Abstract
Leishmaniasis is an infectious and parasitic disease of great importance in public health. Numerous studies indicate that biochemical and molecular mechanisms are factors that contribute to the emergence of antileishmanial drug resistance. Currently, miRNAs have been identified as targets for the invasion of pathogens to control the immune response and imply resistance to treatments. Considering the alarming growth in drug resistance, new possibilities for controlling leishmaniasis have been emerging. Natural compounds originating from medicinal plants are being increasingly explored as promising antileishmanial alternatives. The chapter aims to provide a brief review on mechanisms of action associated with traditional agents used to treat leishmaniasis, focusing mainly on molecular bases associated with the resistance of Leishmania spp. to current drugs and identifying the possible miRNAs involved in this process. In addition, we seek to describe some of the promising plant molecules that can be used as potential antileishmanial agents and their possible mechanisms of action.
Keywords
- Leishmaniasis
- drug resistance
- miRNAs
- mechanisms of action
- natural products
1. Introduction
Leishmaniasis is an infectious and parasitic disease of major importance to public health worldwide due to its difficult control, mainly because the commonly used antileishmanial drugs have contributed to the increasing increase in parasite resistance [1, 2].
Biochemical, molecular and/or genetic mechanisms are factors that contribute to the emergence of resistance [3, 4, 5]. Among these mechanisms, we highlight microRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding RNAs functionally involved in various biological processes of an organism [6, 7, 8]. Currently, these structures have been identified as the main targets for invasion by pathogens, including
Due to the alarming increase in drug resistance, the search for new drugs or natural compounds to control leishmaniasis has grown [11, 12]. Natural compounds originating from plants are increasingly being explored as promising antileishmanial alternatives, since, when compared to currently available drugs, these products can selectively act on the parasite besides that the most of them present low cytotoxicity and low market value [13, 14].
Although, researches demonstrate the importance of natural products for the treatment of leishmaniasis, little is known about the influence of miRNAs on the mechanisms of action of natural products. However, recent evidence suggests that some phytochemical substances regulate the expression of several pathological miRNAs [15, 16]. For example, in breast cancer, phytochemical substances extracted from plant foods have acted directly on the regulation of miRNA expression and these are pointed out as promising alternative chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents [17].
In this context, to understand the mechanisms of action of natural compounds and the emergence of resistance by parasites, this review was developed based on the following question: Is it possible that certain natural compounds also act by inhibiting or activating miRNAs that interfere with the parasitic action against
2. Traditional therapeutic agents and mechanisms of action
Leishmaniasis presents different clinical manifestations, ranging from skin lesions to severe visceral forms, depending on the species of the parasite of the genus
Chemotherapy is the only effective alternative to treat all forms of the disease. Therapeutic approaches to control leishmaniasis comprise five main drugs: pentavalent antimony, amphotericin B, miltefosine, paromomycin and pentamidine, however, these drugs are associated with serious problems, such as toxicity and especially with the emergence of resistant strains, making treatment difficult [18].
Although, current antileishmanial drugs have been used for decades, their mechanisms of action remain obscure, however, some assumptions are accepted. Pentavalent antimonials, for example, eliminate parasites through the process of apoptosis and also inhibit trypanothione reductase, an important enzyme for the survival of the parasite in the host [19]. Miltefosine, in turn, also induces cell death by apoptosis, in addition to inducing various immunological and inflammatory effects on macrophages [20]. The mechanism of action of amphotericin B may involve interaction with membrane sterols, resulting in membrane disorganization, increased permeability and cell damage in the parasite [21, 22]. Paromomycin inhibits protein synthesis and modifies the fluidity and permeability of the membrane and also decreases mitochondrial potential [3, 23]. While pentamidine acts as a DNA-binding drug, causing the parasite mitochondrial membrane potential collapse and induction of kinetoplast DNA destruction [24, 25].
The prolonged use of these drugs has contributed to the acceleration of leishmaniasis resistance; however, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms, especially about the importance of miRNAs involved in the emergence of this resistance (Figure 1).
3. miRNAs and drug resistance
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a small class of non-coding RNAs composed of 18–24 nucleotides, present in a variety of organisms, including parasites, plants, animals and humans [7, 8, 26, 27]. The first description of these structures occurred after studies with the nematode parasite
The canonical biosynthesis of a miRNA starts with a primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) that is transcribed and recognized by a microprocessor complex. This process includes the double-stranded RNA-specific endoribonuclease enzymes (DROSHA) and the DiGeorge syndrome critical region gene 8 (DGCR8), which are cleaved to form a miRNA precursor (pre-miRNA). The pre-miRNAs are then exported to the cytoplasm for further processing by the DICER enzyme and cofactors such as protein kinase R activator (PACT) or transactivation response RNA binding protein (TRBP) [29].
The mature duplex miRNA is finally loaded into an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that is multiprotein and a corrected miRNA strand (−5p or -3p) that binds to the Argonaute protein (AGO) guiding the complex to its mRNA target [30]. Both biogenesis and maturation of miRNAs are tightly regulated processes. The first level of adjustment is represented by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and epigenetic control of transcription through mechanisms of acetylation, DNA methylation and histones. The biosynthesis and maturation of miRNAs can also be influenced by RNA binding proteins (RBPs), which can interact with key enzyme processes such as DROSHA, DGCR8, DICER and the complex RISC [31].
In addition to impacting the actions of miRNAs on their targets, editing pri and pre-miRNAs is also an important mechanism that modulates the biosynthesis and maturation of specific miRNAs. Degradation of the miRNA strand (−5p or -3p strand) or incorporation into the RISC complex (lead strand) determines the pool of target mRNAs. The complementarity between the miRNA response elements (MRE) in the mRNA and the seed sequence in the miRNA strand determines the specificity of the action of the RISC complex for mRNAs. Furthermore, the degree of complementarity between the MRE and the seed sequences generally dictates whether the mRNA is degraded or its translation is blocked [32]. The mechanism of biogenesis and maturation of miRNA is described in Figure 2.
miRNAs are involved in important biological processes in organisms, including the control of gene and pathological expression, cell and organ development, differentiation and homeostasis, tumor suppression and stem cell regulation [26]. miRNAs are also known to be involved in the development of human parasitic diseases. For example, in
In toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by the agent
In leishmaniasis, miRNAs play an important role in the biology of infection, pathogenicity, recognition and activation of the immune response by macrophages and dendritic cells, host–parasite interaction and drugs resistance [42, 43, 44].
Although, research emphasizes the importance of studying miRNAs during infection or pathogenesis by different parasites, the role of these structures in the development of antiparasitic resistance remains unclear. Drug resistance is a growing problem worldwide. Resisting a drug means saying that there was a reduction in the drug effectiveness in the total elimination of the pathogen responsible for the disease [45]. miRNAs have been identified as targets for pathogen invasion and immune response control, in addition to resistance to chemotherapy in a variety of organisms and diseases (Figure 3) [6, 10].
In recent years, studies have shown that miRNAs are involved in tumor cell resistance to chemotherapy [46, 47, 48]. According to the studies, miRNAs regulate different target genes, especially genes that affect the cell response to chemotherapy drugs. In insects, some miRNAs are involved in resistance to the insecticide diamide in the control of
The resistance of some parasites is also related to miRNAs. In the nematode
The role of miRNAs in drug resistance is clear for a wide variety of organisms, for protozoan parasites, mainly
For years, pentavalent antimony was the main treatment against leishmaniasis and with this, the parasites acquired resistance and the drug lost its effectiveness [58]. The resistance mechanism of
Tiwari et al. [10] pointed out that
Thus, these studies highlight the importance of these structures in the development of leishmaniasis resistance to currently available drugs and indicate that the identification of miRNAs can provide strategies for controlling leishmaniasis.
To contain the acceleration of resistance by parasites, the search for new treatments has emerged. The discovery of new drugs with fewer side effects and more advantageous cost-benefits than current treatments has gained strength, in this sense, the use of natural products in the treatment of leishmaniasis has become an excellent alternative.
4. Natural products as an anti-Leishmania source
Natural products originating from plants are being increasingly explored as promising therapeutic alternatives, and the action of these products is mainly attributed to existing bioactive phytochemicals [63, 64].
The concentration of these compounds depends on the nature of the chemical used as a solvent during the extraction and handling process, as well as the storage conditions [65]. Terpenoids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids and flavonoids are the most important phytochemical groups. Terpenoids from essential oils are extracted by hydrodistillation and mechanical pressing techniques, while phenolic compounds, alkaloids and flavonoids are extracted using organic solvents, mainly dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, chloroform, ether and benzene [65, 66, 67].
After extraction, the phytochemical analysis to identify the main classes of compounds is performed using chromatographic and colorimetric techniques [68]. Approximately 10,000 phytochemicals have been identified so far and their numerous medicinal properties are being investigated. Leaves, seeds, fruits and flowers are the plant organs richest in phytochemicals [69, 70].
Currently, these groups of phytochemicals have anti-
Phenolic compounds primarily function as antioxidants and free radical scavengers [74]. Its action on
Alkaloids are alkaline compounds and can be classified based on the presence and activity of specific amino acids [79]. Many alkaloids have been described as having biological activities against
Flavonoids, in turn, are a class of natural compounds with several known biological activities, including anti-
In general, plants contain biomolecules with high active potential against leishmaniasis. However, the process of discovering these molecules is considered complex and time-consuming, since it involves phases such as isolation, identification, optimization of their properties and selection of safe and effective compounds for drug development [64, 70].
Studies have identified that the expression of miRNAs in different types of cancer is specifically regulated by phytochemicals [15]. In the treatment of breast cancer, several phytochemicals have been identified as tumor suppressors, directly controlling the expression of miRNAs [15, 16, 17]. According to Baselga-Escudero et al. [85] polyphenols can bind directly to miRNAs and that the chemical structure of these compounds influences the expression of miRNAs. Recently, through
These studies show the importance of natural compounds in the regulation of miRNAs and the possible influence of these in their action on diseases. However, it remains unclear whether miRNAs can interact with phytochemicals so that they are not absorbed and/or metabolized by the parasites and thus contribute to the resistance mechanism of leishmaniasis (Figure 3).
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, miRNAs have a wide range of important biological functions for parasites, including leishmaniasis. Although, the role of these structures in the development of antiparasitic resistance remains unclear, this work provides suggestive information about the strong contribution of miRNAs in this process. Furthermore, natural compounds with anti-
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank CAPES (the Brazilian Federal Agency for support and evaluation of graduate education) for the scholarship to S.A. Araujo.
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