Promotion of Science Learning through Science Content and Practical Assessment

Abstract

Assessment is an integral part of the learning and teaching. Trends in International Mathematics and Science report reveals that in South Africa, grade 9 has the worst science skills. The objective of the study is to explore if teachers can promote science learning through science content and practical assessment. The descriptive survey design was utilized in the study. The study was informed by Vygotsky’s social constructivism. Thirty out of sixty-seven schools were selected using simple random sampling. Cronbach’s alpha test was used to ascertain the scale reliability of the questionnaire. The findings revealed the following: Data illustrates how educators assess Science Learning. Responses were agreed, neutral, disagree, and no response. Align with cognitive domains 86.7%; Principles of assessment 77%; Investigations 66.7%; Simulation 63.3%; Debates 50%; each among these: Assignment, Experiments, and Examinations 40%; Problem Solving 37%; Projects 34%; Presentation 23%; Roleplay 17%; Tests 13.3%; and Quiz 7%. Regarding Neutral, data validates that teachers need support as well as those who disagreed they lack content knowledge regarding strategies of assessment. We recommend teachers to value assessment and implement different strategies of assessment so that students can be able to apply both theory and the practical.

1. Introduction

Learning and teaching are one of the core businesses in the learning organization; hence, teachers are expected to be more knowledgeable about the content. The content to be learned needs to be approached using the relevant instructional methodologies that will enhance interactive learning. Once the student understands the content, an assessment can be implemented to see whether the objectives of the lesson are met. Luckett and Sutherland [1] note that assessment is the core of a student’s understanding, and to understand the knowledge, it needs to be measured using different approaches. The present researchers view assessment as the gathering of information, applying different assessment tools to enhance deep learning, and doing self-evaluation to come up with positive interventions. Assessment needs to be transparent and authentic and [2] explain that to be transparent means to be clearly understood by students (unpack content clearly and let students participate). The literature notes that Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) aims at encouraging science-literate societies to be able to make conversant decisions regarding the natural environment and the promotion of sustainable livelihoods [3]. Hence, it is important that science teachers need to engage students more in science learning (SL). Rustaman [4] stresses that there is a close link between science teaching and science assessment and the approach of assessment is very important to promote active assessment. The literature notes that in South Africa most students perform poorly in particulate nature of matter (PNM) [5]. PNM is described as the particle model of matter whereby students are required to demonstrate an understanding of the particle nature of matter, for example, to describe the characteristics of solids, liquids, and gases. Also, in South African schools some teachers are more knowledgeable about the content; however, they are struggling to interpret content into successful pedagogical content knowledge [6]. Hence, it is important that there should be a balance between content and assessment so that students can be given an opportunity to apply their critical thinking. Bantwini [7] conducted a study in the Eastern Cape province in South Africa, and the data collected from 22 classrooms revealed that science pedagogical approaches were uninspiring and lacked hands-on activities that promote critical thinking. This implies that such type of science teaching can negatively affect students’ conceptual understanding of practical work that serves as the form of assessment of experiments. Thus, teachers need to be proficient when it comes to science pedagogical approaches and encourage student active engagement. Moreover, social constructivism theory emphasizes that student needs to be actively engaged in learning to demonstrate their experiences [8]. Also, the zone of proximal development needs to be encouraged to reach the expected outcomes. Once the students are fully engaged in both learning and assessment and the required support is provided, science learning and teaching become effective. Therefore, teachers need to be well versed with assessment skills that will encourage science learning and science literacy.

2. Literature review

2.1 The importance of assessment in science learning

An assessment provides teachers with information about their students’ success in relation to the learning objectives. After students receive feedback, they can recognize their weaknesses, and teachers can reflect on their teaching methodologies and come up with ways to mitigate the challenges. Assessment is very critical; it needs to be enhanced allowing the use of higher-order thinking skills to drive the learning process effectively [9, 10]. It is also a component whereby learning and teaching are strictly interlinked and need to be acknowledged by teachers [11].

The present researchers define assessment as the process of evaluating the progress of learning to see whether the students achieved the learning outcomes and can apply the knowledge given in the real context. Assessment in science needs to be more practical than theoretical to prepare the students for the 21st century. Previous studies note that assessment aims to blend what happens in the classroom with employment [12] to avoid insecurity in the world of work [13]. Thus, assessment should have an impact on the quality and deepness of learning achieved by the students [14]. Moreover, the literature notes that students are lacking life skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, communication skills, and collaboration [15]. By acknowledging and promoting these skills, teachers can build good relations with students that will make them be able to apply transparency regarding assessments, e.g., discussing dates of assessment and providing clear rubrics. Hence, authentic assessment is encouraged to increase the employability of graduates in the workplace [16].

In a nutshell, teachers need to embrace both theory and practical assessment in class. The demonstration and investigation methods prepare the students to use both higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills. The theory that is learned in class needs to be converted into practical and be assessed using a good rubric. Thus, it is wise for teachers to strengthen the relationship with their students to understand their individual differences, support, motivate, and apply the zone of proximal development when needed.

2.2 Authentic assessment

When designing an assessment, ensure that it is authentic, fair, and equitable. Integrity is to be maintained by minimizing plagiarism, using various assessment methods, and moderating of assessment [17]. Furthermore, [17] illustrates that moderation is important to ensure integrity in the assessment following the process of validity and reliability. Therefore, teachers are required to develop the skills that will assist them in designing assessment tasks that will also value prior learning and learners’ abilities [18].

2.3 Promoting both theory and interactive assessment

Both practical and theory are very important in science; thus, assessment needs to be highly valued so that students can showcase their skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and critical thinking skills. Regarding experiments, [15] states the importance of investigation and constructive alignment when doing practical work. For instance, learners need to be equipped with science learning knowledge and skills to understand the uses and implications of science today and for the future. Moreover, [19] reveal that in science, assessment can tackle both evaluation and theory; for instance, when students are given a practical task on photosynthesis, they can be hands-on and at the same time the teacher is facilitating the theory part to enhance learning and teaching. The policy CAPS document stresses that assessment is a continuous and planned process of classifying, gathering, interpreting, and analyzing information about the performance of students [20]. Hence, it is significant that teachers always make use of the policy when planning an assessment.

Ref. [21] report explains the advantages of interactive indirect instruction as one to strive for a high level of student participation in forming hypotheses, investigating, observing, and drawing inferences from data. It takes advantage of students’ interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to make other choices to solve difficulties. This is what is needed today for our students as they are curious by nature. Therefore, teachers need to engage and scaffold students in practical tasks as assessments.

3. Problem statement

Ref. [22] highlight that teachers in South Africa are faced with challenges in terms of science resources, content knowledge, and infrastructure. These challenges destructively impact the promotion of science learning. Hence, the researchers believed that in science learning students need to contribute to the investigations so that they can develop good thinking skills as well as practical skills [23]. Science investigation triggers students’ interest [24]; moreover, teachers need to balance both theory and practical. The present researchers believe that investigations in science learning play a role in assessing practical activities. The literature avers that science shapes the students’ scientific attitudes such as curiosity, critical thinking, and the desire to solve problems [23]. Thus, the present researchers are of the view that SL can be promoted through science content and practical assessment.

4. Theoretical framework

According to [25], a theoretical framework is a structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. A theoretical framework, therefore, provides the lens through which the research study is viewed and assists in better understanding the phenomenon under study. Since the study is about learning and teaching, the constructivist learning theory informed it. Constructivism states that learning happens when learners construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Vygotsky et al. [8, 26] identify the key features of the constructivist theory of learning, which are the following:

• The learner is actively engaged in learning.

• The learners’ experiences are important in learning.

These aspects suggest that students need to be actively involved in a lesson, and teachers should encourage them to participate in practical activities. Considering their experiences before introducing something new is very important as they are not empty vessels, for example, techniques such as experimentation and problem-solving. Therefore, the present researchers believe that social constructivism encourages teachers to provide students with enough learning materials so that students can actively participate to promote SL through content and practical assessment.

5. Objective

To establish how teachers promote science learning through science content and practical assessment.

6. Question

How do teachers promote science learning through science content and practical assessment?

7. Methodology

To promote science learning through science content and practical assessment, the study adopted a descriptive survey design and a questionnaire was used to collect data.

7.1 Population, sample, and sampling techniques

Thirty out of sixty-seven schools were selected using simple random sampling. This type of sampling was chosen since it provides everyone the equal opportunity of being selected. The 30 schools are in six out of the eight circuits in the selected education district. Of the 30 schools, each had one grade 9 Natural Sciences classroom with one teacher per school. Thirty teachers volunteered to participate in the research study.

7.2 Research instruments

The data collection instrument was designed, whereby a questionnaire was used, using the four-point Likert scale: agree, neutral, disagree, and no response. The questionnaire attached as Appendix A was designed to measure the promotion of science learning through science content and practical assessment.

The pilot testing was conducted with two teachers using a questionnaire. The present researchers were satisfied with the feedback from the teachers who were involved in the pilot study. The only challenge encountered in the questionnaire was that some questions were ambiguous, and modifications were done.

7.3 Validation and reliability of the research instruments

To ensure validity, the questionnaire was hand-delivered to two NS Subject Education Specialists (SES) and one science teacher for critic feedback before it was used for data collection. A Subject education specialist is someone who provides support to teachers with subject content knowledge, practical activities, relevant resources to be used in schools based on their areas of specialization as well as organizing workshops [20]. The study considered the Cronbach alpha test to ensure the reliability of the instrument. In Table 1, Part 5 illustrates the outcomes of the Cronbach’s alpha test for the quantitative instrument that was used in this study.

Reliability Statistics
	Themes	Cronbach’s Alpha	No. of Items
PART 1	Strategies used by educators to teach Natural science curriculum.	0.936	14
PART 2	Strengths and weaknesses of each of the following strategies in promoting SL.	0.448	14
PART 3	Strategies used to support educators to promote SL.	0.936	14
PART 4	Strategies that are most relevant in enhancing SL.	0.368	10
PART 5	Strategies educators use to assess students’ SL.	0.703	14
	Instrument	0.911	64

Table 1.

Cronbach’s alpha reliability of internal consistency for Likert scale.

Cronbach’s alpha for 14 items in the instrument used in this study is shown as 0.703. This is construed as an indication of high reliability and internal consistency in the questionnaire.

7.4 Procedure for data collection

The structured questionnaire was distributed to 30 science teachers who were requested to complete the task within seven days. After seven days, only 16 had completed. Those who were not ready for submissions were given four more days to respond to the questionnaire which was later collected by the researchers.

7.5 Data analysis

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in the analysis of the collected data. The research question was answered using science teachers’ frequency counts and percentages as follows: promotion of science learning through science content and practical assessment responses: Principles of assessment, those who agreed were 70% and above, while neutral were 30% below; disagree—0%; and no response—0%.

8. Ethical considerations

Respondents were informed about the significance of the study and its purpose. School principals and science teachers signed the informed consent. Respondents were also informed, as part of their consent that the results of the study would be made available to them on request. Moreover, they were told that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential and their names would not be written even if the findings were published.

9. Results

Table 2 illustrates quantitative results on how educators assess science learning and promote science learning.

Strategies	Responses	Frequency	Percentage %
Principles of assessment	Agree	23	77
	Neutral	4	13
	Disagree	3	10
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Align with cognitive domain	Agree	26	86.7
	Neutral	3	10
	Disagree	1	3
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Tests	Agree	4	13.3
	Neutral	15	50.0
	Disagree	4	13.3
	No response	7	23.3
	Total	30	100
Assignments	Agree	12	40.0
	Neutral	14	46.7
	Disagree	3	10.0
	No response	1	3.3
	Total	30	100
Presentations	Agree	7	23
	Neutral	21	70
	Disagree	2	7
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Quiz	Agree	2	7
	Neutral	7	23
	Disagree	21	70
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Projects	Agree	10	34
	Neutral	16	53
	Disagree	4	13
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Experiments	Agree	12	40
	Neutral	17	57
	Disagree	0	0
	No response	1	3
	Total	30	100
Debates	Agree	15	50
	Neutral	10	34
	Disagree	4	13
	No response	1	3
	Total	30	100
Examinations	Agree	12	40
	Neutral	15	50
	Disagree	3	10
	No response	0	0
	Total	0	100
Roleplay	Agree	5	17
	Neutral	8	27
	Disagree	16	53
	No response	1	3
	Total	30	100
Problem solving	Agree	11	37
	Neutral	18	60
	Disagree	1	3
	No response	0	0
	Total	30	100
Simulation	Agree	19	63.3
	Neutral	9	30.0
	Disagree	1	3.3
	No response	1	3.3
	Total	30	100
Investigation	Agree	20	66.7
	Neutral	9	30.0
	Disagree	0	0
	No response	1	3.3
	Total	30	100

Table 2.

Responses on how educators assess SL.

The data in Table 2 illustrate how teachers assess SL. The responses were as follows: agree, neutral, disagree, and no response.

9.1 Agree

Align with cognitive domains 86.7%; Principles of assessment 77%; Investigations 66.7%; Simulation 63.3%; Debates 50%; each among these: Assignment, Experiments, and Examinations 40%; Problem-Solving 37%; Projects 34%; Presentation 23%; Roleplay 17%; Tests 13.3%; and Quiz 7%.

9.2 Neutral

Presentations 70%; Problem-Solving 60%; Experiments 57%; projects 53%; each among these: Tests and Examinations 50%; Assignments 46,7%; Debates 34%; each among these: Simulations and Investigations 30%; Roleplay 27%; Quiz 23%; Principles of assessment 13%; and Align with cognitive domain 10%.

9.3 Disagree

Quiz 70%; Roleplay 53%; Tests 13.3%; each among these: Debates 13.3%; Examinations 13%; each among these: Debates and Projects 13%; each among these: Principles of assessment, Assignments, and Examinations 10%; Presentations 7%; Simulations 3.3%; each among these: Problem-Solving and Align with Cognitive domain 3%; each among these: Experiments and Investigations 0%.

9.4 No response

Tests 23.3%; each among these: Assignments, Simulations, and Investigations 3.3%; each among these: Debates and Roleplay 3% and all others 0%.

Most of the respondents 86.7% agreed that they adhere to the use of Alignment with the cognitive domain, Principles of assessment at 77%, Investigations at 66.7%, and Simulations at 63.3%. It was agreed that practical and hands-on approaches are some of the best instructional methodologies to enhance SL. Similarly, there can be no sufficient and proper sciences curriculum without experiments. Consequently, alignment with the cognitive domain and employment of the principles of assessment as strategies for assessment should be used for the promotion of science learning and science literacy.

When enquired, 50% of respondents agreed that debates are useful and effective methods of assessment, while 34% were neutral and 13% disagreed. Examinations and tests are an inescapable part of the assessment of the South African curriculum, and as such, it was expected that the approval rate would be relatively high, but they were low at 40% and 13.3%, respectively.

Neutral participants toward presentations, problem-solving, and experiments were relatively high at 70%, 60%, and 57%, respectively. This outcome although expected to be high, in science learning and teaching presentations, problem-solving and experimentation are considered as part of the salient assessment strategies. The outcomes of this study illustrate that the strategies mentioned in this paragraph are not used by most teachers due to the remoteness of the schools, lack of resources, and lack of pedagogical content knowledge. It clearly illustrates that rural schools do follow the policy [24] which highlights that all forms of assessment involve generating and gathering evidence of achievement and evaluating this evidence using these different forms. However, some of the teachers lack the implementation of the key assessment strategies that promote science learning and science literacy.

Quizzes are not a relatively common practice for assessment in rural schools in South Africa, and as such, the agreement rate declined: 13.3% with 50% neutral, 13.3% disagreed, and 23.3% did not respond to the question. These results prove that there is a need for professional development on how to assess science content.

10. Interpreting the summary of findings

Table 2 shows that teachers are knowledgeable of the principles and application of assessment methods. It is not in all cases that this knowledge is transferred into practical application by teachers, some are either unwilling or indifferent in their assessment practices, and thus, there was no 100% consensus in terms of adhering to principles and cognitive domain. The evidence is that the teachers use the most common assessment methods. Thus, [1] note that assessment is fundamental to students’ conceptual understanding; for the students to grasp the content knowledge, different assessment approaches need to be employed.

Singh et al. [15] clarify the importance of assessment and emphasize that science educators must use high-quality assessment process when assessing learners. The CAPS document also stresses the importance of assessment [24] Debates were generally not considered as important, and Quizzes are not quite a common practice for assessment in rural schools in South Africa. Therefore, the present researchers are of the views that these types of assessments are also very important in science learning. They give students the opportunity to apply both their solving and analytical thing. These skills will assist the students even in the workplace.

11. Conclusion

The study confirmed that science teachers use the most common and easiest assessment methods of tests and assignments in their classes. However, the key findings also reveal that assessments such as Quizzes, Roleplay, Presentation, Problem-solving, and Experimentation are not considered very important. Moreover, these types of assessments are not commonly used in rural schools in South Africa due to the remoteness of the schools, lack of resources, and lack of pedagogical content knowledge. Thus, it is very important that departmental officials give full support to science teachers.

12. Recommendations

The curriculum specialists need to motivate and encourage science teachers by organizing seminars, workshops, and educational conferences to share science content knowledge, strategies for assessment, and resources to use practical activities.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to all those who spared their time to participate in this study.

Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest by any of the authors of the study.

What strategies do educators use to assess students’ science literacy?

Strategies	Agree	Neutral	Disagree
Principles of assessment
Align with cognitive domain
Tests
Assignments
Presentations
Quiz
Projects
Experiments
Debates
Examinations
Roleplay
Problem-solving
Simulation
Investigation

Which other strategy would you use?................................................................................................................................

Mention any other strategy which you know.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

End of the questionnaire: Thank you for participating, I am very grateful.