in the HepG2 human hepatoma cell line. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(16):6439-6446
36.Ediage EN, Di Mavungu JD, Scippo M-L, Schneider Y-J, Larondelle Y, Callebaut A, et al. Screening, identification and quantification of glucosinolates in black radish (Raphanus sativus L. niger) based dietary supplements using liquid chromatography coupled with a photodiode array and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2011;1218(28):4395-4405
37.Yi G, Lim S, Chae WB, Park JE, Park HR, Lee EJ, et al. Root glucosinolate profiles for screening of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) genetic resources. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2016;64(1):61-70
38.Jeong J, Park H, Hyun H, Kim J, Kim H, Oh HI, et al. Effects of glucosinolates from turnip (Brassica rapa L.) root on bone formation by human osteoblast-like MG-63 cells and in normal young rats. Phytotherapy Research. 2015;29(6):902-909
39.Paśko P, Okoń K, Krośniak M, Prochownik E, Żmudzki P, Kryczyk-Kozioł J, et al. Interaction between iodine and glucosinolates in rutabaga sprouts and selected biomarkers of thyroid function in male rats. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 2018;46:110-116
40.Dastan K, Tehranifard A, Vazirian M. Investigation of Anti-pseudomanal Activity of Brassica napus L. International Conference on Environmental and Computer Science (IPCBEE). Singapore, Singapore: IACSIT Press; 16 Sepmtember 2011. pp. 144-146
41.Gimsing A, Kirkegaard J. Glucosinolate and isothiocyanate concentration in soil following incorporation of Brassica biofumigants. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2006;38(8):2255-2264
42.Oliveira RD, Dhingra OD, Lima AO, Jham GN, Berhow MA, Holloway RK, et al. Glucosinolate content and nematicidal activity of Brazilian wild mustard tissues against Meloidogyne incognita in tomato. Plant and Soil. 2011;341(1):155-164
43.Li S, Schonhof I, Krumbein A, Li L, Stützel H, Schreiner M. Glucosinolate concentration in turnip (Brassica rapa ssp. rapifera L.) roots as affected by nitrogen and sulfur supply. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(21):8452-8457
44.Zhang H, Schonhof I, Krumbein A, Gutezeit B, Li L, Stützel H, et al. Water supply and growing season influence glucosinolate concentration and composition in turnip root (Brassica rapa ssp. rapifera L.). Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 2008;171(2):255-265
45.Chen X, Zhu Z, Gerendás J, Zimmermann N. Glucosinolates in Chinese Brassica campestris vegetables: Chinese cabbage, purple cai-tai, choysum, pakchoi, and turnip. HortScience. 2008;43(2):571-574
46.Kapusta-Duch J, Kusznierewicz B, Leszczyńska T, Borczak B. Effect of cooking on the contents of glucosinolates and their degradation products in selected Brassica vegetables. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016;23:412-422
47.Jing P, Zhao S-J, Ruan S-Y, Xie Z-H, Dong Y, Yu L. Anthocyanin and glucosinolate occurrences in the roots of Chinese red radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and their stability to heat and pH. Food Chemistry. 2012;133(4):1569-1576
48.Ishida M, Kakizaki T, Morimitsu Y, Ohara T, Hatakeyama K, Yoshiaki H, et al. Novel glucosinolate composition lacking 4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate in Japanese white radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2015;128(10):2037-2046
49.Blažević I, Mastelić J. Glucosinolate degradation products and other bound and free volatiles in the leaves and roots of radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Food Chemistry. 2009;113(1):96-102
50.Zhang C, Di H, Lin P, Wang Y, Li Z, Lai Y, et al. Genotypic variation of glucosinolates and their breakdown products in mustard (Brassica juncea) seeds. Scientia Horticulturae. 2022;294:110765
51.Doheny-Adams T, Redeker K, Kittipol V, Bancroft I, Hartley SE. Development of an efficient glucosinolate extraction method. Plant Methods. 2017;13(1):1-14
52.Lin L-Z, Sun J, Chen P, Harnly JA. LC-PDA-ESI/MSn identification of new anthocyanins in purple bordeaux radish (Raphanus sativus L. variety). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(12):6616-6627
53.Kim HW, Kim JB, Cho SM, Chung MN, Lee YM, Chu SM, et al. Anthocyanin changes in the Korean purple-fleshed sweet potato, Shinzami, as affected by steaming and baking. Food Chemistry. 2012;130(4):966-972
54.Zhuang H, Lou Q , Liu H, Han H, Wang Q , Tang Z, et al. Differential regulation of anthocyanins in green and purple turnips revealed by combined de novo transcriptome and metabolome analysis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2019;20(18):4387
55.Polat S, Guclu G, Kelebek H, Keskin M, Selli S. Comparative elucidation of colour, volatile and phenolic profiles of black carrot (Daucus carota L.) pomace and powders prepared by five different drying methods. Food Chemistry. 2022;369:130941
56.Macura R, Michalczyk M, Fiutak G, Maciejaszek I. Effect of freeze-drying and air-drying on the content of carotenoids and anthocyanins in stored purple carrot. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria. 2019;18(2):135-142
57.Wang Y-H, Li T, Zhang R-R, Khadr A, Tian Y-S, Xu Z-S, et al. Transcript profiling of genes involved in carotenoid biosynthesis among three carrot cultivars with various taproot colors. Protoplasma. 2020;257(3):949-963
58.Kimura M, Kobori CN, Rodriguez-Amaya DB, Nestel P. Screening and HPLC methods for carotenoids in sweetpotato, cassava and maize for plant breeding trials. Food Chemistry. 2007;100(4):1734-1746
59.Park CH, Park S-Y, Park YJ, Kim JK, Park SU. Metabolite profiling and comparative analysis of secondary metabolites in Chinese cabbage, radish, and hybrid xBrassicoraphanus. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2020;68(47):13711-13719
60.Mamatha BS, Sangeetha RK, Baskaran V. Provitamin-A and xanthophyll carotenoids in vegetables and food grains of nutritional and medicinal importance. International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2011;46(2):315-323
61.Sawicki T, Bączek N, Wiczkowski W. Betalain profile, content and antioxidant capacity of red beetroot dependent on the genotype and root part. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016;27:249-261
62.Stintzing FC, Schieber A, Carle R. Identification of Betalains from Yellow beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and Cactus Pear [Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.] by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography−Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002;50(8):2302-2307
63.Wiczkowski W, Szawara-Nowak D, Topolska J. Red cabbage anthocyanins: Profile, isolation, identification, and antioxidant activity. Food Research International. 2013;51(1):303-309
64.Otsuki T, Matsufuji H, Takeda M, Toyoda M, Goda Y. Acylated anthocyanins from red radish (Raphanus sativus L.). Phytochemistry. 2002;60(1):79-87
65.Patil G, Madhusudhan MC, Ravindra Babu B, Raghavarao KSMS. Extraction, dealcoholization and concentration of anthocyanin from red radish. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification. 2009;48(1):364-369
66.Su N, Wu Q , Liu Y, Cai J, Shen W, Xia K, et al. Hydrogen-rich water reestablishes ROS homeostasis but exerts differential effects on anthocyanin synthesis in two varieties of radish sprouts under UV-A irradiation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2014;62(27):6454-6462
67.Zhang X, Wei J, Huang Y, Shen W, Chen X, Lu C, et al. Increased cytosolic calcium contributes to hydrogen-rich water-promoted anthocyanin biosynthesis under UV-A irradiation in radish sprouts hypocotyls. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2018;9:1020
68.Zhou B, Wang Y, Zhan Y, Li Y, Kawabata S. Chalcone synthase family genes have redundant roles in anthocyanin biosynthesis and in response to blue/UV-A light in turnip (Brassica rapa; Brassicaceae). American Journal of Botany. 2013;100(12):2458-2467
69.Ersus S, Yurdagel U. Microencapsulation of anthocyanin pigments of black carrot (Daucus carota L.) by spray drier. Journal of Food Engineering. 2007;80(3):805-812
70.Elvira-Torales LI, García-Alonso J, Periago-Castón MJ. Nutritional importance of carotenoids and their effect on liver health: A review. Antioxidants. 2019;8(7):229
71.Jaber BA, Majeed KR, Al-Hashimi AG. Isolation and identification of new strains of bacteria producing carotenoids pigments which isolated from a different sources in Basrah, Iraq. Basrah Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2022;35(1):81-93
72.Clotault J, Peltier D, Berruyer R, Thomas M, Briard M, Geoffriau E. Expression of carotenoid biosynthesis genes during carrot root development. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2008;59(13):3563-3573
73.Koca Bozalan N, Karadeniz F. Carotenoid profile, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity of carrots. International Journal of Food Properties. 2011;14(5):1060-1068
74.Antonious GF, Kasperbauer MJ. Color of light reflected to leaves modifies nutrient content of carrot roots. Crop Science. 2002;42(4):1211-1216
75.Fuentes P, Pizarro L, Moreno JC, Handford M, Rodriguez-Concepcion M, Stange C. Light-dependent changes in plastid differentiation influence carotenoid gene expression and accumulation in carrot roots. Plant Molecular Biology. 2012;79(1):47-59
76.Fratianni A, Niro S, Messia MC, Panfili G, Marra F, Cinquanta L. Evaluation of carotenoids and furosine content in air dried carrots and parsnips pre-treated with pulsed electric field (PEF). European Food Research and Technology. 2019;245(11):2529-2537
77.Iqbal S, Younas U, Chan KW, Saeed Z, Shaheen MA, Akhtar N, et al. Growth and antioxidant response of Brassica rapa var. rapa L. (turnip) irrigated with different compositions of paper and board mill (PBM) effluent. Chemosphere. 2013;91(8):1196-1202
78.Yücetepe A, Altin G, Özçelik B. A novel antioxidant source: Evaluation of in vitro bioaccessibility, antioxidant activity and polyphenol profile of phenolic extract from black radish peel wastes (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) during simulated gastrointestinal digestion. International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2021;56(3):1376-1384
79.Lazăr S, Constantin OE, Stănciuc N, Aprodu I, Croitoru C, Râpeanu G. Optimization of betalain pigments extraction using beetroot by-products as a valuable source. Inventions. 2021;6(3):50
80.Coe KM, Ellison S, Senalik D, Dawson J, Simon P. The influence of the Or and Carotene Hydroxylase genes on carotenoid accumulation in orange carrots [Daucus carota (L.)]. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2021;134(10):3351-3362
81.Tang G, Qin J, Dolnikowski GG, Russell RM, Grusak MA. Spinach or carrots can supply significant amounts of vitamin A as assessed by feeding with intrinsically deuterated vegetables. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2005;82(4):821-828
82.Cordeiro A, Bento C, Matos A, Ramalho A. Vitamin A deficiency is associated with body mass index and body adiposity in women with recommended intake of vitamin A. Nutrición Hospitalaria. 2018;35:1072
83.Jastrebova J, Witthöft C, Grahn A, Svensson U, Jägerstad M. HPLC determination of folates in raw and processed beetroots. Food Chemistry. 2003;80(4):579-588
84.Bailey LB. Folate and vitamin B 12 recommended intakes and status in the United States. Nutrition Reviews. 2004;62(suppl_1):S14-S20
85.Odewole OA, Williamson RS, Zakai NA, Berry RJ, Judd SE, Qi YP, et al. Near-elimination of folate-deficiency anemia by mandatory folic acid fortification in older US adults: Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke study 2003-2007. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2013;98(4):1042-1047
86.Azam A, Khan I, Mahmood A, Hameed A. Yield, chemical composition and nutritional quality responses of carrot, radish and turnip to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2013;93(13):3237-3244
87.Levine M, Wang Y, Padayatty SJ, Morrow J. A new recommended dietary allowance of vitamin C for healthy young women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2001;98(17):9842-9846
88.Dattola A, Silvestri M, Bennardo L, Passante M, Scali E, Patruno C, et al. Role of vitamins in skin health: A systematic review. Current Nutrition Reports. 2020;9(3):226-235
89.Liu M, Seo H-Y, Min S, Ku K-M. Phytonutrients and metabolism changes in topped radish root and its detached leaves during 1°C cold postharvest storage. Horticulturae. 2021;8(1):42
90.Nicolle C, Gr S, Rock E, Amouroux P, Rémésy C. Genetic variability influences carotenoid, vitamin, phenolic, and mineral content in white, yellow, purple, orange, and dark-orange carrot cultivars. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 2004;129(4):523-529
91.Lewis ED, Meydani SN, Wu D. Regulatory role of vitamin E in the immune system and inflammation. IUBMB Life. 2019;71(4):487-494
92.Troesch B, Hoeft B, McBurney M, Eggersdorfer M, Weber P. Dietary surveys indicate vitamin intakes below recommendations are common in representative Western countries. British Journal of Nutrition. 2012;108(4):692-698
93.Mahajan AS, Babbar R, Kansal N, Agarwal SK, Ray PC. Antihypertensive and antioxidant action of amlodipine and vitamin C in patients of essential hypertension. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry and Nutrition. 2007;40(2):141-147
94.Johnson JB, Budd C, Mani JS, Brown P, Walsh KB, Naiker M. Carotenoids, ascorbic acid and total phenolic content in the root tissue from five Australian-grown sweet potato cultivars. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 2022;50(1):32-47
95.Matějková J, Petříková K. Variation in content of carotenoids and vitamin C in carrots. Notulae Scientia Biologicae. 2010;2(4):88-91
96.Luby CH, Maeda HA, Goldman IL. Genetic and phenological variation of tocochromanol (vitamin E) content in wild (Daucus carota L. var. carota) and domesticated carrot (D. carota L. var. sativa). Horticulture Research. 2014;1:14015
97.Bellani LM, Salvini L, Dell’Aquila A, Scialabba A. Reactive oxygen species release, vitamin E, fatty acid and phytosterol contents of artificially aged radish (Raphanus sativus L.) seeds during germination. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. 2012;34(5):1789-1799
98.Aremu M, Ajine PL, Omosebi MO, Baba NM, Onwuka JC, Audu SS, et al. Lipid profiles and health promoting uses of carrot (Daucus carota L.) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). International Journal of Sciences. 2021;10(07):22-29
99.Lee KB, Kim YJ, Kim HJ, Choi J, Kim JK. Phytochemical profiles of Brassicaceae vegetables and their multivariate characterization using chemometrics. Applied Biological Chemistry. 2018;61(2):131-144
100.Han B, Jiang P, Jiang L, Li X, Ye X. Three phytosterols from sweet potato inhibit MCF7-xenograft-tumor growth through modulating gut microbiota homeostasis and SCFAs secretion. Food Research International. 2021;141:110147
101.Lebot V, Faloye B, Okon E, Gueye B. Simultaneous quantification of allantoin and steroidal saponins in yam (Dioscorea spp.) powders. Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2019;13:100200
102.Aumsuwan P, Khan SI, Khan IA, Ali Z, Avula B, Walker LA, et al. The anticancer potential of steroidal saponin, dioscin, isolated from wild yam (Dioscorea villosa) root extract in invasive human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 in vitro. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2016;591:98-110
103.Son IS, Kim JH, Sohn HY, Son KH, Kim J-S, Kwon C-S. Antioxidative and hypolipidemic effects of diosgenin, a steroidal saponin of Yam (Dioscorea spp.), on high-cholesterol fed rats. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 2007;71(12):3063-3071
104.Mikołajczyk-Bator K, Błaszczyk A, Czyżniejewski M, Kachlicki P. Characterisation and identification of triterpene saponins in the roots of red beets (Beta vulgaris L.) using two HPLC–MS systems. Food Chemistry. 2016;192:979-990
105.Dini I, Tenore GC, Dini A. Saponins in Ipomoea batatas tubers: Isolation, characterization, quantification and antioxidant properties. Food Chemistry. 2009;113(2):411-419
106.Muchlinski A, Ibdah M, Ellison S, Yahyaa M, Nawade B, Laliberte S, et al. Diversity and function of terpene synthases in the production of carrot aroma and flavor compounds. Scientific Reports. 2020;10(1):9989
107.Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2010;4(8):118-126
108.Embugushiki RE, Mafulul SG, Okoye ZS. Protective effect of carrot juice pretreatment on cadmium-induced oxidative cytotoxic damage to some rat tissues. 2013.
109.Potter AS, Foroudi S, Stamatikos A, Patil BS, Deyhim F. Drinking carrot juice increases total antioxidant status and decreases lipid peroxidation in adults. Nutrition Journal. 2011;10(1):1-6
110.Klewicka E, Nowak A, Zduńczyk Z, Juśkiewicz J, Cukrowska B. Protective effect of lactofermented red beetroot juice against aberrant crypt foci formation, genotoxicity of fecal water and oxidative stress induced by 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine in rats model. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2012;34(3):895-904
111.Sinaga FA, Hasibuan R, Risfandi M, Sinaga RN. Hepatoprotective effects of beetroot juice at maximum physical activity. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2020;1462(1):012007
112.Salah-Abbès JB, Abbès S, Ouanes Z, Houas Z, Abdel-Wahhab MA, Bacha H, et al. Tunisian radish extract (Raphanus sativus) enhances the antioxidant status and protects against oxidative stress induced by zearalenone in Balb/c mice. Journal of Applied Toxicology: An International Journal. 2008;28(1):6-14
113.Noviati TD, Tamtomo DG, Sugiarto S. The effect of purple sweet potato jelly on malondialdehyde and fasting blood sugar in experimental type 2 diabetic rat model. International Journal of Nutrition Sciences. 2019;4(4):181-185
114.Chang S-J, Lee Y-C, Liu S-Y, Chang T-W. Chinese Yam (Dioscorea alata cv. Tainung No. 2) feeding exhibited antioxidative effects in hyperhomocysteinemia rats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2004;52(6):1720-1725
115.Tan D, Wang Y, Bai B, Yang X, Han J. Betanin attenuates oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction in kidney of paraquat-treated rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2015;78:141-146
116.Ahn M, Kim J, Hong S, Kim J, Ko H, Lee N-H, et al. Black radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) extract mediates its hepatoprotective effect on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury by attenuating oxidative stress. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2018;21(9):866-875
117.Zhang Z-F, Fan S-H, Zheng Y-L, Lu J, Wu D-M, Shan Q , et al. Purple sweet potato color attenuates oxidative stress and inflammatory response induced by d-galactose in mouse liver. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2009;47(2):496-501
118.Li X, Zhang Y, Yuan Y, Sun Y, Qin Y, Deng Z, et al. Protective effects of selenium, vitamin E, and purple carrot anthocyanins on d-galactose-induced oxidative damage in blood, liver, heart and kidney rats. Biological Trace Element Research. 2016;173(2):433-442
119.Choi SJ, Kim JK, Kim HK, Harris K, Kim C-J, Park GG, et al. 2, 4-Di-tert-butylphenol from sweet potato protects against oxidative stress in PC12 cells and in mice. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2013;16(11):977-983
120.El-din MME, editor The Protective Effect of Turnip Leaves Against Oxidative Stress Induced by High Cholesterol Diet in Adult Rats. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2012;20(1):154-163
121.Chang H-H, Lan Y-C, Chung S-D, Chien C-T. Sweet potato leaf feeding decreases cholesterol, oxidative stress and thrombosis formation in syrian hamsters with a high-cholesterol diet. Life. 2021;11(8):802
Written By
Rashida Bashir, Samra Tabassum, Ayoub Rashid, Shafiqur Rehman, Ahmad Adnan and Rabia Ghaffar
Submitted: 18 May 2022Reviewed: 20 June 2022Published: 16 July 2022
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
