Early Childhood Education Pedagogical Transformation in Tanzania: Innovations, Challenges and Prospects for Marginalised Children

Abstract

Tanzania recognises that investing in early childhood education and care has the potential to offer immense opportunity for all children, regardless of social-economic background, to develop the cognitive, social and emotional skills needed for their development, well-being and success in later life. These capabilities are shaped by high-quality range of developmentally appropriate and contextually relevant pedagogical practices. This chapter tracks pedagogical transformations that have taken place over time, emerging innovative pedagogical approaches and their prospects in marginalised pre-primary education settings in Tanzania. The chapter aims to contribute to the on-going debate about what pedagogical practice works in various early childhood education settings. It is anticipated that the discussion might broaden our understanding of pedagogical practices from marginalised communities. The chapter is organised into six sections. The first section introduces the chapter. The second section presents an overview of the education structure and early childhood education in Tanzania. The third section tracks pedagogical transformations over a historical period. The fourth section presents the new development innovations that have been made in early childhood education in recent times. The fifth section highlights early childhood education pedagogical challenges. The last section reflects on pedagogical prospects for children in marginalised localities.

1. Introduction

Tanzania recognizes the importance of the first years of life, between 0 and 8, as the most critical period of development as it is the time when a big portion of the brain development takes place. Every early experience stimulates brain development, and neglect may impede brain development. This implies that investing in high quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) has the potential to offer immense opportunity and is the right thing to do to every child regardless of social-economic background, to develop the cognitive, social and emotional skills needed for their development, well-being and success in later life [1]. The positive effects of quality early childhood education are translated into academic and life successes that persist over a longer period. In this cognisance the government of Tanzania is committed to ensuring that every child including those from marginalised communities has access to quality early childhood innovative and developmentally appropriate pedagogy and learning experiences. Nevertheless, a huge number of children from marginalised populations such as those residing in geographical challenging and remote areas surrounded by big rivers and forests, areas with seasonal roads, long walking distances from home to school, have limited access to quality early childhood education. In case these children have access to exposure to innovative pedagogy practices quality is an issue worthy exploring. Quality interactive process between teacher and children and both the home and early childhood setting environment shapes children’s capabilities regardless of their backgrounds. This chapter discusses a range of innovative early childhood pedagogical practices in marginalised localities. The aim is to contribute to the on-going global debate about what constitute effective pedagogy in early childhood education settings, hence broaden understanding of pedagogical practices from areas that have been under reported.

2. Early childhood education in Tanzania

Tanzania is a forged union of two nations Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanganyika became a Sovereign State on 9th December 1961 and a Republic in 1962. Zanzibar became independent on 19th December 1963 as a constitutional monarchy under the sultan and the People’s Republic of Zanzibar was established after the Revolution of 12th January 1964. The two Sovereign States formed the United Republic of Tanzania on 26th April on 1964. The name Tanzania is a portmanteau of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Currently, Tanganyika is commonly known as Tanzania Mainland whereas Zanzibar is known as Tanzania Isles or Zanzibar. The chapter focuses on Tanzania Mainland.

The United Republic of Tanzania is a nation in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean. The United Republic of Tanzania is a unitary republic composed of 30 regions. The capital city is Dodoma and the major commercial city is Dar es Salaam. Official currency is Tanzanian Shilling and the national language is Kiswahili whilst English is widely used for official communication.

Since independence, Tanzania has undergone several educational reforms. In 1967, about 6 years after independence, for example, the government of Tanzania adopted the philosophy of education namely Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) to inform educational practices at all levels of education [2]. The philosophy advocates for active learning, linking theory and practice as well as development of critical thinking, inquisitive minds, self-confidence, decision making skills, problem solving, and ability to value humanity and love for work. It has been guiding educational reforms and practices across levels of education and training ever since. Early childhood education is not exceptional.

A variety of terms including early childhood care and education (ECCE), early childhood development (ECD), ECEC, early childhood care and development (ECCD) and early childhood care for survival growth and development (EC-SGD) have been used to describe care and education services for young children. These different terms could be explained by variations in the foci of services and the target age group across the globe. In Tanzania, the term ECE is used interchangeably with pre-primary education (PPE). Nevertheless, two terms namely, ECCE and ECD have dominated to refer to the services for young children from birth to 8 years of age. These services adopt a holistic approach and recognise the interdependence nature of the physical, social, emotional, and cognitive domains of development.

The ECCE in Tanzania is provided through child-care centres, nursery schools, Montessori and other early childhood centres, and pre-primary classes, which are affiliated to primary schools. The focus of this paper is on PPE offered to marginalise children. PPE is fee-free and compulsory 1-year programme for children aged 5 years. The PPE serves as a preparation for primary education. Children aged 3 or 4 years can join only if they demonstrate readiness; ability to be independent, ability to express him/herself, ability to follow simple instructions and interest of a child [3]. In case they are not ready for PPE they can either stay home or enrol in early childhood centres whereby the private sector provides care and education.

Before 2014, PPE was provided for 2 years but the structure of the formal education system was amended to encompass a 1 year of compulsory PPE in a 1-6-4-2-3+ education structure [4]. Each primary school in Tanzania is expected to have a pre-primary class as an addendum. Currently, the total number of pre-primary schools/classes is 18,158 whereby the number of Government classes is 16,355 (90.1%), while the number of non-government schools is 1803 (9.9%). A total number of 25 councils (13.6%) have no non-government pre-primary schools.

3. Pre-primary education pedagogical transformation

Early childhood education pedagogy entails the combination of instructional techniques and strategies adapted to enable teaching and learning activities occur and allow children to acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and dispositions. It is concerned with collaboration between children and teachers and interaction with the environment in a shared manner that allows learning to occur [1]. In the realm of early childhood education, interaction is key to sharing knowledge and skills between teachers, children and the environment. The pedagogies are influenced differently from context to context and sometimes from child to child.

Early childhood education in Tanzania has undergone transformations from time immemorial. This has gone hand in hand with pedagogical changes across contexts. Early traditional African societies had no formalised schools; rather education was transmissible from parents and community members to children in schools unchambered by walls [5]. Rites of passage were tailored to specific age groups of children and were taught on how to live in their community. This suggests that ‘traditional’ education was contextually based [5]. Differences from one society to another existed, based on the environment and cultural norms of that particular society. Education responded to the existing socio-economic, political and cultural practices of the community. The content grew naturally from the environment, and it reflected the demands and requirements of the community it served. This type of education aimed at transmitting cultural heritage and codes of good behaviour, such as unselfishness, obedience, respect, honesty, and endurance. It was integrated into other spheres of community activities. It was provided on a day-to-day basis throughout the entire life span. The mode of instruction included tales, stories, legends, riddles, proverbs, songs, imitation, with great emphasis placed on learning by doing.

In 1940s through1960s, religious organisations and minority racial groups established schools, namely Bush and Madrassa schools. Christian Missionaries on Tanzania Mainland introduced Bush schools. In most cases, these schools were attached to primary schools but in some cases, they were separate units catering for children before being admitted to formal primary school education. In these schools, children were introduced to reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs), Bible knowledge and basic knowledge. Madrassa schools, on the other hand, were established by Arabs in Zanzibar and Pemba, and along the coastal areas of Mainland as well as the hinterland along the trade routes used by the Arabs. In these schools, children were taught the Quran, and introduced to Muslim education, culture, and reading and writing of the Arabic Script [6, 7, 8]. There were also nursery schools, kindergartens, and day care centres [6]. Despite all these practices there was no policy document to guide the provision of ECCE that existed during this particular period [6, 7, 8]. We have little understanding about the mode of instruction. However, one might assume that adults/teachers dominated the instruction because behaviourism theory of learning was dominant by that time [9].

After independence in 1961, pressures from some parents to establish pre-school education for their children erupted. These pressures were influenced by changes in life circumstances and demands on families and communities including the growth of urban centres, and working mothers. These changes adversely influenced traditional socio-cultural child care systems so fast that some form of systematic institutional care, pre-school setting became an avenue for education to a few privileged children [7]. Pre-school education was meant to free women from rearing and provide them with an opportunity to engage fully in the economic activities. Nonetheless, there was no legal framework to inform pre-school and nursery schools practices.

The first Education Ordinance was introduced in 1961. The Ordinance required owners of pre-schools to register them with the Ministry of Education [6]. Four years later, in 1965, the Ministry defined a nursery school to as “one which provides PPE for children who have not yet begun formal education in accordance with a syllabus approved by the Chief Education Officer” (p.12). Nevertheless, there was no nursery school curriculum that was established by that time. It was developed later. Available information reveals that, the Ministry of Education dealt with nursery schools, which were taught by qualified teachers and followed a specific syllabus while the rest were taken care of by the Social Welfare Division. Although the division did not run the nursery schools, it was reported to have been more vigorous in registering the nursery schools compared to the Ministry. The day care centres were managed by different institutions [6]. The Division named nursery schools as “day care centres” and came up with a syllabus for training day care centre staff. The purposes of day care centres were primarily to prepare children for formal education by introducing them to numeration, reading activities and pictures, and to teach Kiswahili to some of the children, especially those from rural areas, whose mother tongue was not Kiswahili [6].

In 1979, the first President of Tanzania, the late Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere advocated for early childhood education [8]. In his speech to welcome the International Year of the Child, he urged the nation to pay special attention to children’s education, nutrition, health, water, clean environment and care. However, little could be observed in response to Nyerere’s pleas as Mtahabwa states, “Despite this promising position statement from the Head of State [Nyerere], the practice virtually remained unaltered” [10].

In 1982, the Makweta Presidential Commission was assigned with a task of evaluating the entire education system in Tanzania. Among others, the commission’s report stated the rationale for pre-school education. It recommended/advised a serious treatment of preschool education as a crucial and vital part of basic education. Furthermore, the report recommended to the Ministry of Education to formulate a pre-school education policy to guide activities, curricular, teaching/learning materials, and training of pre-school teachers [7]. The commission’s report also recommended that the Ministry of Labour and Community Development and the Ministry of Health had to serve the needs of the pre-school children from 0 to 3 years of age [8]. There were some more promising efforts that were made towards promoting pre-school education between 1986 and 1994. During this time, some pre-school related documents were produced. These documents included Pre-Primary Policy draft paper. This document recommended the establishment of a uniform pre-school education programme. However, this recommendation was not translated into practice [7]. Other documents, which were introduced, included the Guideline for Early Child Education by the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC) [11]. Also during this period, Tanzania ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child [12] and the World Declaration on Education for All of 1990. This means that Tanzania committed herself to adhering to the international policies, which advocate for education as children’s basic need and right, and that learning begins at birth. Consequently, a preschool syllabus was developed in 1990 [13].

From this section we learn that early childhood education has long history, from traditional communities through preschool settings established mainly by religious institutions. It has evolved from tradition through ‘less’ formal. The pedagogical approaches employed could be described as adult-centred through which children were taught community life, general and Biblical knowledge.

4. Formalisation of pre-primary education

From 1995 to 2010 period key issue to this period was the formalisation and systematisation of PPE in Tanzania. Following the production of the Education and Training Policy (ETP) [14], the PPE was declared formal and government’s responsibility. The ETP recognises that the first 6 years of life are critical for the development of a child’s mental and other personality traits. However, due to economic constraints, the government formalised and systematised PPE in the public education system to cater for children aged 5–6 years. Infants and young children (0–4 years) are cared for and receive initial education both at home and in pre-school centres.

One year after the introduction of the 1995 ETP, the Ministry of Community Development, Women and Children Affairs (MCDWCA) [15] developed the Child Development Policy. The development of this policy was to translate basic rights for children into policy following the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 [8]. The Child Development Policy stresses five basic rights of the child, namely survival, protection, development, participation and the right not to be discriminated.

In 2003, the pre-primary teacher education curriculum was developed by the then MoEC (now reconstituted into the Ministry of Education and Technology [MoEST]). Generally, this curriculum document was aimed at providing teachers with knowledge related to the field of PPE. The release of this document marked a significant achievement at this level of education [10]. Two years after the release of the curriculum document, 10 years after the formalisation of PPE, the Pre-Primary Education Syllabus for pre-primary schools (PESPS) [16] was set in place. The primary purpose of the PESPS was to provide teachers with guidance on what and how pre-primary children should be taught. It suggests different methods and strategies needed to develop children’s comprehension on elementary skills necessary for primary school education. Beforehand, teachers relied primarily on their personal and primary school teaching experiences. One could reasonably claim that the release of this syllabus marked a significant achievement in the field of PPE in Tanzania [10]. The release of PESPS was followed by the development of the Curriculum for Pre-Primary Schools in Tanzania in 2005.

This document was generally aimed at guiding the provision of PPE in the country. In 2010, the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) produced the Teaching Guide for Pre-Primary Schools (TGPS). The purpose of TGPS is to provide pre-primary teachers with guidance on how to translate the PESPS effectively. The guide points out several issues for teachers to take note of. The syllabus and the guide are subjected to further analysis later in this chapter with a view to providing understanding pertaining to their assumptions and provisions in relation to the teaching and learning of reading Kiswahili, the topic of interest of the current study. The PESPS and TGPS provisions are referred to as curriculum intentions in the context of this study.

Even though Tanzania has expanded compulsory PPE increased demand outstrips supply. Children living in marginalised geographies, remote, rural, poor areas and/or experiencing disabilities have no or little access to PPE, much less to quality early learning opportunities. Table 1 presents enrolment trends from 2010 to 2020.

Year	Enrolment of 5–6 years	Total enrolment	Population 5–6 years	NER	GER
2010	880,207	925,465	2,344,242	37.2	39.5
2011	1,018,895	1,069,208	2,402,848	42.4	44.5
2012	986,945	1,034,729	2,472,530	41.8	39.9
2013	977,533	1,026,466	2,755,525	35.5	37.3
2014	639,080	1,046,369		33.4	36.9
2015	1,019,703	1,069,823		33.3	35.9
Year	Enrolment of 5 years	Total enrolment	Population 5 years	NER	GER
2016	710,556	1,562,770	1,522,519	46.7	102.6
2017	706,597	1,517,670	1,584,846	44.6	95.8
2018	659,773	1,422,868	1,652,223	39.9	86.1
2019	657,912	1,428,719	1,701,572	38.7	84.0
2020	630,335	1,377,409	1,755,061	35.9	78.5

Table 1.

Pre-primary school enrolment rates 2010–2020.

Source: [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].

Table 1 shows that PPE enrolment fluctuates year in year out. However, we learn from the data that enrolment has been on a steady decrease from 2016 through 2019. In 2016 the enrolment was at high rate (102.6% GER and 46.7% NER) ever since formalization of PPE in 1995. This could be attributed to the implementation of fee-free basic education policy. In 2019, however, the GER was 84.0% and NER was 38.7%. This implies that 61.3% of the compulsory 5 years population are not enrolled in PPE.

The World Bank data [23] reveal vast rural population than urban population in Tanzania. For example, in 2017 Tanzania rural population was 36,593,461, while urban population was 18,066,884. In 2018 rural population was 37,293,015, with 19,020,429 urban populations. In 2019 rural population was 37,993,577 while urban population was 20,011,884. Furthermore, in 2020 rural population was 38,691,642 with 21,042,571 urban populations. Significant gap exists between urban and rural areas. Rural children are much more likely to be out of school, and they are also much more likely to be over-age when in school. According to the 2012 census the total population of pre-primary age children were 320,070 in urban and 1,079,400 in rural. Surprisingly, children out of school were 129,370 in urban and 809,080 in rural [24]. A child living in urban areas has more than doubled chances of attending school; nearly 60% 5-year-olds children are in school in urban areas, whereas in rural areas this figure is only 25%. It is indicative that children in rural areas have limited chances of obtaining early childhood education than their counterparts in urban areas.

5. Reaching out marginalised children: pedagogical practices

Children who have no or little access to PPE inevitably arrive at primary school unprepared, resulting in high rates of underachievement, repetition, and dropout in early grades. To progressively deliver on their commitment to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 4.2 in 2030, Tanzanian government together with other stakeholders and implementing partners put in place innovative PPE pedagogical practices aimed at strengthening the access and quality of ECE to all children especially the marginalised.

5.1 Satellite centres

A satellite centre is an initiative, which complements formal PPE. It is located within the community at a distance from a nearby primary school. The satellite centres are means to expand access to pre-primary and lower primary education to children living in remote areas far away from the nearest public primary school, ‘mother school’. The centres are community-led in the sense that communities provide the space, support operations, and provide community paraprofessional teachers, but the centres are linked to the closest public primary school. The head teacher from the primary school provides oversight to the school and supports the teachers. In addition, one teacher from early grades from mother school is appointed by the head teacher to provide professional assistant to the satellite centre teacher. Furthermore, the satellite centre may be under the same accreditation with the main school, and share resources or administration but maintain separate budgets, resources, and other governing bodies [25].

The establishment of satellite centres could be traced back in 1995 whereby 35 recognised satellite centres were established. Currently, there are a total of 1302 satellite centres across the country in 26 regions 149 councils. An average distance from mother schools to satellite centres is 8 km. A total of 173,376 children, 88,198 boys and 85,178 girls, were enrolled in satellite centres in 2021 [26]. Classes in satellite centres ranged from pre-primary class to standard six. Government employed teachers teaching in satellite centres were 980 with an employed teacher children ratio of 1:177, while volunteer teachers were 1523. It is indicated that a total number of permanent classrooms in satellite centres were 2868 with a child class ratio of 1:60.

The pedagogical practice in the satellite centres is informed by the competence-based curriculum (CBC). The CBC builds on the previous Pre-Primary Education Syllabus for Pre-Primary Schools in Tanzania [16], which was developed by TIE, about 10 years after formalization of PPE. The 2005 curriculum was content based in nature. The curriculum introduced pre-primary children to six subject learning activities namely Vitendo vya Kiswahili (Kiswahili Learning Activities), English Learning activities, Arithmetic Learning Activities, Science Learning Activities, Personality and Sports Learning Activities, and Art Learning Activities. Each learning activity has its objectives, and competencies that were to be realised within the 2 years of PPE cycle.

The curriculum advocated for individualised instruction, whereby teachers were at the realm to use their knowledge, skills and experiences in making instructional decisions bestowing on child’s ability, age and needs, as well as available resources, and classroom situation. The curricular documents evidenced championship for a child-centred approach to teaching and learning and assumed that teachers possessed prerequisite knowledge and skills to inform their instructional decisions. Specifically, the curriculum suggested teaching-learning strategies such as demonstration, games, songs, drawing, role play, excursion, questions and answers, drama, discovery, discussions, inquiry, poems, project work, nursery rhymes and constructing. In addition, it urged teachers to be creative, and use their ability to obtain and employ developmentally appropriate teaching-learning resources, which stimulate a child’s use of multisensory organs. Generally, the PPE curriculum placed the child at the centre of the learning activities. Explicitly, the curriculum stated that: “In teaching/learning process, the child is the main actor while the teacher is the facilitator to the whole process” [16]. This highlights the curriculum commitment regarding the child centred pedagogy. However, research has consistently demonstrated that the teacher-centred approach has been dominant, and developmentally appropriate teaching-learning materials largely lacking in classrooms [10, 27]. This could be attributed to the environmental constraints, cultural norms, and behaviourism perspective that an adult is the knower and is expected to impart or transmit knowledge to a child who is passive recipients of the wisdom, knowledge and skills from teachers and adults.

The realities of the changing world requires a curriculum that views a leaner as active participants in the learning activity. Children are becoming more curious, creative and interactive; therefore early childhood curriculum and practices are indispensable of putting learners as subjects to be altered into a more desirable state by methods and materials as well as children’s interests and concerns. These are aspects of children life to use as linkages to gain access for delivery of curriculum determined by adult experts. Also, children can be key to understanding what the curriculum should be, in such a manner teachers and children cooperate in determining the purposes and experiences of learning. The 2005 PPE curriculum, however, was silent on which perspectives it lies on. From an observational analysis, it seemed to fall under content based as it was built in ties of behaviourist’s beliefs such as; teachers had fully knowledge and children are tabula rasa, so teachers are depositors of skills, knowledge, attitude and competences to children.

The 2016 Curriculum and Syllabus for Pre-Primary Education manifests a competence-based perspective corresponding to constructivist viewpoint, which puts emphasis on enabling a child to develop competences that include knowledge, skills and attitude. The curriculum has moved away from subject-like content to introducing six competence areas; ability to relate to each other; ability to communicate; ability to care for his/her health; ability to care for the environment; mastering artistic skills; and applying mathematical concepts. These competences are organized on daily routine, which trains children to be organised and orderly. To realise curriculum intention, a total of 194 school days, equally distributed in two terms per year are located for PPE curriculum implementation. Each term consists of 21 weeks. A total of 25 periods, five periods (20 minutes each) per day are located for PPE. Normally, classes commence at 8:00 am through 11:00 am. Thus, a child is expected to spend about 3 hours per day at school. Of the 3 hours teaching-learning activities occupy 1 hour and 40 minutes. The rest of hours are for morning cycle, play and snack, if any.

To realise the intended goal, the curriculum puts emphasis on age-appropriate, individualised instructions, play-based pedagogy, and environment rich in developmentally appropriate materials. The curriculum encourages teachers to employ different approaches and practices flexibly to accommodate the needs of every child in the classroom.

5.2 Play-based pedagogy

Play-based pedagogy has the potential to promoting children’s active participation in the learning process that supports interaction with others, self-dependence, flexibility and manipulative habits of the presented learning materials [3, 28]. Furthermore, play-based pedagogy provides children with an opportunity to interact with and explore the environment, socialization, self-understanding, and physical maturity while easing classroom management burdens to teachers [29].

Curriculum emphasis on play-based pedagogy suggests a shift of traditional taught classroom atmospheres where the teacher was in control of everything. Pre-primary classrooms are expected to operate in democratic, self-initiated and active involvement where children autonomy is emphasised. Play-based as a core issue in the field of early years demonstrates significance and relevant for a broad range of policy agents, including national policy stakeholders, educators, ECE practitioners but also parents and, most importantly, children themselves. There are various plays tailored according to the concepts and competences of interests. Both free and guided plays are employed in the teaching and learning. Free play exclusively entails play activities that are freely chosen and directed by children and arise from intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [30]. Guided play refers to an activity initiated by children or adults but follows a particular set of predetermined rules and pattern that a teacher or adult aim to develop [30]. Plays commended in the PPE curriculum and used for teaching and learning activities in pre-primary classes reflect the traditional existed plays adapted from local contexts. Children are expected to participate in outdoor, mostly free play, and indoor learning activities through learning corners, as presented in the sub-sequent section. However, despite of the curriculum emphasis on child-centred and play based pedagogy, teacher-centred instruction dominates, and we know little about learning outcomes as a result of playful activities, and how children are assessed as they engage in play.

5.3 ‘Talking’ classroom environment

Learning is a product of child’s natural interactions with the environment, provided that the child is surrounded with environment awash in interactive materials and opportunities for a child to use the materials in an authentic situation. The child can interact, ‘talk’ with materials alone or with others and/or in the absence of a teacher. Learning to read, for example, requires an interactive classroom environment rich in print materials. Materials such as pictures of different things, cards, printed letters, syllables and words, and alphabet and picture books. Pictures invite pupils’ attention and support learning to read, for example, letters and words. Child’s interaction with picture books, for example, supports the acquisition of both receptive language and expressive vocabulary. Likewise, child’s exposure and familiarity with books at pre-school level supports the emergent reading and understanding of the concepts of print and concepts about books.

The Curriculum and Syllabus for Pre-Primary Education [3] advocates for development of low-cost and use of developmentally appropriate materials in pre-primary classrooms. Among other things, the curriculum recommends for establishment of learning corners with various learning aids that children can use during the class learning or at their own time according to their interest. The corners suggested including numeracy corner, science corner, home corner, art corner, shop corner, language corner (reading and writing), play corner, and sand and water area, which should be outside the classroom. However, the numeracy, language and play corners must be available in every pre-primary class. Each corner is expected to contain respective materials. These materials can be stuck on a classroom wall or hung.

5.4 Storytelling and learning pedagogical approach

Traditionally, children were told stories. These stories were educative and entertaining. In the evenings, adults and children would seat around the fire whereby an adult would narrate a story. With the emergence of new lifestyle, however, a traditional storytelling culture/practice is fading away. Of recent, a replica of traditional storytelling culture/practice has emerged. Storybooks have been introduced and pre-primary children are told stories that are tailored to promoting competences as defined by the curriculum, the case of school readiness programme (SRP). The SRP was an initiative that was introduced to provide temporary solutions to promote access to children from marginalised communities who would not otherwise have access to PPE due to geographical representation challenges

The SRP programme had three distinctive features; first, use/is a community-based approach supported by existing local government structures. Second, SRP use active learning pedagogy to develop core early learning and development competencies mainly using stories, songs, poetry, drama and play. And also supports the development of effective, low-cost learning aids at both national and local levels. The SRP programme was designed for the 5–6-year-old children before entering standard one. The programme was implemented for 12–16 weeks from September to December, whereby programme activities were carried out for 4 days per week. The programme activities were based on 12 story books and other teaching and learning materials [31, 32, 33]. One storybook with only one story was narrated for 4 days a week. Each story was meant to promote pre-primary developmentally appropriate concept.

5.5 Activity workbook to engage parents

Parents are crucially significant (crucial and significant) stakeholders in education particularly for PPE. Parental engagement in their children’s schooling and learning is experienced in different forms. These include parents’ duty to enrol their 5-year children in pre-primary classes and ensure their regular attendance. Also, it the responsibility of the parents to ensure that their children have all the school-related requirements such as school uniforms, shoes, and writing materials (exercise books, pencils, and counting objects). The 2016 Curriculum and Syllabus for Pre-Primary Education explicitly mentions, among others, the roles of parents should be; to engage with teachers in creating teaching and learning materials, attend PPE classroom and assist in/with teaching and learning activities, attend school meetings that discuss what lies ahead on children’s education agenda. On the periphery of assisting teaching and learning activities in classrooms at school settings, activity workbooks were prepared for parents to read with their children at home.

In addition to prescribed role, activity workbook was introduced by Children in Crossfire (CiC) in collaboration with TIE to engage parents to support the marginalized children learning at home. The CiC is a charity non-governmental registered in Northern Ireland. One of its main funders is Irish Aid. In Tanzania, CiC supports the government to providing early learning opportunities to tens of thousands of children. With Covid-19 onset and nationwide school closures, CiC conducted a rapid assessment pointing to most rural young children missing out on digital broadcast remote-learning programmes given the lack of access to TV, radio, smartphones, and other valid communication devices. CiC worked with the ministry of education (MoEST and PO-RALG) and other stakeholders including pre-primary teachers to develop a print-based PPE activity workbook aligned to National PPE Curriculum, providing simple guidance on play-based learning activities that parents/caregivers who can read and write could facilitate with their young children at home using locally available no-cost resources.

The activity workbook was endorsed by the government and 14,000 copies were printed in phase one to reach all PPE children enrolled in 142 PPE streams across Dodoma, Morogoro and Mwanza regions on Tanzania mainland where CiC programming is being implemented. Both the National and local government authorities oversaw the dissemination and orientation of PPE teachers and parents of PPE children across all schools to ensure adequate risk mitigation procedures in the Covid-19 context. The workbooks were distributed to all parents along with a basic learning kit to assist children to start learning at home when schools were closed.

The workbooks became popular, with parents/caregivers confirming the activities were practical for them to lead with their children and stimulate playful learning experiences at home using materials locally sourced. The workbook is currently being certified as a curricular resource through the TIE. Moreover, it has been adapted into large font, tactile, and braille formats for children (with visual impairment) who are visually challenged. So far, 100 large print books and 90 braille formats have been printed and disseminated to parents/caregivers with children visually challenged.

Importantly, with the reopening of schools, parents and PPE teachers continue to embrace the workbook, bringing closer together both teachers/parents and schools/homes in supporting a PPE child's learning. An additional 16,000 other workbooks have since been printed/distributed to PPE children/parents of Dodoma region to support young children's learning reaching 30,000 workbooks in total.

6. Challenges inhibiting pedagogical practices

6.1 Teachers vs. parents’ ‘antagonistic’

Teachers and parents have differing expectations on what to expect from a PPE particularly on the usage of play as a method of teaching. Teachers might be aware and would want to employ play-based instruction with a belief that it promotes child’s holistic development. Contrarily, parents might not be in the same space with teachers based on the assumption that play is wastage of time. Consequently, teachers opt to comply with parents and employ methods other than play.

6.2 ‘Ill-defined’ classroom environment

The context and environment within which teachers work, and the problems or uncertainties they encounter are ‘ill-defined’. The problems or uncertainties include but not limited to lack of play materials, big classes, and high teacher-pupil ratio. Experience reveals that these problems are perennial as such they constraints teachers from engaging pupils actively. For example, PPE delivery is characterized by classrooms that have doors that cannot be latched, broken windows, broken floors full of dusts, classrooms unable to retain displays, school buildings prone to be flooded by intensive rains, swept away by high winds, classrooms exposed to hazardous materials such as sharp and broken desks and limited maintenance. The poor infrastructures both indoor and outdoor imperatively pose challenges in both teaching and learning, making it harder for children to acquire the intended goals.

6.3 Lack of qualified teachers

Majority of the available teachers in satellite centres are not well trained. A worst-case scenario can be traced from innovative programmes in marginalised areas whereby, centres are run by paraprofessionals who have obtained partial trainings that enable them implement teaching and learning activities. Teacher-pupil ratio in PPE setting is unfavourable. In 2020, for example, an average qualified teacher-pupil ratio in public pre-primary classes was 1:193. High teacher-pupil ratio can negatively influence how much time a teacher can spend per child. With a higher number of children per teacher, implementation of play-based activities, and individualised attention and interaction with children are compromised. Thus, the teaching and learning activities are doubtful meeting the standard quality of PPE delivery in Tanzania.

It is unquestionably that early childhood education has admitted pedagogical transformations from time immemorial. The transformations have given birth to numerous coinages all purposely to ensure children's interest is met. Particularly, the pedagogical transformations deliberately settled the access question especially for children from marginalised areas. The transformations signal an ever-changing nature of human beings and practices. Notwithstanding some tensions exist between curriculum pedagogical provisions and practices. These could be explained by perceptual antagonisms between teachers and parents, ill-defined classroom environment, lack of qualified teachers, resource constraints, and diversification of the communities where PPE is offered. To a greater degree these hinder the innovative pedagogical practices as prescribed by the curriculum to curb quality equitable PPE. Diversification of PPE setting calls for a curriculum and a fluid approach with a mix of pedagogical practices. A potential room for innovation is available if at all the best interests of children are put forward. Learning from the former transformations the fate of marginalised children in accessing quality PPE can be held. The next section reflects on the pedagogical prospects in early childhood education.

7. Early childhood pedagogical prospects in Tanzania

A few would dispute that early childhood education pedagogy has undergone significant transformation from adult/teacher centred to child-centred pedagogy with an emphasis on play-based approach. The advocated PPE pedagogy is commendable, developmentally appropriate and likely to persist over the coming years. However, the pedagogical transformation is more visible from curriculum perspective than on actual classroom instructional practices. This could be attributed to several factors including ‘ill-defined’ PPE settings. Furthermore, traditional pedagogical and values have been implicated in a way in contemporary teaching and learning activities. Children from marginalized communities, however, are at a disadvantageous continuum compared to their counterparts.

The room for improvement is always open if at all individuals are striving to make a difference in the quality delivery of the service. Thus, modus operand for quality delivery of PPE is needed on board. While maintaining child-centred and developmentally appropriate approach children from marginalised populations ought not to be left behind. Henceforth, a need to adapt practices to accommodate increasingly diverse needs of the PPE population is paramount.

Furthermore, the PPE need to keep pace with a world in which knowledge is rapidly expanding, communication technologies are broadening access to information, and, as a result, the skills needed by children are constantly changing or being invented. One of the education delivery mode expected to reach more children out of school and those in marginalised population is the use of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) based instructions including self-learning through electronic gadgets such as; tablets, computers and mobile phones (smartphones). The world is changing rapidly, and knowledge’s are so much available cheaply to whoever desires to have them through books, which are vastly produced, networks and internets that takes much of our time nowadays.

The PPE sub-sector is no exception of the changes happening in the world of knowledge. Therefore, PPE requisites to extract this knowledge and transform to children levels. The PPE curriculum should encourage children learning ability in the challenging environments of vast information that some are not liable to children level of understanding and development. Currently, many children especially in town access social media and are on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. The development of open source and scalable software applications to promote children’s literacy and numeracy could cub the need for children learning. Accordingly, the PPE should see this as an impact to its effectiveness because children are so much confused with the vast knowledge’s they encounter at school and at home, so as the world is changing and technological advancements are taking cause, abreast update on the PPE is inevitable. The concern for this is on remoteness whereas; some areas still do not have access to electronic and gadgets. In this context, a need for cost and time effective ICT solutions to address the learning crisis of out-of-school children in Tanzania and the world need to be sought, noting the innovative features inherent to a household based self-learning programme for children with the support of immediate adults.

Furthermore, a strengthened partnership between public and private entities promises a linkage for children who obtain PPE in private with those at public schools and centres. Evidence reveals that, children transitioned from satellite and SRP centres to formal schooling are successfully adjusting into the system. Consequently, with a strengthened partnership successful transition is guaranteed. However, it should be noted that, most of these children are coming from marginalised families. There is a need for the government in collaboration with other stakeholders, to find a mechanism to support successful beneficiaries who have joined formal education from marginalised populations to stay in schools. Besides, a need to improve satellite centre teacher qualifications, development of integrated curriculum and quality monitoring processes cannot be underestimated.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the support and contributions of all people who in one way or another made this work come to be. It is difficult to mention them all here, but we are indebted to extend a special note to Children in Crossfire for their contribution.