",isbn:"978-1-80355-367-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-366-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-368-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"d3a491e5194cad4c59b900dd57a11842",bookSignature:" Vladimir V. Kalinin",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg",keywords:"Variety of Traits, Historical Remarks, Modern Definitions and Descriptions, Personality Disorders, Comorbid Psychopathology, Depression, Anxiety, Obsessions, Delusion, Treatment of Personality Disorders, Phenomenology of Personality Traits, Delusional Symptoms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 28th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'A researcher with over 300 publications in psychopathology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychiatry, and epileptology, a member of the Russian Society of Psychiatry, and the Russian Society of Epileptology. Dr. Kalinin\'s biography is included in Marquis "Who’s Who in Medicine and Healthcare" (2006-2007); Who’s Who in Science and Engineering 2008-2009"; "Who’s Who in the World" (2010, 2011), and in the Cambridge International Biographical Centre.',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31572",title:null,name:"Vladimir V.",middleName:null,surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-v.-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir V. Kalinin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31572/images/system/31572.png",biography:"Vladimir V. Kalinin was born in1952 into a family of physicians in Orenburg (Russian Federation). He obtained an MD from Moscow State Medical Stomatological University in 1976. In 1976-1977 he completed an internship in Psychiatry. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
Coherent optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (CO-OFDM) is a modulation format that attracted wide interest due to its high spectral efficiency (SE) and robustness against chromatic dispersion (CD) and polarization mode dispersion (PMD). CO-OFDM communication systems with coherent detection combine high SE and high receiver sensitivity [1], [2]. CO-OFDM transmission at 1 Tb/s can be realized [1]. OFDM is implemented using fast Fourier transform (FFT) which results in inter carrier interference (ICI) and inter symbol interference (ISI) [1], [2]. Usually, in order to avoid ICI and ISI, a so-called cyclic prefix (CP) is inserted into OFDM symbols. The addition of CP requires an increase of a bandwidth and sampling rate of analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) decreasing SE [1], [2]. The need for CP can be avoided if the wavelet packet transform (WPT) is used in CO-OFDM systems instead of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and inverse DFT (IDFT) [2]. In such a case, a signal can be expanded in an orthogonal set of so-called wavelets [1], [2]. WPTs provide orthogonality between OFDM subcarriers based on the wavelets instead of sinusoids. Wavelets have finite length. For this reason, wavelet transforms (WTs) have both frequency and time localization. It has been shown that WPT-OFDM single-polarization system can mitigate CD of 3380 ps/nm at bit rate of 112 Gb/s [1].
An alternative real-time multiplexing technique characterized by a high SE is the Nyquist wavelength division multiplexing (N-WDM) [3]. N-WDM is made up of temporal sinc-pulses [3]. Electrically generated Nyquist pulses are shaped with finite duration impulse response (FIR) filters, have nearly rectangular spectra, and are transmitted in independent WDM channels [3]. For the higher order filters the spectrum approaches to a rectangle, and the inter channel guard bands can be kept small without introducing ICI [3]. N-WDM has been investigated both theoretically and experimentally [3], [4]. For the polarization-multiplexed quadrature phase-shift keying (PM-QPSK) transmitter based on two QPSK integrated modulators in nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) modulation regime, and standard single mode fiber (SSMF) with the typical values of parameters such as bit rate of 111 Gb/s per channel, loss 0.22dB/km, dispersion 16.7 ps/nm/km, noise-figure 5 dB, BER=4x10-3\n\t\t\t\tat the maximum distance of 2300 km, performance of CO-OFDM and N-WDM techniques appeared to be similar [3],[4].
Recently, dual-polarization transmission has been investigated as a promising technique for future high bit rate communication systems [1], [5]. In such a case, the optical fiber two-input two-output channel model is described by a two-element Jones vector for any OFDM symbol on a subcarrier [6]. In Fourier transform (FT) based optical OFDM (FTO-OFDM), individual subcarriers are single-sideband, and the phase dispersion caused by CD and PMD can be compensated. In WPT-OFDM systems, on the contrary, the modulated signals are double-sideband. Unlike CD, PMD does not possess the phase symmetry [5]. Consequently, the Jones matrixes for the positive and negative sidebands are not equal, the dispersions of the two sidebands are different, and their addition does not represent the initial real WT basis. As a result, the orthogonality is broken, and inter-packet-interference occurs [7].
We proposed a novel type of CO-OFDM based on the dual-tree complex WPT (DT-CWPT) recently developed by N. Kingsbury [7]. DT-CWPT utilizes two wavelet filter banks (FBs) [8].
A first wavelet FB is used in the discrete WT (DWT).
A second wavelet FB is constructed in such a way that its impulse responses are approximately the discrete Hilbert transforms of the first wavelet FB.
The first and the second FBs are the real and imaginary parts of the DT-CWPT, respectively. We have shown that PMD can be compensated by digital signal processing using a DT-CWPT. SE and the transmission distance are substantially increased. Numerical simulations show that the 1 Tb/s single-channel CO-OFDM transmission with high SE of 7.88 bit/s/Hz over the distance of 1800 km can be realized.
The proposed Chapter is constructed as follows. In Section 2, we discuss the fundamentals of CO-OFDM systems; in Section 3, the WPT based OFDM systems are considered; PMD influence on the CO-OFDM dual-polarization transmission is reviewed in Section 4. In Sections 5 and 6, the structure and the properties of CO-OFDM system based on DT-CWT and DT-CWPT are described, respectively. In Section 7, the original results are presented for the DT-CWPT based single-channel CO-OFDM transmission system including a laser-diode and Mach-Zehnder external modulator. We describe the methods of the CD, PMD, and nonlinearity mitigation and present the numerical simulations results. Conclusions are presented in Section 8.
2. Fundamentals of CO-OFDM systems
In this Section, we consider the fundamentals of CO-OFDM communication systems OFDM is a kind of multicarrier modulation (MCM) where the data information is carried over many lower rate subcarriers [9]. The block diagram of an OFDM system is shown in Fig. 1 [9].
Figure 1.
A diagram of OFDM system.
The fundamental advantages of OFDM are its robustness against channel dispersion and the ease of phase and channel estimation in a time-varying environment; the essential disadvantages of OFDM are high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) and sensitivity to frequency and phase noise [9]. The MCM transmitted signal is represented as follows [9].
\n\t\t\t
s(t)=∑i=−∞∞∑k=1Nscckisk(t−iTs)E1
\n\t\t\t
sk(t)=Π(t)exp(j2πfkt)E2
\n\t\t\t
Π(t)={1,(0<t≤Ts)0,(t≤0,t>Ts)}E3
\n\t\t\t
where cki is the i-th information symbol at the k-th subcarrier, sk is the waveform for the k-th subcarrier, Nsc is the number of subcarriers, fk is the frequency of the k-th subcarrier, Ts is the symbol period, and Π(t) is the pulse shaping function. The detected information symbol c′ki is given by [9].
\n\t\t\t
c′ki=1Ts∫0Tsr(t−iTs)exp(−j2πfkt)dtE4
\n\t\t\t
where r(t) is the received time domain signal. In the case of the classical MCM nonoverlapped bandlimited signals are used which results in the excessive bandwidth and decrease of SE. In the case of OFDM, the overlapped orthogonal signal sets are determined by the following condition for any two orthogonal subcarriers [9].
\n\t\t\t
1Ts∫0Tssksl∗dt=δklE5
\n\t\t\t
Substituting expression (2) into (5) and carrying out the integration we obtain.
\n\t\t\t
exp[jπ(fk−fl)Ts]sin[π(fk−fl)Ts][π(fk−fl)Ts]=δklE6
\n\t\t\t
The orthogonality condition (6) is satisfied for the following relationship between the subcarrier frequencies
\n\t\t\t
fk−fl=m1Ts;m=1,2,...E7
\n\t\t\t
In such a case, the orthogonal subcarrier sets can be recovered with the matched filters without ICI even for the strong signal overlapping [9]. OFDM modulation and demodulation can be implemented by using IDFT/DFT where the m-th samples sm and rm of the MCM transmitted and received signals s(t) and r(t), respectively, are given by [9].
\n\t\t\t
sm=∑k=1Nckexp[j2π(k−1)(m−1)N]=F−1{ck};c′k=F{rm}E8
\n\t\t\t
Here F{rm} is the Fourier transform,
m∈[1,N], fk=(k−1)/Ts;k∈[kmin+1,kmin+N], kmin is an arbitrary integer, and Ts/N is the sampling interval. Expressions (8) show that the discrete value of the transmitted signal s(t) is an N-point IDFT of the information symbol ck, and the received information symbol c′k is an N-point DFT of the received sampled signal rm [9]. The PAPR of the OFDM signal is given by the following expression [9]:
\n\t\t\t
PAPR=max{|s(t)|2}/E{|s(t)|2},t∈[0,Ts]E9
\n\t\t\t
where max{|s(t)|2} and E{|s(t)|2} are the maximum value and the expectance of |s(t)|2.
In order to implement IDFT/DFT DAC and ADC are needed. IDFT/DFT is characterized by two important advantages [9].
The computation complexity measured with the number of complex multiplications is reduced to (N/2)log2(N) which is almost linear with respect to the subcarriers number N.
The OFDM system architecture is relatively simple. It does not require complex radio frequency (RF) oscillators and filters.
OFDM is characterized by the ISI and ICI as it was mentioned above. These phenomena are caused by a large number of subcarriers [9]. CP, i.e. the cyclic extension of the OFDM waveform into the guard interval (GI) ΔG, has been proposed in order to prevent ISI and ICI [9]. If the GI is long enough to contain the intersymbol transition, then the remaining part of the OFDM symbol satisfies the orthogonality conditions (6), (7) and receiver cross-talk occurs only within GI [10]. The addition of CP requires an increase of a bandwidth and sampling rate of ADC and DAC. CP is an easily recognizable feature of an OFDM system which results in the signal vulnerability to interception by surveillance receiver [11]. Hence, the elimination of CP reduces the probability of interception and improves SE [11]. CP can be inserted implicitly into the definition of the MCM transmitted signal s(t) (1)-(3) by modification of equation (3) which takes the form [9].
\n\t\t\t
Π(t)={1,(−ΔG<t≤Ts)0,(t≤−ΔG,t>Ts)}E10
\n\t\t\t
OFDM is characterized by the dispersion robustness, high SE, possibility of linear and nonlinear impairment mitigation [9]. For this reason, OFDM appeared to be an attractive long-haul transmission format for the optical communication systems [9], [12], [13].
The optical communication systems can be divided into two groups. The first group is based on optical wireless, multimode fiber (MMF) systems and plastic optical fiber (POF) systems where the OFDM signal is represented by the intensity of the optical signal; the second group is based on the single mode fiber (SMF) techniques where the OFDM signal is represented by the optical field [13]. The first group uses the direct detection technique, while the second group uses the coherent detection technique [9]. The optical OFDM systems based on the coherent detection are called CO-OFDM [9], [12]. A generic CO-OFDM system consists of five functional blocks: the RF OFDM transmitter, the RF-to-optical (RTO) up-converter, the optical channel, the optical-to-RF (OTR) down-converter, and the RF OFDM receiver with the coherent detector [12]. CO-OFDM manifests higher receiver sensitivity, SE, and robustness against polarization dispersion [9]. CO-OFDM can achieve high SE by overlapping subcarrier spectrum and at the same time avoiding interference by using coherent detection and signal set orthogonality [9], [12]. CO-OFDM communication systems are characterized by the linearity in RTO up-conversion and optical-to-RF (OTR) down-conversion [9], [12]. The electrical bandwidth requirements for the CO-OFDM transceiver can be greatly reduced by using direct up/down conversion which results in the low cost of the high-speed electronic circuits [9], [12]. SE η of the CO-OFDM system is given by [9], [12].
\n\t\t\t
η=2RBOFDM≈2α;α=tsTsE11
\n\t\t\t
where R=Nsc/Ts is the total symbol rate, BOFDM=(2/Ts)+(Nsc−1)/ts is the OFDM bandwidth, Nsc≫1, the factor of 2 accounts for two light wave polarizations in the fiber, and ts is the observation period.
CO-OFDM communication systems possess the following advantages as compared to the intensity modulation with direct detection (IM/DD) systems [14].
The shot-noise limited receiver can be achieved with a sufficient local oscillator (LO) power.
The frequency resolution at the intermediate frequency (IF) or baseband stage is high enough in order to separate close wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) channels in the electric domain.
The phase detection improves the receiver sensitivity compared with IM/DD systems.
The advanced multilevel modulation formats can be introduced into optical communications by using phase modulation.
CO-OFDM communication systems can achieve high SE transmission through higher order modulation such as 64-QAM in single polarization and 16-QAM in dual polarization due to the DACs at the transmitter [9]. As a result, CO-OFDM techniques can be applied to the optical long-haul transmission at 100 Gb/s and beyond [9]. Recently, the 1.15 Tb/s no-guard-interval CO-OFDM (NGI-CO-OFDM) DP-QPSK superchannel transmission over the distance of 4520 km with SE=3.75b/s/Hz with BERs below the stringent forward error correction (FEC) limit has been demonstrated experimentally [15]. The pure silica core fiber and the erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) have been used [15].
3. WPT based CO-OFDM systems
Conventional CO-OFDM systems based on DFT and IDFT can be replaced with WPT based CO-OFDM [1]. The sinusoidal functions are infinitely long in the time domain while wavelets have finite length being localized in time and in frequency domains [1]. Wavelet signal analysis can be a base for an effective computational algorithm which is faster and simpler than FFT [16]. Wavelets have been used in optical communications for time-frequency multiplexing and ultrafast image transmission [16]. A signal may be expanded in an orthogonal set of wavelet packets (WPs) as the basis functions, each channel occupies a wavelet packet (WP), and IDWPT/ DWPT are used at the transmitter and receiver, respectively [1], [16]. The theory and possible applications of continuous wavelet transform (CWT) and DWT are presented in [1], [16]-[19].
In particular, CO-OFDM system SE can be improved by avoiding CP. The problem of the CP elimination can be solved by using WPT-OFDM [16]. A mitigation of CD of 3380 ps/nm at 112 Gb/s without CP in the WPT-OFDM system has been demonstrated [1]. Typically, WPT-OFDM optical communication systems are single-polarization. However, the dual-polarization transmission is a promising technique for 1 Tb/s Ethernet transport [1]. Here we present some definitions and relationships essential for DWT applications.
CWT WT(a,τ) of a given function f(t) with respect to a mother wavelet (MW) ψ(t) is defined as follows [17], [18]:
\n\t\t\t
WT(a,τ)=1|a|∫−∞∞ψ∗(t−τa)f(t)dtE12
\n\t\t\t
where the real numbers a and τ are the scaling and shifting, or translation parameters, respectively, and asterisk means complex conjugation. Note that in many practically important cases MW ψ(t) is real. The functions ψa,τ(s)=|a|−1/2ψ((s−τ)/a) are called wavelets [18]. The set of wavelets is orthogonal and can be used as a basis instead of sinusoidal functions [16]. It is possible to localize the events described by f(t) in time and frequency domains simultaneously by means of WT choosing the appropriate values of the parameters a and τ [17].
where m,n∈Z, Z is the set of all integers, and the constants a0>1,τ0>1. Comparison of eqs. (12) and (13) shows that a=a0m and τ=nτ0a0m [17]. The orthogonal wavelet series expansions can be successfully used in DSP and multiplexing when the scaling and translation parameters are discrete [17]. In such a case, a signal s(t)∈V0 can be represented by a smooth approximation at resolution 2M, obtained by combining translated versions of the basic scaling function ϕ(t), and M details at the dyadic scales a=2l,(l=1,2,...,M−1) obtained by combining shifted and dilated versions of the MW ψ(t) as follows [17].
Here a subspace V0∈L2(R), L2(R) is a the linear vector space of square integrable functions, 2−l/2ϕ(2−lt−kΔτ) and 2−l/2ψ(2−lt−kΔτ) are the orthonormal bases for the subspaces Vl∈L2(R) and Wl∈L2(R), respectively, Vl⊥Wl, (l,k)∈Z, \n\t\t\t\tcl[k] and dl[k] are the scaling and detail coefficients, respectively, at resolution 2l, Δτ is the time interval coinciding with the inverse of the free spectral range (FSR).
Figure 2.
Block diagram of WPT-OFDM communication system. PBC/PBS: polarization beam Combiner/Splitter.
The block diagram of the WPT-OFDM communication system is shown in Fig. 2 [1]. In WPT-OFDM system each channel occupies a wavelet packet which plays a role of a subcarrier in wavelet domain. At the transmitter, IDWPT reconstructs the time domain signal from wavelet packets [1]. At the receiver, DWPT is used for the decomposition of the time domain signal into wavelet packets. The decomposition is carried out by means of successive low-pass and high-pass filtering in the time domain [1]. For WPT-OFDM, the basis function wavelets are finite in time, and the inter-symbol orthogonality in WT is caused by the shift orthogonal property of the waveforms [1], [17], [18]. In WT, symbols are overlapped in time domain [1]. As a result, the symbol duration increases. The symbol duration increase, in turn, provides the CD tolerance and eliminates the need for CP [1].
Real-valued wavelets are used for the real signal processing [1]. However for fiber optic channels, the up-conversion to the optical domain generates two spectral sidebands: a positive sideband and a negative one [1], [5]. In such a case, PMD influence on WT-OFDM is essential. It will be considered in Section 4.
4. PMD influence on the CO-OFDM communication system performance
In this Section we consider PMD in CO-OFDM communication systems and its influence on their performance [1], [5], [6], [9]. CO-OFDM transmission system can be defined as 2×2 multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)-OFDM channel in the presence of polarization dispersion effects [7]. SMF supports two degenerate modes of orthogonal polarization [9]. However, the degeneracy may be broken due to the asymmetry in fiber geometry caused by the manufacture process or mechanical stress [9]. In such a case, a fiber birefrigence B=|nx−ny| occurs where nx,y are the refractive indices for x and y polarization, respectively [9]. An optical signal with the wavelength λ propagating through the SMF is coupled from one polarization to the other with the coupling period LB=λ/B [9]. Typical values of these parameters are B≈10−7,LB≈10m at λ=1.5μm [9]. Then, the transmitted OFDM time-domain signal s(t) (1) and the i-th information symbol at the k-th subcarrier cki (2) should be replaced with the Jones vectors for the two polarizations given by [6], [9].
\n\t\t\t
s(t)=(sxsy);c→ki=(ckixckiy)E15
\n\t\t\t
GI ΔG in such a case must be long enough in order to handle the fiber CD and PMD. It takes the form [6], [9].
\n\t\t\t
ΔG≥cf2|Dt|NscΔf+(DGD)maxE16
\n\t\t\t
where c is the speed of light, f is the optical carrier frequency, Dt is the total accumulated CD in units of ps/pm, Δf is the subcarrier channel spacing, and (DGD)max is the maximum budgeted differential-group-delay (DGD) which is typically chosen to be of 3.5 times of the mean PMD in order to satisfy inequality (16). The Jones vector of the received symbol c′ki→=(c′kix,c′kiy)t with a sufficiently long symbol period for the k-th subcarrier in the i-th OFDM symbol is given by [6], [9].
\n\t\t\t
c′→ki=exp(jϕi)exp(jΦD(fk))Tkc→ki+n→kiE17
\n\t\t\t
where n→ki=(nkix,nkiy)t is the noise including two polarization components, ϕi is the OFDM symbol phase noise, or common phase error (CPE) caused by the phase noises from the lasers and RF LOs at the transmitter and receiver, ΦD(fk)=πcDtfk2/f2 is the phase dispersion caused by the fiber CD, T(k) is the Jones matrix for the fiber link given by [6], [9].
\n\t\t\t
T(k)=∏l=1Nexp{(−12jβ→lfk−12α→l)·σ→}E18
\n\t\t\t
N is the number of PMD and polarization dependent loss (PDL) cascading elements, βl→ is the l-th element birefringence vector, α→l is the l-th element PDL vector, and σ→ is the Pauli matrix vector.
The CO-OFDM system architecture in the fiber optic channel can be divided into four groups related to the number of the transmitters and receivers used in the polarization dimension [6], [9].
Single-input single-output (SISO) where one optical OFDM transmitter and one optical OFDM receiver are used for CO-OFDM transmission.The SISO configuration is susceptible to the polarization mode coupling in a fiber. It requires a polarization controller (PC) before the receiver in order to align the input signal polarization with the LO polarization. However, in the case of large PMD, PC cannot prevent the polarization rotation between subcarriers. As a result, SISO CO-OFDM is susceptible to polarization-induced fading and should not be implemented in applications.
Single-input two-output (SITO) where one optical OFDM transmitter and two optical OFDM receivers are used, one for each polarization. In such a system, PC is not needed. SITO CO-OFDM system is resilient to PMD when the polarization diversity receiver is used. The PMD in the fiber link may even improve the system margin against PDL-induced fading.
Two-input single-output (TISO) where two optical OFDM transmitters and one optical OFDM receiver are used. This time, each transmitter is used for one specified polarization. The PC is not needed at the transmit end. The polarization diversity transmitter can achieve PMD resilience. In the TISO scheme, the same information symbol is repeated in two consecutive symbols which results in the electrical and optical efficiency reducing by half and the two times increase of the optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) requirement as compared to SITO scheme.
Two-input two-output (TITO) where a polarization diveristy optical OFDM transmitter and a polarization diveristy optical OFDM receiver are used. In such a scheme, the transmitted OFDM information symbol \n\t\t\t\t\t\tcik is considered as polarization modulation or polarization multiplexing. Hence, the channel capacity is doubled as compared to the SITO scheme. The PMD rotates subcarrier polarization and does not influence the channel capacity doubling. In the case of the TITO scheme, the polarization diversity receiver permits to avoid the polarization tracking at the receiver.
Comparison of the properties of the different CO-MIMO-OFDM architectures shows that SITO-and TITO-OFDM are the preferred configurations [9].
Consider the PMD influence on the transmission in a 2x2 MIMO CO-OFDM system. In such a case, the Jones matrix (18) for the fiber link on the k-th subcarrier in the first-order PMD approximation is given by [1], [5].
\n\t\t\t
T(k)=M−1[exp(−jπfkτlink)00exp(jπfkτlink)]ME19
\n\t\t\t
where τlink is the DGD of the link, and the matrix M has the form.
Here θ,φ are the polar and azimuth angle of the principle state of polarization. In FTO-OFDM systems, the individual subcarrier is single-sideband by nature, and ΦD(fk),T(k) can be estimated and compensated [5]. In WT based OFDM systems the modulated signals are double-sideband as it was mentioned above. CD influence on such a system is insignificant since the two sidebands have the same phase dispersion: ΦD(fk)=ΦD(−fk). On the contrary, PMD does not have phase symmetry: T(k)≠T(−k). As a result, at the receiver two sidebands experience two different dispersions, and their addition does not reproduce the real wavelet basis, the orthogonality is broken, and the inter-packet-interference occurs [1], [5]. The WPT-OFDM systems are more susceptible to PMD then conventional FT-OFDM systems [1], [5].
It is not shift-invariant. For this reason, the small shift in the input signal can cause major variations in the energy distribution between DWT coefficients at different scales.
It is characterized by a low directional selectivity for the diagonal elements since the wavelet filters are separable and real.
The DT-CWT has been proposed recently [7], [8]. DT-CWT consists of two WTs operating in parallel on an input signal [8]. In order to construct a DT-CWT, each sub band should be repeatedly decomposed using low-pass/high-pass PR FBs [8]. The response of each branch of the second WP FB is the discrete Hilbert transform of the corresponding branch of the first WP FB [8]. These WTs correspond to two FBs. The block diagram of DT-CWT is shown in Fig. 3 [8].
Figure 3.
The DT-CWT consists of two wavelet FBs operating in parallel.
The first wavelet FB is determined by DWTs, the second FB contains the discrete Hilbert transforms of the first wavelet FB [8]. The first FB is the real part and the second FB is the imaginary part of the CWPT [8].
The wavelet function ψ(t) associated with the first FB and the corresponding scaling function ϕ(t) have the form [8].
\n\t\t\t
ψ(t)=2∑nh1(n)ϕ(2t−n);ϕ(t)=2∑nh0(n)ϕ(2t−n)E21
\n\t\t\t
For an orthonormal wavelet basis, the LPFs and high-pass filters (HPFs) have the following relationships H1(ejω)=−e−jωdH0∗(ej(ω−π)), or equivalently h1(n)=(−1)nh0(d−n) where d is an odd integer [8]. The wavelet function ψ′(t) and the filters h′0(n), h1′(n) for the DT-CWPT imaginary part are defined in a similar way [6]. The filters {h0(n),h1(n)} and {h′0(n),h′1(n)} are assumed to be finite impulse response (FIR) conjugate quadrature filter (CQF) pairs [8]. In the case of the ideal DT-CWT we have.
\n\t\t\t
ψc(t)=ΗHilbert{ψ(t)}E22
\n\t\t\t
where ΗHilbert{ψ(t)} is the Hilbert transform of ψ(t) and the complex wavelet ψ(t)=ψ(t)+jψ′(t) is approximately analytic [20]. In order to satisfy the perfect reconstruction (PR) conditions, the filters are designed in such way that the two low pass filters (LPFs) should satisfy the half-sample delay condition: h′0(n)≈h0(n−0.5) [20]. If each wavelet ψ(t), ψ′(t) are orthogonal to their integer translates, then the Hilbert relation between them is satisfied under the condition [8]:
Here sgn is the signum function, H′0,1(exp(jω)),H0,1(exp(jω)) are the z-transforms of h′0,1(n),h0,1(n) on the unit circle, respectively [8]. It can be shown that the first stage of the DT-CWT must be different from the following stages [8]. The equivalent response H(k)(exp(jω)) of the kth stage of the first FB terminated with H1(exp(jω)) for k>1 is given by:
DT-CWT can be generalized to DT-CWPT by using the bases of discrete wavelet packet transforms (DWPTs). DT-CWPT is approximately shift-invariant, provides a geometrically oriented signal analysis in multiple dimensions and permits the transformation of a double-sideband spectrum into an approximately single-sideband one [7], [8]. The invert DT-CWPT is provided by the inversion of its real and imaginary parts [8].
The construction of the DT-CWPT requires the repeated decomposition of the sub bands by using low-pass/high-pass PR FBs [8]. The PR FBs should be chosen in such a way that the response of each branch of the second wavelet packet FB is the discrete Hilbert transform of the corresponding branch of the first wavelet packet FB [8]. Under this condition, each sub band of the DT-CWPT will be analytic [8]. Taking into account that the discrete Hilbert transform is a linear time-invariant (LTI) system we can write the following relationships for the discrete Hilbert transform pair of the filters g(n),h(n) [8].
Then, the convolutions g(n)∗c(n),h(n)∗c(n) are also a discrete Hilbert transform pair [8].
Figure 4.
First wavelet packet FB of a four-stage DT-CWPT.
It has been shown that a DT-CWPT consisting of two wavelet packet FBs operating in parallel can be produced where some filters in the second wavelet packet FB are the same as those in the first wavelet packet FB [8].
The first of these two wavelet FBs for a four-stage DT-CWPT is shown in Fig. 4 [8]. The second wavelet packet FB is obtained by replacing the first stage filters hi(1)(n) with hi(1)(n−1) and by replacing hi(n) with h′i(n) for i∈{0,1} [8]. The filters Fi are unchanged in the second wavelet packet FB [8].
In order to demonstrate the development of the M-band DT-CWT based on the Hilbert pairs of M-band wavelets, consider the construction of the four-band DT-CWT (M=4) from a given two-band DT-CWT which is defined by a two-channel orthonormal FB {h0(2)(n),h1(2)(n)} associated with the scaling function ϕ(2)(t) and the wavelet ψ(2)(t) [8]. Their Fourier transforms (FTs) have the form [8].
A two-band DT-CWT can be created if we have a second two-channel orthonormal FB {h′0(2)(n),h′1(2)(n)} with the associated scaling function ϕ′(2)(t) and the wavelet ψ′(2)(t)=ΗHilbert{ψ(2)(t)}, where the complex wavelet ψ(2)(t)+jψ′(2)(t) is analytic [8]. In order to construct a four-band CWT, another two-channel orthonormal FB {f0(n),f1(n)} is necessary [8]. The corresponding four-channel orthonormal FB, i.e a DWPT is shown in Fig. 5 [8].
Figure 5.
Discrete wavelet packet transform (DWPT).
A second WPT such that the wavelets associated with the two WPTs form the Hilbert transform pairs is given by [8].
\n\t\t\t
H0(4)(exp(jω))=H0(2)(exp(jω))H0(2)(exp(j2ω))E30
\n\t\t\t
H1(4)(exp(jω))=H0(2)(exp(jω))H1(2)(exp(j2ω))E31
\n\t\t\t
H2(4)(exp(jω))=H1(2)(exp(jω))F0(exp(j2ω))E32
\n\t\t\t
H3(4)(exp(jω))=H1(2)(exp(jω))F1(exp(j2ω))E33
\n\t\t\t
It can be shown that the FB determined by eqs. (30)-(33) is equivalent to the FB shown in Fig. 5 [8].
7. Simulation results for the single channel DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system
We have carried out the numerical simulations based on DT-CWPT for the single-channel CO-OFDM transmission system including the optical front elements such as a laser-diode, and Mach-Zehnder external modulator [21]. The nonlinear effects are neglected since Hilbert transform is LTI system [8]. We used the 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) with 128=27 sub bands, 7 decomposition levels, bit rate of 100 Gb/s and the bandwidth of 25 GHz. The typical values of transmission process are following: the input optical signal power is equal to 10 mW; CP is 1%; the phase noise frequency in the case of the coherent detection is equal to 500 KHz; the overall noise amplification level of the link is 50 dB; the pre-amplifier gain at the receiver input is 25 dB; the optical fiber dispersion constant is 17 ps / (nm⋅km); the PMD constant is 0.1 ps/km1/2. The 8 bit DAC and ADC have been used. In order to mitigate the group velocity dispersion and PMD we used the Least Mean Square (LMS) and Viterbi-Viterbi Digital Signal Processing (DSP) algorithms [22]. We used in our simulations the complex wavelets based on the Q-shift filters [7], [8], [23]. The design of pairs of wavelet bases where the wavelets form a Hilbert transform pair was also discussed in detail in [24], [25]. The numerical simulation results are presented in Figs. 6-11. The QAM-16 modulated signal constellations for the transmission distance of 100 km, 700 km and 1700 km in the case of the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system are shown in Figs.6-8, respectively.
The QAM-16 modulated signal constellations for the transmission distance of 1200 km and 1300 km in the case of the conventional CO-OFDM system are shown in Figs.9-10, respectively. In both cases CP=1% has been used.
Figure 6.
The QAM-16 modulated signal constellation for the transmission distance of 100 km, CP 1%, BER=10-2.56, DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system.
Figure 7.
The QAM-16 modulated signal constellation for the transmission distance of 700 km, CP 1%, BER=10-2.13, DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system.
Figure 8.
The QAM-16 modulated signal constellation for the transmission distance of 1700 km, CP 1%, BER=10-2.08, DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system.
Figure 9.
The QAM 16 modulated signal constellation for the transmission distance of 1200 km, BER=10-2.08, CP 1% Conventional CO-OFDM system.
Figure 10.
The QAM 16 modulated signal constellation for the transmission distance of 1300 km, BER=10-1.83, CP 1% Conventional CO-OFDM system.
The QAM-16 modulated signal constellations for the transmission distance of 1200 km and 1300 km in the case of the conventional CO-OFDM system are shown in Figs.9-10, respectively. In both cases CP=1% has been used.
The comparison of Figs. 8 and 10 clearly shows that the performance of the DT-CWPT based OFDM communication system is better than the performance of the conventional CO-OFDM communication system. Indeed, for the same modulation format and CP, BER=10−1.83=1.48×10−2 at the distance of 1300 km for the conventional CO-OFDM as compared to BER=10−2.08=8.32×10−3 at the distance of 1700 km for the DT-CWPT based OFDM system.
Figure 11.
The BER dependence on the transmission distance for the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system.
The bit error rate (BER) dependence on the transmission distance for the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system is presented in Fig. 11. The forward error correction (FEC) threshold of BER=10-2 corresponds to the transmission distance of about 1800 km.
We have evaluated SE for the dual polarization signal, sampling rate of 26.6 GHz, and QAM 16 modulation format. The maximum available SE in such a case is 8bit/s/Hz. Assuming the FEC penalty of 20% per band, the CP penalty of 1.5%, and channel and timing estimation of 5%, we obtain the actual SE=8×0.735=5.84bit/s/Hz.
8. Conclusions
CO-OFDM communication systems are characterized by high SE, possibility of the advanced modulation formats applications due to the coherent detection, and the high receiver sensitivity [1], [9], [13]. Conventional CO-OFDM systems are based on FTs [1], [9]. In such systems, low rate subcarriers are orthogonally transformed into time domain signals [1]. The condition of subcarrier orthogonality prevents spectral overlapping and ICI [1], [9]. The basis functions of the conventional CO-OFDM system are the infinitely long in time sinusoids. The 1-Tb/s CO-OFDM single-channel signal transmission over 600 km SSMF with SE of 3.3 bit/s/Hz and without Raman amplification and dispersion compensation has been reported [26]. In CO-OFDM systems, the CD and PMD impairments can be compensated by choosing an appropriate length of CP [1], [9]. However, the CP insertion decreases the CO-OFDM communication system SE [1], [9].
Recently, the CO-OFDM systems based on WPTs have been proposed [1], [2]. Wavelets used as the basis functions in these advanced systems have finite length in the time domain. For this reason, WPT-OFDM systems do not need CP which results in a higher SE [1], [2]. The WPT-OFDM can mitigate a CD of 3380 ps/nm at 112 Gb/s rate without CP [1]. However, the high performance has been demonstrated for a CO-OFDM system based on a single-polarization [5]. The most promising technique for achieving high SE and maximizing power efficiency is coherent detection with polarization multiplexing where the in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) signals are used in two field polarizations [27]. Information can be encoded in all available degrees of freedom, while the the compensation of transmission impairments can be provided by DSP [22], [27]. Advanced FEC coding can be also implemented [27]. Taking into account the importance of the polarization multiplexing, it is necessary to investigate the PMD influence on the dual-polarization transmission [5], [6].
In WPT-OFDM communication systems the modulated signals are double-sideband [5]. It has been shown that the CD influence on WPT-OFDM is compensated automatically due to the phase symmetry of the both sidebands while the PMD does not possess the phase symmetry [5]. As a result, the two sidebands have two different dispersions, their addition does not reproduce the real wavelet basis, orthogonality condition is broken, and inter-packet-interference occurs [5].
In this chapter, we considered the fundamentals of WPT based CO-OFDM communication systems and the PMD influence on such systems. It appeared to be that DT-CWPT can generate the single-sideband wavelets in frequency domain [5], [7], [8], [20], [21], [23]-[25]. We briefly discussed the properties of complex wavelets. The DT-CWPT consists of two real wavelet FBs where the second wavelet FB is the Hilbert transform of the first one and it represents an imaginary part of the CWT. The DT-CWPT approach to CO-OFDM communication systems mitigates the PMD impact on the system perfomance.
We have carried out the numerical simulations for the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system and QAM-16 modulation format. The constellation and BER dependence on the distance clearly show that the transmission over the distance of 1800 km with high actual SE of 5.85 bit/s/Hz taking into account the FEC and CP penalties, channel and timing estimation can be achieved due to the PMD mitigation provided by the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system.
We compared the performance of the conventional CO-OFDM and the DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM communication systems. The performance of the DT-CWPT based OFDM communication system is better than the performnace of the conventional CO-OFDM communication system: for the same modulation format and CP, BER at the distance of 1300 km for the conventional CO-OFDM is larger than BER at the distance of 1700 km for the DT-CWPT based OFDM system. We used in our simulations the already developed complex wavelets [23]-[25]. In future theoretical investigations, we suppose to find more appropriate wavelet bases using the so-called best-basis algorithms [8].
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/47456.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/47456.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47456",totalDownloads:2235,totalViews:191,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:68,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 15th 2014",dateReviewed:"August 27th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 19th 2014",dateFinished:"September 16th 2014",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/47456",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/47456",book:{id:"4494",slug:"advances-in-optical-communication"},signatures:"Y. Ben-Ezra and B.I. Lembrikov",authors:[{id:"2302",title:"Prof.",name:"Yossef",middleName:null,surname:"Ben-Ezra",fullName:"Yossef Ben-Ezra",slug:"yossef-ben-ezra",email:"benezra@hit.ac.il",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}},{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",email:"borisle@hit.ac.il",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.png",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fundamentals of CO-OFDM systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. WPT based CO-OFDM systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. PMD influence on the CO-OFDM communication system performance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform (DT-CWT)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Packet Transform (DT-CWPT)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Simulation results for the single channel DT-CWPT based CO-OFDM system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Li An, Shieh W., and Tucker R.S. Wavelet packet transform-based OFDM for optical communications. Journal of Lightwave Technology, 2010; 28(24), 3519-3528.'},{id:"B2",body:'Ben Ezra Y., Lembrikov B.I., Zadok Avi, Ran Halifa R., and Brodeski D. All-optical Signal Processing for High Spectral Efficiency (SE) Optical Communication. In: Narottam Das (ed.) Optical Communication. Rijeka: InTech; 2012. p343-366.'},{id:"B3",body:'Schmogrow R., Bouziane R., Meyer M., Milder P.A., Schindler P.C., Killey R.I., Bayvel P., Koos C., Freude W., and Leuthold J. 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Department of Electrical Engineering, Holon Institute of Technology, Holon, Israel
Department of Electrical Engineering, Holon Institute of Technology, Holon, Israel
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1. Introduction
Disruption of the epithelium apical-junctional complex is an initial step of the process which allows many bacteria and/or its toxins to permeate across an otherwise tight mucosa. Normally, the most likely target are claudins, a family of 27 different molecules [1], essential for the maintenance of intercellular tight junctions, that viruses and bacteria such as Hepatitis C virus or Clostridum perfringens enterotoxin, bind to mediate their entry in hepatocytes or in human ileum epithelial cells [2, 3]. The aim of this review is to recognize the mechanisms that Helicobacter pylori uses to disrupt the tight junctions and invade the gastric epithelial mucosa.
2. Helicobacter pylori
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a 3 micrometer long gram-negative spiral bacteria that colonizes the human gastric epithelium’s luminal surface of approximately 50% of humans worldwide. Once acquired, it establishes a chronic persistent infection that leads to ulcer, cancer or MALT lymphoma [4]. H. pylori is conformed by BabA, SabA, OipA and HopQ bacterial colonization factors, and the effector proteins CagA, VacA, urease, catalase, flagellin, mucinase, lipase, neutrophil activating protein, lipopolysaccharides, Cholesterol-Glucosyltransferase and HtrA considered as virulence/pathogenicity factors, and the outer membrane vesicles [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Figure 1 shows the complete structure and components of H. pylori. Although it has been clearly established that H. pylori disrupts gastric epithelial barrier function [10, 11] the precise mechanism(s) remain elusive. A major structure of H. pylori is the syringe-like Type IV secretion system which is found in many species of bacteria [12, 13]; this system plays an essential role in the translocation of CagA into host cells [14].
Figure 1.
Helicobacter pylori components.
3. Epithelial barrier
The epithelial barrier is a fence composed by intercellular structures termed tight junctions, located at the apical border between gastric epithelial cells, formed by four different transmembrane proteins [occludin, claudins, junction-adhesion-molecules, and CAR –Coxsackievirus and Adenovirus Receptor- proteins] anchored to actin filaments and myosin light chains (MLC) by the actin cytoskeleton and linker proteins zonula occludens ZO-1, ZO-2 and ZO-3 which are members of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase cytoplasmic adaptors. Other highly important members of the barrier are the Adherens Junctions, the Desmosome, the Gap junctions and the Hemidesmosomes. Occludin and claudins interact with adjacent cells through their extracellular loops, whereas JAMs and CAR contain extracellular IgG-like domains [15, 16]. Different proteins form the regulatory complex (Rac, Cdc42, Par3, Par6, PKC). Figure 2 shows the structural conformation of tight junctions1. Claudins, a family of 27 different proteins, are essential to establish and maintain the barrier function as they regulate paracellular permeability [18] whereas occludin is important for epithelial differentiation but not for establishing the barrier [19]. Paracellular transport across the tight junctions is achieved through the leak pathway which is size-dependent and/or the pore pathway which is size and charge-dependent; size-dependance enables transportation of proteins and lipopolysaccharides and it is controlled by MLC kinase and occludin [20] whereas the pore pathway, controlled by claudins, enables the permeability of cations and anions across different epithelia and exclude molecules larger than 4A [21].
Figure 2.
Gastric epithelia tight junction structure.
Claudins are responsible for watertight stability and transit of cations and anions. Claudins expression and regulation is tissue specific and their physiological and regulatory function varies according to the organ where they are being expressed [22, 23]. As an example, claudin-4 in ovarian cancer has a pro-angiogenic function whereas in pancreatic cancer it suppresses invasion [24, 25]. The expression of claudins is dysregulated in various cancers, and in gastric tissue the expression of claudin-1, −4, −6 and − 17 is modified when cancer develops but many other claudins such as −3, −5, −7 and − 18 have also been implicated; the loss or gain of claudins is linked to inflammation and inflammatory cytokines such as IFNy, IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, IL-22, EGF, TGFb and TNF [26], as well as to several malignancies, drugs, antibiotics, toxins, pesticides, chemicals, microbiota imbalance and stress [27]. The integrity or modifications in tight junctions that affect claudin distribution is via the MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway [28, 29, 30]. It has been postulated that in G. lamblia infection the loss of epithelial barrier function could be caspase-3 dependent [31] but it does not seem the case in H. pylori infection.
The effect of the secretory molecules released by of H. pylori known to affect gastric mucosa tight junctions is discussed.
4. VacA
Amongst the major toxins that H. pylori possesses, the vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) contributes to host-pathogen interactions. After the 140 kDa VacA protein is translated, an active toxin of 88 kDa emerges after cleavage [32]. The toxin is conformed by two domains and three distinct segments: the signal region with two allelic variations (s1, s2), the intermediate region, and the mid-region with two alleles (m1, m2) (Figure 3) [35, 36]; mosaicism has been reported for all the alleles (s1a, s1b, m1a, m1b) [34]. The relevance of these toxin components lays in the fact that s1 causes vacuolation of mammalian cells whereas s2 do not [37]; the discrepancy may be attributed to differences in channel-forming properties [38]. The combination of different VacA alleles is associated with more virulent strains and severe gastric disease: s1a/m2 strains are found in 87.5% of patients with peptic ulcer and in 93% of patients with gastric carcinoma [39]; other highly pathogenic associations include s1a/m1b, s1b/m1b, and s2/m2 [33]. VacA is involved in bacterial colonization of epithelial cells of the gastric mucosa via formation of low conductance membrane pores that are selective for anions over cations [40], and the induction of vacuole formation [41]. These vacuoles, once inside the epithelial cells, alter the transepithelial resistance but do not alter the localization or abundance of ZO-1 and occludin [42]. VacA exert other effects, mainly: endosomal, mitochondrial and epithelial barrier alterations, autophagy, atypical cell signaling and induction of apoptosis in epithelial cells [34]. AGS cells treated with H. pylori culture supernatants show rearrangement and disruption of the actin cytoskeleton due to a lack of actin stress fibers; these changes were not VacA dependent [43].
Figure 3.
Organization of VacA p88 protein. From Su et al. [33] and Foegeding et al. [34].
5. CagA
Of major relevance for this review is the effector protein CagA, one of the most important virulence factors [44, 45]. The cytotoxin-associated gene pathogenicity island (cagPAI) comprises 30 genes [46]. The cytotoxin-associated gene A is a 125-140 kDa protein encoded by the cag pathogenicity island [47], a chromosomal region that simultaneously encodes a type IV secretion system specialized in transferring peptidoglycan and CagA to the cytosol of the target cell in an ATP-dependent manner [45, 48]; once translocated, it interacts with numerous proteins in a phosphorylation dependent and independent manner within the epithelial cells, stimulating inflammatory responses, perturbing intracellular actin trafficking, and disrupting cellular tight junctions probably via the ERK1/2 signaling pathway [49, 50, 51]. Phosphorylated CagA interacts with Shp2, a host protein that binds to CagA, this complex dephosphorylates the focal adhesion kinase and in turn activates a signal pathway that involves ERK proteins [52, 53]. The transferred peptidoglycan promotes the activation of the pattern-recognition molecule Nod1 within the cytosol of the host cell [54] and subsequently induces the expression of IL-6 and IL-8 as well as MAPK phosphorylation [55, 56, 57]. The phosphorylation independent activity of CagA disrupts E-cadherin and ZO-1 and consequently cell-to-cell junctions in polarized epithelial cells [10, 49, 58, 59]. CagA modifies the polarity of the infected cells by interacting with Par1b/MARK-2 [60, 61]. CagA also stimulates the expression of NfkB, which subsequently activates the IL-8 promoter and stimulates the release of the chemokine IL-8 into the gastric lumen [62], which disrupts epithelial tight junctions organization [63].
CagA is known to affect intercellular junctions and disrupt junction-mediated functions [64] as it causes an ectopic assembly of tight-junction components by recruiting ZO-1 and JAM to sites of bacterial attachment (Amieva 2003), and disrupts the epithelial barrier function [10]. CagA colocalizes with ZO-1 and JAM proteins, binds Par1b and, by inhibiting atypical PKC-mediated phosphorylation of Par1b, disrupts cell polarity and consequently tight junctions. CagA also targets Cdx2 and therefore claudin-2 expression thus suggesting a novel mechanism for gastric epithelial cells dedifferentiation [65]. Another pathophysiological mechanism by which H. pylori affect the epithelial barrier is by Rho kinase dependent manner that induces IL-1R type 1 phosphorylation and claudin-4 expression [66].
6. HtrA
One recently recognized mechanism by which CagA disrupts the barrier is mediated by a HtrA (high-temperature requirement A) serine protease [67]. This enzyme is part of a four proteases specific family identified in E. coli, C. jejuni, C. coli and H. pylori, all of which enhance adhesion, cellular invasion, and bacterial transmigration via the paracellular route [68]. The HtrA family of proteases contain a chymotrypsin-like protease domain and at least one C-terminal PDZ domain [69].
HtrA are bacterial proteins that provide tolerance to oxidative and heat stress; they undergo oligomerization when denatured proteins are encountered (Figure 4) [70]. HtrA can be expressed at the bacterial cell surface, or transported into the extracellular space, or shed in outer membrane vesicles. It favors bacterial paracellular transmigration by cleaving cell-to-cell junction factors such as components of tight junctions that leads to disruption of the epithelial barrier [71]. It has been shown that HtrA1 expression in gastric cancers correlates with better response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy [72].
Figure 4.
Tridimensional modeling of H. pylori trimeric HtrA. From Albrecht et al. [70].
Although H. pylori-infection and –related gastric diseases are clearly associated with downregulation of E-cadherin [73, 74], the mechanism remained elusive. The bacteria disrupts E-cadherin by upregulating the expression of several metalloprotease-1, −3, −7, −9, −10 and ADAM-10 and -15 all of which cleave E-cadherin on the cell surface [6, 68, 75, 76, 77, 78]. It has recently been established that HtrA allows access of H. pylori to the basolateral side of the gastric epithelium through cleavage of the N-terminal fragment domain of E-cadherin [79] apparently affecting occludin expression on the epithelial cell membrane leading to destruction of adherence junctions and downregulation of the barrier function thus facilitating CagA delivery [80, 81, 82]. Phosphorylation of MLC by the specific MLC kinase regulates paracellular permeability [83]. It has been shown that certain strains of H. pylori induce the rearrangement of claudin-4 and claudin-5 in a MLC Kinase dependent but in a CagA- and VacA-independent manner [84]; the exact mechanism was not determined although ammonium produced by H. pylori urease has been implicated [85, 86].
7. Lipopolysaccharide
Gut bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are known to affect intracellular signaling as well as tight junctions of the blood brain barrier [87] and the intestinal barrier [88]. LPS, an important structural component of bacterial walls’ outer membrane, is recognized by the membrane toll-like receptor 4, and alterations in permeability induced by LPS are via a TLR-4 dependent process associated to the adaptor protein focal adhesion kinase, which has been shown to co-localize with claudin-1 [89], and the activation of the MyD88-dependent pathway [90]. H. pylori LPS has an agonist function upon TLR-2 and not TLR-4 [91, 92]. We have shown that H. pylori LPS induces the expression of TLR-2 and that the greater expression of the receptor was accompanied by an initial increase in claudin-4 followed by claudin-6, −7 and − 9; this initial process was STAT3-dependent whereas the expression of claudin-6, −7 and − 9 was ERK1/2-dependent (Figure 5) [93]. The same pathway has been reported in claudin-1 downregulation in keratinocytes [94].
Figure 5.
Effect of H. pylori LPS on TLR2 activation and claudin expression. From Chavarría-Velázquez et al. [93].
8. Inflammation
Persistent H. pylori infection induces chronic inflammation, pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1, Il-6, IL-8, TNF and micro RNAs, especially those of the let-7 family [95] that correlates significantly with one or various other pro-inflammatory cytokines [96]. Although it would be interesting to determine the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in modulating tight junction dysfunction, it is clear that H. pylori infection does induce a local inflammatory process by activating nuclear transcription factors NFkB and the chemokine AP-1 [97] where IL-8 enhanced secretion plays an important role [98]. The phosphorylation of the IL-1 receptor after exposure to H. pylori reduces the expression of claudin-4 [66]. IL-8 exposure is known to disrupt the organization of epithelial tight junctions leading to “leaky” tight junctions due to a reduced expression of claudin-18 [63].
9. N-nitroso compounds
Exposure to N-nitroso compounds (NOCs) is clearly related to development and increased mortality of gastric cancer (Figure 6) [99, 100]. It has been established that nitrogenous constituents of gastric juice can be reduced and lead to the in situ formation of N-nitroso compounds [101] although the involvement of H. pylori in the development of NOCs and premalignant lesions was controversial until recently [102]. Gastric epithelial cells exposed to N-Nitroso compounds (NOCs) such as MNNG (N-methyl-N-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine), N-nitrosodimetilamine, N-nitroso-N-ethylurea, or N-nitrosopiperidine through diet (bacon, smoked fish, sausages), high salt consumption, alcoholic beverages, and/or tobacco smoke2, which also contains NOCs and favors the prevalence of H. pylori [103], induce the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers in the presence of CagA positive H. pylori strains [104] which is mediated by Akt or ERK activation [105], both of which are involved in tight junction assembly [28]. N-etil-N-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, a compound that behaves similar to MNNG [106] and induces gastric carcinoma in nonhuman primates [107], synergizes with H. pylori, especially CagA+ strains [108] and induces gastric carcinogenesis [109]. Therefore, protagonism of these compounds in individuals with H. pylori infection cannot be belittled.
Figure 6.
Structure of relevant N-nitrosamine carcinogenic compounds. From NTP (National Toxicology Program), NIH, USA, 2014.
10. Conclusions
Modulation of polarized gastric epithelial cells tight junctions by H. pylori involves not only the direct action of some of the most recognized virulence factors of the bacteria that target individual TJ components by different pathways, but also the effect of some H. pylori-induced secondary or indirect mechanisms. It is clear that H. pylori has developed several mechanisms to endure in an organism and that invasion of the gastric mucosa is just the beginning of the bacteria survival and replicative process where suppression of the immune response is a key component that needs to be continuously explored. Nevertheless, the adhesion and invasion of the gastric mucosa epithelial cells through mechanism that favor the opening of the cell-to-cell tight junction is a bacterial strategy that allows persistent colonization and enhances its ability to cause damage to the host.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica (PAPIIT) grants IN218019 and IN221519, UNAM, México.
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A change in claudin 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 18 expression, that contributes to lose epithelial cohesion, has been associated to enhanced cell proliferation, migration, and invasiveness in gastric neoplastic tissue. Chronic inflammation process induced by H. pylori infection, a major risk factor for gastric cancer development, disrupts tight junctions via CagA gene, Cag pathogenicity island, and VacA, but the effect upon the epithelial barrier of H. pylori lipopolysaccharides or H. pylori-induced up-regulation of mTOR and ERK signaling pathways by microRNA-100 establishes new concepts of proof.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75788",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75788",signatures:"Erika Patricia Rendón-Huerta, Carlos Abraham García-García and Luis Felipe Montaño Estrada",book:{id:"10141",type:"book",title:"Helicobacter pylori",subtitle:"From First Isolation to 2021",fullTitle:"Helicobacter pylori - From First Isolation to 2021",slug:"helicobacter-pylori-from-first-isolation-to-2021",publishedDate:"October 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Bruna Maria Roesler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10141.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-292-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-291-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-293-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"54995",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Roesler",slug:"bruna-maria-roesler",fullName:"Bruna Maria Roesler"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"284251",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Rendon-Huerta",fullName:"Erika Patricia Rendon-Huerta",slug:"erika-patricia-rendon-huerta",email:"erendon@unam.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341806",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Felipe",middleName:null,surname:"Montaño Estrada",fullName:"Luis Felipe Montaño Estrada",slug:"luis-felipe-montano-estrada",email:"lfmontmx@unam.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341807",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos Abraham",middleName:null,surname:"García-García",fullName:"Carlos Abraham García-García",slug:"carlos-abraham-garcia-garcia",email:"carlosgarcia.diego22@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Helicobacter pylori",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Epithelial barrier",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. VacA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. CagA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. HtrA",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Lipopolysaccharide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Inflammation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. N-nitroso compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lal-Nag, M. & P. J. Morin (2009) The claudins. Genome Biol, 10, 235.'},{id:"B2",body:'Veshnyakova, A., J. Protze, J. Rossa, I. E. Blasig, G. Krause & J. Piontek (2010) On the interaction of Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin with claudins. Toxins (Basel), 2, 1336-1356.'},{id:"B3",body:'Zheng, A., F. Yuan, Y. Li, F. Zhu, P. Hou, J. Li, X. Song, M. Ding & H. Deng (2007) Claudin-6 and claudin-9 function as additional coreceptors for hepatitis C virus. 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J Biol Chem, 278, 32552-32560.'},{id:"B93",body:'Chavarría-Velázquez, C. O., A. C. Torres-Martínez, L. F. Montaño & E. P. Rendón-Huerta (2018) TLR2 activation induced by H. pylori LPS promotes the differential expression of claudin-4, −6, −7 and −9 via either STAT3 and ERK1/2 in AGS cells. Immunobiology, 223, 38-48.'},{id:"B94",body:'Ryu, W. I., H. Lee, H. C. Bae, J. Jeon, H. J. Ryu, J. Kim, J. H. Kim, J. W. Son, Y. Imai, K. Yamanishi, S. H. Jeong & S. W. Son (2018) IL-33 down-regulates CLDN1 expression through the ERK/STAT3 pathway in keratinocytes. J Dermatol Sci, 90, 313-322.'},{id:"B95",body:'Matsushima, K., H. Isomoto, N. Inoue, T. Nakayama, T. Hayashi, M. Nakayama, K. Nakao, T. Hirayama & S. Kohno (2011) MicroRNA signatures in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric mucosa. Int J Cancer, 128, 361-370.'},{id:"B96",body:'Isomoto, H., K. Matsushima, N. Inoue, T. Hayashi, T. Nakayama, M. Kunizaki, S. Hidaka, M. Nakayama, J. Hisatsune, M. Nakashima, T. Nagayasu, K. Nakao & T. 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Axon (1991) Levels of nitrite, nitrate, N-nitroso compounds, ascorbic acid and total bile acids in gastric juice of patients with and without precancerous conditions of the stomach. Carcinogenesis, 12, 193-198.'},{id:"B103",body:'Ferro, A., S. Morais, C. Pelucchi, N. Aragonés, M. Kogevinas, L. López-Carrillo, R. Malekzadeh, S. Tsugane, G. S. Hamada, A. Hidaka, R. U. Hernández-Ramírez, M. López-Cervantes, D. Zaridze, D. Maximovitch, F. Pourfarzi, Z. F. Zhang, G. P. Yu, M. Pakseresht, W. Ye, A. Plymoth, M. Leja, E. Gasenko, M. H. Derakhshan, E. Negri, C. La Vecchia, B. Peleteiro & N. Lunet (2019) Smoking and Helicobacter pylori infection: an individual participant pooled analysis (Stomach Cancer Pooling- StoP Project). Eur J Cancer Prev, 28, 390-396.'},{id:"B104",body:'Lin, L., H. Wei, J. Yi, B. Xie, J. Chen, C. Zhou, L. Wang & Y. Yang (2019) Chronic CagA-positive Helicobacter pylori infection with MNNG stimulation synergistically induces mesenchymal and cancer stem cell-like properties in gastric mucosal epithelial cells. J Cell Biochem, 120, 17635-17649.'},{id:"B105",body:'Yong, X., B. Tang, B. S. Li, R. Xie, C. J. Hu, G. Luo, Y. Qin, H. Dong & S. M. Yang (2015) Helicobacter pylori virulence factor CagA promotes tumorigenesis of gastric cancer via multiple signaling pathways. Cell Commun Signal, 13, 30.'},{id:"B106",body:'Yoda, K., S. Sakiyama & S. Fujimura (1982) Interaction of N-ethyl-N\'-nitro-n-nitrosoguanidine with nucleic acids and proteins in comparison with N-methyl-N\'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Chem Biol Interact, 41, 49-59.'},{id:"B107",body:'Ohgaki, H., H. Hasegawa, K. Kusama, K. Morino, N. Matsukura, S. Sato, K. Maruyama & T. Sugimura (1986) Induction of gastric carcinomas in nonhuman primates by N-ethyl-N\'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. J Natl Cancer Inst, 77, 179-186.'},{id:"B108",body:'Gantuya, B., D. Bolor, K. Oyuntsetseg, Y. Erdene-Ochir, R. Sanduijav, D. Davaadorj, T. Tserentogtokh, D. Azzaya, T. Uchida, T. Matsuhisa & Y. Yamaoka (2018) New observations regarding Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer in Mongolia. Helicobacter, 23, e12491.'},{id:"B109",body:'Liu, H., D. S. Merrell, C. Semino-Mora, M. Goldman, A. Rahman, S. Mog & A. Dubois (2009) Diet synergistically affects helicobacter pylori-induced gastric carcinogenesis in nonhuman primates. Gastroenterology, 137, 1367-79.e1-6.'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"A profound review of the gastric epithelal barrier can be found at Tegtmeyer and Backert [17]."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"For a complete list of NOCs compounds go to http://ntp. niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/ roc/roc13"}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Erika Patricia Rendón-Huerta",address:"erendon@unam.mx",affiliation:'
Laboratorio Inmunobiología, Departamento Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Mexico
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Laboratorio Inmunobiología, Departamento Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Mexico
Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Unidad de Posgrado, Edif. D, 1 piso, Circuito de Posgrados, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luis Felipe Montaño Estrada",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratorio Inmunobiología, Departamento Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, UNAM, Mexico
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He is a researcher in public health at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, lecturer in the Medicine Department, Federal University of Rondônia, Brazil, and head of the Center for the Study of Biomolecules Applied to Health. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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