Abstract
In this Chapter, we review the recent progress on resistance drift mitigation techniques for resistive switching memory devices (specifically memristors) and its impact on the accuracy in deep neural network applications. In the first section of the chapter, we investigate the importance of soft errors and their detrimental impact on memristor-based vector–matrix multiplication (VMM) platforms performance specially the memristance state-drift induced by long-term recurring inference operations with sub-threshold stress voltage. Also, we briefly review some currently developed state-drift mitigation methods. In the next section of the chapter, we will discuss an adaptive inference technique with low hardware overhead to mitigate the memristance drift in memristive VMM platform by using optimization techniques to adjust the inference voltage characteristic associated with different network layers. Also, we present simulation results and performance improvements achieved by applying the proposed inference technique by considering non-idealities for various deep network applications on memristor crossbar arrays. This chapter suggests that a simple low overhead inference technique can revive the functionality, enhance the performance of memristor-based VMM arrays and significantly increases their lifetime which can be a very important factor toward making this technology as a main stream player in future in-memory computing platforms.
Keywords
- Memristor Crossbar
- State-drift
- Vector–matrix Multiplication
- Inference
1. Introduction
Designing specialized hardware accelerators has been a topic of interest recently due to rapid growth of machine learning and artificial intelligence [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Despite the recent advancements in developing machine learning complementary-metal-oxide (CMOS) based chips to efficiently implement vector–matrix multiplication (VMM) operations, these systems are limited by the off-chip memory bottleneck [6]. To this end, co-locating memory and processing has been considered as a solution by using non-volatile resistive switching memory technologies [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. One such device technology is memristor and it has risen as a promising high speed, low power computational alternative to traditional CMOS hardware [15, 16, 17, 18]. Memristor can be placed in a crossbar structure to perform highly parallel multiply-accumulate (MAC) operations efficiently using Ohm’s Law [19, 20, 21, 22]. Through heavy parallelization using Kirchoff’s laws, a memristor crossbar is able to do MAC operations at
Here, we focus on the memristance drift effect and the mitigation techniques to avoid the impact of this issue over the memrisitive DNN systems. Typically, in memristor crossbars, there are two major operations to perform: write and read operations. In the write operation, a voltage above the switching voltage of the memristor [49] is applied to a memristor repeatedly until the resistance of the memristor is sufficiently close to the target resistance. During the read operation, a voltage lower than the switching voltage is applied to the memristor and the current from the memristor is measured. The read operation is used extensively in the inference operation of many Ex-situ and In-situ algorithms including artificial neural networks (ANN). Ideally, the resistance of the memristor should not change at all, but in practice, there is often a very small change in the memristor state after a read operation. This phenomenon is known as memristance drift [50, 51]. Over many read operations, these small changes in resistance of the memristors in a crossbar will add up to have a significant impact on computational accuracy. Memristance drift occurs in different resistive switching memory technologies and it is not similar in terms of the behavior. In phase change memory (PCM) devices, the memristance drift occurs even when there is no voltage applied over the memory cell and the amorphous state (high resistance state) of the device is changing over time [52]. Subsequently, this issue will be more severe a the high-resistive amorphous state increases and this will impact dramatically the PCM-based system’s performance in presence of high cycle-to-cycle and device-to-device variations. In memristor technology, as discussed before, the repetitive VMM operations result a memristance drift phenomenon and it becomes worse as the number of inference operations increases. Existing solutions to this problem include periodical weight reprogramming and feedback designs have limitations with high computational overhead and limited long-term effectiveness. For instance, HfOx RRAM testing results using a dynamic BL-bias circuit for preventing memristor state disturbance during read operations [53]. Error correction code (ECC) is used in [51] to reduce write latency by up to 70%. However, these techniques are not sufficient in themselves to enhances the performance of computational memristor crossbars in which 2–3 bits of memristance drift can cause significant decreases in performance. Recently, a few more effective memristance-drift mitigation techniques have been proposed [54, 55, 56]. This chapter will summarize the approach and results of a closed-loop feedback system technique [54] and an inline calibration approach [55] before taking a more in-depth look into an adaptive inference technique (AIDX) [56] that optimizes the inference voltage pulse amplitude and width. In addition, the power and chip area overhead of these three techniques are briefly compared.
2. Memristance drift and its modeling
In general, there are memristor models can be separated into physics-based and behavior-based simulations depending on the characteristics of their modeling and their general purpose. Physics-based models typically attempt to simulate memristors at a molecular-level by considering the material characteristics of the active memristor layers and mathematical modeling of the ion drifting between these materials. While physical models accurately model memristance drift, they are generally computationally expensive and limited in scope to the detailed analysis of singular memristor behavior. As such, memristor crossbar arrays are modeled using behavior-based models. Behavior-based memristor models are much simpler than physics-based models and use experimental fitting parameters to match the behavior of different types of memristors. Current–voltage plots are one of the most common methods of quickly visualizing memristor short-term behavior and many behavior-based models like VTEAM [57] are built to agree with these plots. Over the course of a voltage sweep, there is not enough time for the memristor’s state to change noticeably under the threshold voltage and as such, the long term consequences of memristance drift aren’t captured in these models. Many popular behavior-based models, such as VTEAM [57] and TEAM [58], utilize current and voltage thresholds to partition memristor behavior under high and low voltage/current scenarios. Generally, these threshold models approximate the subthreshold state change as zero and thus do not consider the long-term effects of memristance drift. Other behavior-models, such as the nonlinear ion drift [59] and Simmons Tunnel Barrier model [60], do not utilize a threshold and instead model memristor high and low voltage memristor behavior using the same equations and fitting parameters. Without a threshold, these models lack the flexibility to accurately model the minute changes of memristance drift without sacrificing the accuracy of its higher-voltage switching modeling. Recently, there have been attempts to extend popular behavior-based models to more accurately simulate memristance drift. For instance, [56] added subthreshold modeling equation and fitting parameters to extend the VTEAM model. However, the modeling of memristance drift in behavior-based models is still currently in its infancy due to the lack of experimental data on long-term memristor behavior when exposed to low voltage pulses.
2.1 Impact of state-drift on crossbar VMM
Memristance drift in crossbar arrays can be summarized as the buildup of small unintended changes in memristor state over many low-voltage read operations [56]. During a crossbar VMM operation, the ideal output current
Here
3. Memristance drift mitigation overview
3.1 ICE: inline calibration
Given the significant negative impact of memristance drift on crossbar performance, there has been a few works that have proposed meaningful solutions to the memristance drift problem. When a memristor crossbar’s performance drops below acceptable levels due to memristance drift, the memristors will be rewritten to their intended states. For a given application, this recalibration is usually done at periodically ensure high crossbar accuracy over long time intervals. Since rewriting a memristor to a specific state can be up to 100 times slower than the speed of an inference operation [65], frequent crossbar calibrations could significantly bottleneck crossbar throughput. In [55], the authors propose an inline calibration method that utilizes “interrupt-and-benchmark (I&B)” operations to track the crossbar computational error in order to predict the time period before the next calibration operation. In addition, the time period between two I&B operations is dynamically optimized as to minimize the time overhead of the inline calibration method on crossbar performance. As defined in the paper, I&B operations interrupt regular crossbar operation in order to evaluate crossbar computational error on a set of benchmark data [55]. Between each recalibration of the memristor crossbar, there exists a theoretical maximum number of inference operations
To reduce the time overhead of the inline calibration method, ICE seeks to minimize the number of I&B operations
To quantify the time overhead caused by I&B operations, the parameter
Here,
3.2 Closed-loop feedback circuit
Traditionally, the data flow of a memristor crossbar-based neural network follows a linear pipeline in a conventional open-loop system. While these open-loop systems serve as a simple and efficient pipeline for VMM operations, they are not able to effectively manage the effects of memristance drift. In [54], a closed-loop circuit is proposed to mitigate memristance drift by adaptively adjusting the direction of current in each memristor using a feedback controller. Mean square error (MSE) is used to measure the degradation caused by memristance drift. Specifically, the difference in MSE (ΔMSE) between the ideal crossbar and the current state is used as a metric to inform the feedback controller. For each inference operation, a weight compensation algorithm is run to minimize memristance drift speed. The second feature of the closed-loop design introduced in [54] is the usage of an “arrogant principle” which assumes that the prediction made by the crossbar system is always correct. This principle allows the system to use its output as the label to determine the direction of compensation in the weight compensation algorithm. The effectiveness of this assumption hinges on the ideal accuracy of the crossbar-mapped neural network. With a high initial accuracy, the “expectation of recognition accuracy probability with respect to time” will be close to its upper bound, thus keeping the rate of degradation of the feedback controller low. Naively, this closed-loop design requires an additional compensation pulse for each inference operation which would halve the throughput of the crossbar system. To address this issue, [54] combines the compensation pulse with regular inference operations by manipulating the
4. Adaptive inference scheme for memristance drift mitigation
In [56], the authors proposed an adaptive inference scheme called AIDX that optimizes the amplitude and duration of inference voltage pulses in order to minimize the speed of memristance drift. AIDX formulates memristance drift as an optimization problem and seeks to minimize the memristance drift error defined as the increase in mean squared error (MSE) from the initial programmed crossbar after a set number of inference operations. The initial MSE can be modeled as:
Similarly, the MSE after
where
Here,
The general usage of AIDX in both preprocessing and inference is described in (Figure 3c). To ensure optimal performance, optimization is done in three scenarios: Optimizing over pulse amplitude ratio, optimizing over pulse duration ration, and optimization over both parameters simultaneously. The best set of parameters is then chosen according to lowest evaluated
5. Overhead analysis
The three methods for mitigating memristance drift discussed in this chapter all induce small overheads in terms of power consumption and chip area. Time overhead is not discussed in this section because there is negligible change in crossbar throughput by all three mitigation methods. Power overhead is defined in this section as the additional power consumption induced in the memristor crossbar and peripheral circuits due to proposed memristance drift solutions. For the sake of consistency, the estimates of peripheral power consumption of [54] are used for comparison. While power consumption is not disclosed in [55], the power overhead of [56] is 1.19% while [54] has a power overhead of 1.61%. Area overhead is defined consistently with [56] as the additional on-chip area required for memristance drift mitigation method because of peripherals, external circuit, and other items. Since both [55, 56] do not include any additional on-chip circuitry, these two methods do not have any chip area overhead while the closed loop circuits proposed in [54] require an additional 2.34% chip area. On the other hand, both [55, 56] require solving an optimization problem before implementing their mitigation technique. However, considering that the optimization procedure would only needed to be performed once for an application, these solutions still promise great scalability for long-term memristor crossbar usage.
6. Conclusions
In summary, this chapter first discusses memristor crossbar modeling and how there is a current lack of attention in modeling subthreshold memristor behavior. The next section overviews how the speed of memristance drift is impacted by recall voltage and amplitude, memristor characteristics, crossbar size, and number of inference operations since the last write operation. In addition, memristance drift is shown to cause severe accuracy degradation across multiple datasets and tasks such as MNIST and CIFAR10. The second half of this chapter is dedicated to overviewing three different approaches for memristance drift mitigation. First, an inline calibration approach [55] and a closed-loop feedback system is summarized. Then, there is a more in-depth look into an adaptive inference scheme that optimized the ratio of SET to RESET voltage pulse amplitude and width to minimize memristance drift speed. The final section of the chapter briefly compared the power and chip area overhead of these three memristance drift mitigation techniques. Hopefully, this chapter can bring more much-needed attention to the study of memristance drift and the development of drift mitigation techniques.
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