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",isbn:"978-1-80356-966-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-965-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-967-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Waste, Reuse, Reduction, Soil Health, Recycling, Agriculture and Environment, Modelling and Simulation, Agro-Industrial Waste, Bioresource Processing, Processing and Management, Crop Residue, Forest Waste",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is a researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with fifteen years of field and academic experience, currently in charge of the Agricultural Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A renowned researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with 14 years of academic experience at Bahauddin Zakariya University. Winner of various prestigious fellowships, awards, and research grants. Published 250+ articles along with several books and chapters. Guest editor of seven ISI-SCI journals for publishers like SAGE, MDPI, and Frontiers.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. He is serving as guest\r\neditor for the journals like Sustainability (MDPI), Agriculture (MDPI), Energies (MDPI),\r\nAdvances in Mechanical Engineering (SAGE), Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering, and\r\nEvergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-\r\nefficient temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse,\r\nlivestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include desiccant air-\r\nconditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle),\r\nenergy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; wastewater treatment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Here are the results of the search for new painkillers and antitubercular and antidiabetic drugs in the class of amidoxime derivatives. Nitrous derivatives of α-chloro-α-isonitrosoacetone, O-aroyl-β-aminopropioamidoximes, and 3-[β-(piperidine-1-yl)]ethyl-5-aryl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles were tested for conduction, infiltration, and terminal anesthesia. Among them hit compounds were discovered. The search for new anti-TB drugs is executed in the world. Salts and bases of O-aroylation products of β-(thiomorpholin-1-yl) and β-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propioamidoximes during in vitro antitubercular screening for DS, DR, and MDR strains of M. tuberculosis manifest themselves as highly active competitive compounds. In the series of the derivatives of β-aminopropioamidoximes, a search for new antidiabetic drugs was done. The compounds with pronounced antidiabetic properties were revealed. The obtained data of the most promising samples with a preliminary assessment of their average toxic dose in animals can be used in further in vivo testing of infiltration anesthesia conditions, of antidiabetic properties, and at the development of doses and new treatment regimens for TB.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70509",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70509",book:{id:"8410",slug:"heterocycles-synthesis-and-biological-activities"},signatures:"Lyudmila Kayukova, Umirzak Jussipbekov and Kaldybay Praliyev",authors:[{id:"308490",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Kayukova",fullName:"Lyudmila Kayukova",slug:"lyudmila-kayukova",email:"lkayukova@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"311781",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaldybay",middleName:null,surname:"Praliyev",fullName:"Kaldybay Praliyev",slug:"kaldybay-praliyev",email:"praliyevkd@mail.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"8410",type:"book",title:"Heterocycles",subtitle:"Synthesis and Biological Activities",fullTitle:"Heterocycles - Synthesis and Biological Activities",slug:"heterocycles-synthesis-and-biological-activities",publishedDate:"June 10th 2020",bookSignature:"B. P. Nandeshwarappa and Sadashiv S. O.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8410.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-624-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-003-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-625-5",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"261141",title:"Dr.",name:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa",middleName:null,surname:"Nandeshwarappa",slug:"belakatte-parameshwarappa-nandeshwarappa",fullName:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"176334",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadashiv",middleName:null,surname:"S. O.",slug:"sadashiv-s.-o.",fullName:"Sadashiv S. O."},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"494"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"71822",type:"chapter",title:"Introductory Chapter: Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activities of Dihydroazeto[2′,3′:4,5]seleno[2,3-b]quinolines",slug:"introductory-chapter-synthesis-and-antimicrobial-activities-of-dihydroazeto-2-3-4-5-seleno-2-3-em-b-",totalDownloads:609,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"B.P. Nandeshwarappa, G.K. Prakash and S.O. Sadashiv",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"261141",title:"Dr.",name:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa",middleName:null,surname:"Nandeshwarappa",fullName:"Belakatte Parameshwarappa Nandeshwarappa",slug:"belakatte-parameshwarappa-nandeshwarappa"}]},{id:"68333",type:"chapter",title:"Phenacyl Bromide: An Organic Intermediate for Synthesis of Five- and Six-Membered Bioactive Heterocycles",slug:"phenacyl-bromide-an-organic-intermediate-for-synthesis-of-five-and-six-membered-bioactive-heterocycl",totalDownloads:981,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dinesh Kumar Jangid and Surbhi Dhadda",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"262555",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jangid",fullName:"Dinesh Jangid",slug:"dinesh-jangid"},{id:"308662",title:"Dr.",name:"Surbhi",middleName:null,surname:"Dhadda",fullName:"Surbhi Dhadda",slug:"surbhi-dhadda"}]},{id:"70509",type:"chapter",title:"Amidoxime Derivatives with Local Anesthetic, Antitubercular, and Antidiabetic Activity",slug:"amidoxime-derivatives-with-local-anesthetic-antitubercular-and-antidiabetic-activity",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Lyudmila Kayukova, Umirzak Jussipbekov and Kaldybay Praliyev",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"308490",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyudmila",middleName:null,surname:"Kayukova",fullName:"Lyudmila Kayukova",slug:"lyudmila-kayukova"},{id:"311781",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaldybay",middleName:null,surname:"Praliyev",fullName:"Kaldybay Praliyev",slug:"kaldybay-praliyev"}]},{id:"70696",type:"chapter",title:"Recent Developments of Target-Based Benzimidazole Derivatives as Potential Anticancer Agents",slug:"recent-developments-of-target-based-benzimidazole-derivatives-as-potential-anticancer-agents",totalDownloads:1026,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Nerella Sridhar Goud, Pardeep Kumar and Rose Dawn Bharath",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"313823",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar",middleName:null,surname:"Goud",fullName:"Sridhar Goud",slug:"sridhar-goud"},{id:"314527",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardeep",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Pardeep Kumar",slug:"pardeep-kumar"},{id:"314528",title:"Prof.",name:"Rose Dawn",middleName:null,surname:"Bharath",fullName:"Rose Dawn Bharath",slug:"rose-dawn-bharath"}]},{id:"64932",type:"chapter",title:"Thiazole Moiety: An Interesting Scaffold for Developing New Antitumoral Compounds",slug:"thiazole-moiety-an-interesting-scaffold-for-developing-new-antitumoral-compounds",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Sandra Ramos-Inza, Carlos Aydillo, Carmen Sanmartín and Daniel Plano",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"67542",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Sanmartín",fullName:"Carmen Sanmartín",slug:"carmen-sanmartin"},{id:"69223",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Plano",fullName:"Daniel Plano",slug:"daniel-plano"},{id:"286715",title:"BSc.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Inza",fullName:"Sandra Ramos-Inza",slug:"sandra-ramos-inza"},{id:"286716",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Aydillo",fullName:"Carlos Aydillo",slug:"carlos-aydillo"}]},{id:"67875",type:"chapter",title:"One-Pot-Condensation Reaction of Heterocyclic Amine, 1,3-Diketone and Aldehydes Using In Situ Generated Superoxide Ion: A Rapid Synthesis of Structurally Diverse Drug-Like Complex Heterocycles",slug:"one-pot-condensation-reaction-of-heterocyclic-amine-1-3-diketone-and-aldehydes-using-em-in-situ-em-g",totalDownloads:769,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sundaram Singh and Savita Kumari",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"222363",title:"Dr.",name:"Sundaram",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Sundaram Singh",slug:"sundaram-singh"},{id:"266524",title:"MSc.",name:"Savita",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",fullName:"Savita Kumari",slug:"savita-kumari"}]},{id:"68066",type:"chapter",title:"The Oxygen-Containing Fused Heterocyclic Compounds",slug:"the-oxygen-containing-fused-heterocyclic-compounds",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Hillemane Venkatachalam and Nanjangud Venkatesh Anil Kumar",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"270936",title:"Prof.",name:"N V",middleName:null,surname:"Anil Kumar",fullName:"N V Anil Kumar",slug:"n-v-anil-kumar"},{id:"280725",title:"Dr.",name:"Hillemane",middleName:null,surname:"Venkatachalam",fullName:"Hillemane Venkatachalam",slug:"hillemane-venkatachalam"}]},{id:"68172",type:"chapter",title:"Synthesis and Anticancer Evaluation of Benzenesulfonamide Derivatives",slug:"synthesis-and-anticancer-evaluation-of-benzenesulfonamide-derivatives",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dattatraya Navnath Pansare and Rohini Narayan Shelke",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"265050",title:"Dr.",name:"Dattatraya",middleName:"Navnath",surname:"Pansare",fullName:"Dattatraya Pansare",slug:"dattatraya-pansare"},{id:"265056",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohini",middleName:null,surname:"Shelke",fullName:"Rohini Shelke",slug:"rohini-shelke"}]},{id:"67803",type:"chapter",title:"Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel Phosphonyl Thiazolo Pyrazoles",slug:"synthesis-and-biological-evaluation-of-novel-phosphonyl-thiazolo-pyrazoles",totalDownloads:749,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Avula Srinivas",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"220339",title:"Dr.",name:"Avula",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivas",fullName:"Avula Srinivas",slug:"avula-srinivas"},{id:"263622",title:"Prof.",name:"Malladi",middleName:null,surname:"Sunitha",fullName:"Malladi Sunitha",slug:"malladi-sunitha"}]},{id:"64434",type:"chapter",title:"Quinoline Heterocycles: Synthesis and Bioactivity",slug:"quinoline-heterocycles-synthesis-and-bioactivity",totalDownloads:2008,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Yamajala B.R.D. 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Not only is ablation considered for patients not amenable for surgical resection (<20%) but also increasingly for resectable tumors even with a curative intent [1, 2, 3]. Percutaneous ablation is generally performed under image-guidance based on CT, MRI, or ultrasound. Stereotactic image-guidance leads to a simple, fast, and accurate placement of the ablation needle into the liver tumor. Patients undergoing a percutaneous ablation benefit from an improved quality of life due to the shorter hospital stay compared to patients undergoing surgery [1].
The key challenges in percutaneous ablations are complete coverage of the tumor with ablation necrosis including a 5- to 10-mm margin. Insufficient coverage of the ablation necrosis is related to local tumor progression, which is also associated with poor survival prognosis. While there are many unknown factors influencing the ablation process, one of the prerequisites is the accurate placement of the ablation needle in the tumor to ablate the tumor from the inside out. Stereotactic image-guidance aims to provide technical means to plan and accurately place an ablation needle into the tumor and verify its complete destruction.
For primary liver tumors (hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC), ablation is considered in cases of very early to early stage disease (BCLC 0/A) with less than three lesions that are smaller than 3 cm in diameter, according to the Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) staging system guidelines [4]. For liver metastases from colorectal cancer (CRLM), ablation is still mostly performed for lesions not amenable to resection; however, first comparative studies suggest equal oncological outcomes (local recurrence, survival) after ablation versus resection of potentially resectable lesions [5]. The application as alternative to resection for HCC > 1 cm and CRLM is currently studied in various clinical trials; however, the oncologic non-inferiority of ablation has still to be confirmed in prospective trials. While the guidelines do not specify the access (open surgical vs. laparoscopic vs. percutaneous), it has been shown that the percutaneous access has lower complication rates and hospital stay with similar oncologic outcomes. Therefore, percutaneous ablations are generally preferred over surgical ablations. However, surgical ablations are performed in lesions that are difficult to target percutaneously or when ablation is combined with surgical resection. Stereotactic image-guidance offers a procedure to accurately target a lesion percutaneously, even in very difficult cases, in a predictable time.
In recent years, studies have been conducted to show that stereotactic image-guidance also allows to treat larger lesions by combining multiple ablation zones to fully cover the lesion [6], and also as an option for downstaging or bridging candidates for liver transplantation [7]. Larger lesions can also be treated with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE), but complete necrosis is barely achieved due to incomplete embolization and tumor angiogenesis. Therefore, approaches have been studied where TACE is combined with thermal ablation for HCCs >3 cm and found a synergetic effect [8]. For this combined treatment approach, an image-guidance approach has also been proposed, and preliminary animal experiments conducted [9].
There are currently three stereotactic image-guidance systems available on the market. The CAS-One IR (CAScination AG, Switzerland) and IMACTIS (IMACTIS, France) systems are pure image-guidance systems, whereas the MAXIO (Perfint, India) is a system with an integrated robotic arm for needle alignment. There are also several research devices in use in specialized clinics and it is expected that more devices will be available in the future.
Tumor ablation is defined as the local delivery of thermal, chemical, or electrical energy to a specific tumor in order to achieve its complete destruction. The most commonly used ablation techniques in conjunction with stereotactic image-guidance are thermal, chemical, and electrical ablation, which are described in the following sections.
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) refers to energy sources that generate energy within the RF spectrum between 300 and 500 KHz. The RF electrode destroys all the cells at the target zone by heating up the tissue as a result of a high alternating electrical field that oscillates in the high-frequency range [10]. In Microwave ablations (MWA), a high-frequency electromagnetic field in the range of 900 MHz–2.45 Ghz forces water molecules to continuously realign, which results in high kinetic energy that is converted to heat in the tissue. Both RFA and MWA techniques destroy the tumor cells by coagulation necrosis using heat above 60°C. Compared to RFA, MWA heats the tissue faster due to the different heat distribution and therefore is also less affected by adjacent vessels (heat sink effect) [11, 12].
To date, most evidence supporting local ablation for small HCC lesions is based on works reporting RFA treatment and the comparison of RFA versus surgical resection. However, more recently, the theoretical and clinical advantages of MWA have often been highlighted. These include shorter application times, and the generation of higher temperatures resulting in larger ablation zones. Currently, several works comparing RFA versus MWA have reported partially contradicting results, especially regarding local tumor control after bot treatments [13, 14]. Overall, it can be assumed that no significant difference between RFA and MWA regarding overall and recurrent-free survival in patients with HCC exists [15]. However, there seems to be a tendency toward superiority of MWA regarding local recurrence rates in larger tumors as well as regarding operating times.
Cryoablation destroys tissue with freezing temperatures, alternating freezing and thawing or slight heating. The rapid freezing of tissue disrupts the cellular membranes by direct intracellular ice crystal formation. The most commonly used cooling agents are argon gas or liquid nitrogen [16].
Percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI) is the most commonly employed chemical ablation technique, but was demonstrated to have inferior results to thermal ablation [17]. PEI denaturizes the cellular proteins through cytoplasmic dehydration, which eventually also causes local coagulation necrosis. However, when compared to the other techniques, PEI shows significant disadvantages such as high local tumor progression rate, unpredictable ablation volumes, and lower overall survival rates.
Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is non-thermal ablation technique that delivers short pulses of high-voltage electrical energy directly to a tumor. This technique disrupts the cell membrane irreversibly and induces cell death by apoptosis (also known as natural cell death). The advantage of IRE is that it preserves blood vessels and therefore there is a high incentive to use IRE especially where vital structures and blood vessels can be easily damaged by thermal ablation methods [18]. IRE requires placing multiple needles in parallel and at a specific configuration and distance and therefore stereotactic image-guidance provides a precise placement of the needles. As IRE is a relatively new treatment, there are also less data available about its outcomes.
In this chapter, the general components of stereotactic image-guidance devices are described. In general, such a system consists of (Figure 1):
a tracking system that measures the position and orientation of the patient and the instruments in 3D space
software packages for
trajectory and ablation planning
trajectory and ablation validation
visualization aids for needle placement
an alignment device that allows an accurate placement of the ablation needle into the tumor
Components and setup of a stereotactic image-guidance system.
The tracking system measures the position and orientation of the needle guidance device and the patient in space. There are currently two different tracking modalities used for these procedures, namely optical and electromagnetic tracking. Optical tracking systems use a stereo infrared camera and locate retroreflecting spheres mounted on a rigid body— the so-called marker shields. Based on the geometry of these marker shields, the camera is able to identify them (e.g., needle guidance device). The second tracking modality is electromagnetic tracking, which generates an electromagnetic field and measures the current induced into small coils, which are attached to the device [19]. The position and orientation of the instrument are calculated from the current and a chip attached to the sensor provides information for identification.
Optical tracking systems tend to be more accurate but have the problem of a line-of-sight. Therefore, if the line-of-sight is occluded (e.g., by blood, radiologists’ hand), the tracking device will lose track of the marker. Electromagnetic tracking relies on a known magnetic field and therefore is heavily affected by ferromagnetic and electrically conducting materials. Therefore, which system to use heavily depends on the target environment where the system will be used.
A stereotactic image-guidance system needs to know where the patient is located relative to the tracking device in order to calculate the position of the needle guidance device relative to the planned needle trajectory (Figure 2). One option is to place retroreflective spheres on the patient that are detectable by the optical tracking system [20]. These spheres are also detectable on the CT scan and can therefore be used to register the CT to the patient [21]. Another approach, typically used with EM-based systems, is to place a position sensor on the patient’s abdomen, which can be detected by the EM-tracking system. Both methods allow to track the patient in space. However, organ deformations due to breathing or repositioning of the patient cannot be calculated by these tracking methods. Nevertheless, when using multiple spheres or sensors, large deformations can be recognized, which allows to display a warning to the user.
(left) Patient tracking method using multiple retroreflective spheres (right) or using a single EM position sensor (© IMACTIS).
The navigation software consists of planning tools, validation tools, and visualization aids for the radiologist to accurately align the needle guide and place the ablation needle.
With the trajectory planning component, the radiologist plans trajectories to the tumor and also estimates the amount of energy needed to successfully ablate the tumor. In the most basic form, the software allows to plan a single straight-line trajectory to the tumor. In a more advanced setting, the software compensates for the offset between the needle tip and the active zone (which depends on the type of ablation device) and also supports multi-needle ablations with overlapping ablation zones [6]. A trajectory for an ablation consists of a target point (tumor center) and an entry point on the skin. Depending on the location of the tumor, this trajectory passes nearby critical structures (e.g
In cases where the tumor is not visible on the CT scan or the contrast agent cannot be administered to the patient, a pre-operative MRI scan can be fused with the intra-operative CT. The image-guidance system then allows to plan the trajectory on the MRI scan and then calculates the location on the CT scan.
The visualization component for navigation typically consists of a crosshair viewer and/or CT slice with a real-time overlay of the needle trajectory. This allows the radiologist to align the needle guidance device with the planned trajectory and then to place the needle at the correct depth. An indication of the deformation or motion of the patient is also visualized for monitoring and estimation of the accuracy.
The ablation validation component fuses the pre- and post-ablation CT scans and visualizes them using alpha blending. The radiologist can switch between the pre- and post-ablation scan by choosing the blending level. More advanced systems allow to segment the tumor and the ablation zone and present a coverage.
With freehand navigation, a position sensor is attached to the ablation needle and the position and orientation of the needle are measured by the tracking device. The radiologist can freely move the needle and the navigation screen helps to place the needle according to the defined plan.
When using a stereotactic arm (Figure 3), the tracking device measures the position and orientation of the needle guide in the stereotactic arm and uses this information to guide the radiologist. Such an arm typically has multiple handles, which allow to adjust and lock each degree of freedom separately. With this, the radiologist first aligns the arm roughly to the entry point on the skin and then pulls the handle to lock the position of the stereotactic arm. The remaining handles can then be used to fine-adjust the orientation to exactly align the device to follow the planned trajectory. Once the trajectory is aligned, the needle can be placed through the needle guide with the depth that is indicated on the navigation screen [22].
Stereotactic arm during the adjustment of the needle trajectory.
Another advantage of the stereotactic arm is that it holds the needle in place during a control CT scan and during the ablation procedure. This prevents movement of the needle, which would result in an uncontrolled ablation and potential tissue damage. Because the stereotactic arm holds the ablation needle during the control CT scan, the radiologist does not need to be in the CT room and thus is also not exposed to radiation [23].
These devices are motorized articulated arms for alignment of ablation needles, providing a 6-dimensional alignment of a trajectory with respect to the target. The radiologist delivers the needle by hand and the robots passively guide it. There is a commercial provider, which has shown superior results in terms of accuracy and precision when compared to freehand targeting [24]. The findings from pre-clinical models and also from available clinical data show that passive needle guidance robots do not significantly increase available accuracy compared to stereotactic arms. Therefore, it is rather a matter of choice which kind of system to use.
In the following chapter, a typical workflow (Figure 4) for a stereotactic image-guided percutaneous ablation of a liver tumor is presented.
Workflow of a percutaneous ablation of a liver tumor using stereotactic image-guidance.
An important part when applying stereotactic guidance is that the organ of interest is properly fixated. In the case of the liver, that not only means to fixate the patient but also reduce the motion of the liver due to breathing. The fixation of the patient is generally done using a vacuum mattress. Once the patient is under anesthesia, the vacuum mattress is pressed toward the patient and the vacuum applied. This will prevent the patient from moving on the CT table.
To minimize the motion of the liver due to breathing, there are a number of alternatives:
Apnea and tube disconnection are applied during the CT scans and during the needle placement, while during the rest of the procedure, normal ventilation is applied. Jet ventilation can be applied during the whole procedure or also only during the CT scans and the needle placement.
Before starting the procedure, the patient tracker has to be placed on the patient’s abdomen. Depending on the system, there are also specific requirements on how and where to place these markers for optimal accuracy of the system.
A trajectory for an ablation consists of a target point (the center of the tumor) and an entry point (entry on the skin) (Figure 5). Most ablation systems do not have their active center (the center of the ablation) at the tip. Therefore, the ablation system and the needle type can be selected, and the navigation system then computes a modified trajectory, such that the center of the ablation is in the center of the tumor. Additional to the trajectory, software guidance can also support the decision of the time and energy level to apply during the ablation. To avoid the puncture of blood vessels or other organs at risk, the navigation system presents a slice of the CT scan along the planned trajectory. This is especially useful in ablations in the superior segments where usually a sub- or inter-costal trajectory is required.
Planning of a trajectory and the optimal ablation energy through an inter-costal trajectory.
In case the tumor is not visible on the CECT scan, a pre-operative MRI scan can be fused with the intra-operative CT scan. The trajectory can then be planned on the MRI scan and the navigation system calculates the position of the trajectory on the intra-operative CT scan. One thing to consider is that the liver might have deformed with respect to the MRI scan depending on the positioning of the patient. Therefore, it is crucial to visually assess the accuracy of the fusion before planning a trajectory.
During the navigated needle placement, the radiologist aligns the stereotactic arm with the planned trajectory according to the crosshair viewer. Additionally, the system presents a real-time overlay of the needle trajectory on the CT scan (Figure 6). Once the stereotactic arm is aligned, the needle can be placed into the tumor according to the depth information on the display.
Crosshair viewer with the orientation and depth aid for accurate placement and a real-time CT slice along the current trajectory.
Depending on the patient tracking method, the system presents a real-time estimation of the deformation of the organ and stops the navigation display if the estimated deformation is too large.
To ensure correct needle position before applying the energy of the ablation needle, a non-enhanced CT scan is acquired and fused with the planning scan by the navigation system. The image-guidance system then either detects the needle automatically or the radiologist selects it manually. Based on this selection and the planned trajectory, the needle placement accuracy is measured and displayed on the screen (Figure 7). If the placement accuracy is insufficient (>3 mm), the radiologist would repeat the needle placement step.
Needle validation on a CT slice along the actual needle trajectory.
In lesions that are close to critical structures (vena cava, heart, etc.), the needle can be placed at three-fourths of the final depth and correct orientation can be measured on the needle validation scan before the needle is inserted into the final target.
Once correct needle placement is confirmed, the energy is applied by the ablation device. The amount of energy needed can also be planned with the planning software. However, recent studies have shown that the resulting ablation zones differ from the prediction based on the ex-vivo results that are provided by the ablation device manufacturers [26] and also depend on the tumor type [27].
In this step, the radiologist evaluates the coverage of the tumor by the ablation necrosis, which has been shown to be an independent predictor in determining local tumor recurrence with a larger ablation margin resulting in a lower risk of local tumor recurrence [28]. The ablation coverage and margin are evaluated by visual assessment where the radiologist compares the pre- and post-ablation scans, which can be displayed side-by-side on a radiological screen or overlaid with transparency (Figure 8). An image-guidance system or external software can display the segmented tumor and the planned ablation margin, which makes the visual ablation validation more accurate, reproducible, and less subjective by providing visual markers and boundaries. If the radiologist identifies residual tumor or insufficient margin on the fused pre- and post-ablation scan, then another ablation is performed in the same procedure. Therefore, a new trajectory is planned based on the post-ablation scan to also cover the remaining tumor.
Ablation zone validation with the tumor on the pre-ablation scan (left) and the ablation necrosis on the post-ablation scan (right).
Using stereotactic ablation reduces the exposure to radiation and procedure time while improving the needle placement accuracy at the same time [29]. The interventional radiologist can leave the CT room during the acquisition, and therefore is not exposed to ionizing radiation at all. There are also large retrospective studies showing the potential benefits and applications of stereotactic image-guided ablations. While these studies do not show better oncological outcomes when using stereotactic ablation over conventional ablation, they state that the number of patients treated with a curative intent largely increased with the introduction of stereotactic guidance [1, 30, 31]. Furthermore, it has been shown in case-reports that stereotaxy was especially useful in very difficult cases when the tumor would not be reachable with conventional CT guidance [32].
Despite the current evidence showing that stereotactic image-guidance improves ablation needle accuracy and reduces procedure time and radiation dose, the ablation treatment itself has limitations, which are part of the current research—both clinical and engineering research.
One of the short-term improvements of thermal ablations is the reproducible ablation of tumors larger than 3 cm. Current evidence shows that the LTP rate is higher in tumors larger than 3 cm and therefore such tumors are not recommended to treat with ablation [30, 33]. There are studies reporting larger ablation zones when using multiple needles in parallel, which could cover tumors larger than 3 cm [34]. With stereotactic image-guidance, such treatments can be delivered more reproducibly [6]. However, using multiple needles heavily increases the cost for the procedure at some institutions, which can be a major limitation.
The planning of the ablation employs the information from the ablation device manufactures’ brochures, which presents the expected ablation necrosis that can be obtained for a specific energy delivered. The ablation model presented in the brochures is described as an ellipsoidal or spherical volume, which was obtained from measuring the ablation necrosis in ex-vivo, non-perfused, healthy animal livers. Recent studies have shown that the in-vivo ablation volumes differ significantly from the ex-vivo data, with the in-vivo ablation volumes being much smaller than the ex-vivo data predicts [26, 35]. Future models will be based on retrospective in-vivo data and also take any clinical parameters into account, such as the pathology of the tissue, the patient’s clinical background, other treatments being administered (e.g., chemotherapy), and the influence of adjacent blood vessels on the expansion of the ablation volume.
Recently, there has been a high interest in quantitative ablation assessment to decrease the local tumor progression rates by ensuring complete ablation coverage and sufficient (<5mm) ablation margin using 3D image analysis software [36]. There are several studies that have attempted to describe the ablation success or coverage using numerical metrics derived from 3D tumor and ablation segmentations based on a follow-up scan at 4–8 weeks after ablation [37]. However, a fast intra-operative tool for assessing the ablation outcome would enable an immediate re-ablation and achievement of complete tumor destruction in the same treatment session. The Ablation fit (Ablation-fit, Italy) software is currently the only software available on the market for intra-operative quantitative 3D ablation assessment. However, evidence of the predictive value of intra-operative assessment is still limited as it has been evaluated only at a single center so far and due to the unknown tissue shrinkage after thermal ablation treatment [38].
As in other disciplines in medicine, robotics will also be introduced in interventional oncology on a larger scale. While there are robotic devices available for stereotactic ablations, these are merely motorized arms for alignment. The radiologist still has to be sterile at the CT table and place the needle by hand. However, the future most likely will go toward autonomous robots that plan the trajectory, place the needle, and choose the right amount of energy for ablation. The radiologist might then be able to control the procedure in the control CT room monitoring and approving the robots’ decisions [39, 40, 41].
In conclusion, stereotactic image-guidance provides technical support for accurately planning and placing ablation needles at the desired location and verifying the complete destruction of the tumor. These highly complex systems not only decrease radiation dose, contrast, and needle punctures, but also give a predictable procedure time even in technical challenging cases, which allows to optimally allocate the resources in an interventional radiology suite and most importantly offers the patient a safe and efficient minimally invasive procedure.
No conflict of interest.
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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/70509",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"70509"},fullPath:"/chapters/70509",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()