Abstract
Thermodynamics of black holes were studied by Hawking, Bekenstein et al., considering black holes as classical spacetimes possessing a singular region hidden behind an event horizon. In this chapter, in contrast, we treat black hole from the perspective of a generic theory of quantum gravity, using certain assumptions which are consistent with loop quantum gravity (LQG). Using these assumptions and basic tenets of equilibrium statistical mechanics, we have derived criteria for thermal stability of black holes in any spacetime dimension with arbitrary number of charges (‘hairs’), irrespective of whether classical or quantum. The derivation of these thermal stability criteria makes no explicit use of classical spacetime geometry at all. The only assumption is that the mass of the black hole is a function of its horizon area and all the ‘hairs’ (i.e. charge, angular momentum, any other types of hairs). We get a series of inequalities between derivatives of the mass function with respect to the area and other ‘hairs’ as the thermal stability criteria. These criteria are then tested in detail against various types of black holes in various dimensions. This permits us to predict the region of the parameter space of a given black hole in which it may be stable under Hawking radiation.
Keywords
- black hole thermodynamics
- thermal stability
- saddle-point approximation
- quantum gravity
- multicharged black hole
- PAC numbers: 04.70.-s
- 04.70.Dy
1. Introduction
Semiclassical analysis has made the claim that non-extremal, asymptotically flat black holes are thermally unstable due to decay under Hawking radiation. Their instability is allegedly due to negativity of their specific heat [1, 2], as deduced from semiclassical mnemonics based on the classical metric. These black holes become hotter and hotter as they lose mass. This is a complete thermal runaway process. Note, however, that semiclassical analysis depends explicitly on the classical black hole metric and, as such, is inherently a ‘case-by-case’ analysis. This limitation implies that general results about thermal stability of black holes under Hawking decay cannot be obtained from such an analysis. For some asymptotically flat general relativistic black holes, semiclassical analysis has yielded the understanding that their specific heat, defined semiclassically from their metric, is negative, and hence the black holes must be thermally unstable under Hawking decay. However, there is little to glean from this approach which holds in general.
This interesting fact has motivated the study of thermal stability of black holes, from a perspective that is inspired by a definite proposal for
The implications of this quantum perspective on the thermal stability of black holes from decay due to Hawking radiation have therefore been an important aspect of black hole thermodynamics beyond semiclassical analysis and also somewhat beyond the strict equilibrium configurations that isolated horizons represent. Classically a black hole in general relativity is characterized by its mass (
The simplest case of vanishing charge and angular momentum has been investigated longer than a decade ago [9, 10, 11]. The obtained condition for thermal stability exactly matches with the condition, derived from semiclassical analysis. That condition has been derived from positivity of specific heat. This exact matching happens as the black holes have neither rotation nor charge. We are going to establish in this chapter that even if a black hole has at least one of those, the conditions for thermal stability are more elaborate. This is already obvious when one considers charged black holes ([12]). Therefore the conditions start to differ from classical ones. This is due to the fact that black holes are treated quantum mechanically. The earlier work has been generalized, via the idea of
In this chapter, this approach is generalized to quantum black holes carrying
We have calculated the partition function for rotating charged black hole. Thereafter we have got several inequalities as criteria for thermal stability of such black hole. We interpret these criteria and show how they are related to various thermodynamical quantities. We also show how the stability criteria for nonrotating and neutral black holes can be derived from these seven conditions in appropriate limit.
Beyond the standard general relativity theory corresponding to
2. Quantum algebra and black hole spectrum
Like for all quantum systems, an operator algebra of fundamental observables is required to have a proper quantum description of black holes. Classically, generic black holes are represented by four parameters
Now, it is not possible to have a rotating, charged black hole without any mass, i.e.
We can choose any one between area (
It is physically obvious that both area and charge should be invariant under SO(3) rotations and area should also be invariant under U(1) gauge transformation. Now, angular momentum is the generator for rotation (
Since
Hence,
3. Thermal holography
Quantum black holes associated with an ambient thermal reservoir have been considered in the past [9, 10, 11, 13, 30]. In this approach key results of LQG like the discrete spectrum of the area operator [3, 4] have been used, and the main assumption was that the thermal equilibrium configuration is indeed an isolated horizon (IH) whose microcanonical entropy, including quantum spacetime fluctuations, has already been computed via LQG. The idea was to study the interplay between thermal and quantum fluctuations, and a criterion for thermal stability of such horizons has been obtained [11, 13, 14], using a ‘thermal holographic’ description involving a canonical ensemble and incorporating Gaussian thermal fluctuations. The generalization to horizons carrying charge has also been attempted, using a grand canonical ensemble, even though a somewhat ad hoc mass spectrum has been assumed [10].
Here, we attempt to generalize the thermal holography for nonrotating electrically charged quantum radiant horizons discussed in [12], to the situation when the horizon has both charge and angular momentum, without any ad hoc assumptions on the mass spectrum. Such a generalization completes the task set out in [9, 13] to include charge and angular momentum simultaneously in consideration of thermal stability of the horizon under Hawking radiation. A comparison with semiclassical thermal stability analysis of black holes [31] is made wherever possible.
3.1 Mass associated with horizon
Black holes at equilibrium are represented by isolated horizons, which are internal boundaries of spacetime. Hamiltonian evolution of this spacetime gives the first law associated with isolated horizon (
where
The advantage of the isolated (and also the radiant or
where
Clearly, the horizon mass is
3.2 Quantum geometry
The boundary conditions of a classical spacetime with boundary determine the boundary degrees of freedom and their dynamics. For a quantum spacetime, fluctuations of the boundary degrees of freedom have a ‘life’ of their own [5, 6]. Therefore the Hilbert space of a quantum spacetime with boundary has the tensor product structure
Thus, a generic quantum state (
where
The total Hamiltonian operator (
where, respectively,
In the presence of electric charge and rotation,
This is the quantum version of the classical Hamiltonian constraint [4].
The charge operator (
where, respectively,
Classically, the charge of a black hole is defined on the horizon, i.e. the internal boundary of the spacetime (e.g. one can see how charge can be properly defined for spacetimes admitting internal boundaries in Einstein-Maxwell or Einstein-Yang-Mills theories in [32]). There is
Like the charge operator, angular momentum operator (
where, respectively,
A generic quantum bulk Hilbert space is invariant under local spacetime rotations, as a part of local Lorentz invariance. Angular momentum is the generator of spacetime rotation. Therefore it implies that bulk states are annihilated by angular momentum operator, i.e.
Hence Eqs. (7), (9) and (11) together give
where
3.3 Grand canonical partition function
We now consider a grand canonical ensemble of quantum spacetimes with horizons as boundaries, in contact with a heat bath, at some (inverse) temperature
over all states.
The above definition, together with Eqs. (5), (6), (8), (10) and (12), yields
assuming that the boundary states can be normalized through the squared norm
The partition function thus turns out to be completely determined by the boundary states (
In LQG, quantum black holes are represented by spin network, collection of graphs with links and vertices. For black holes with large area, the major contribution to the entropy comes from the lowermost spins. Hence, only spin
So, spectrum of the boundary Hamiltonian is a function of the discrete area spectrum. But the complete spectrum of the boundary Hamiltonian operator is still unknown in LQG. So, we will
It has already been shown in Subsection (II) that area, charge and angular momentum operators of a black hole commute among them. This implies that they are simultaneously diagonalizable. Therefore working in a basis in which area, charge and angular momentum operators are simultaneously diagonal, the partition function (15) can be written as
where
where
Now,
where
So, the partition function, in terms of area, charge and angular momentum as free variables, can be written as follows:
where, following [38], the
4. Stability against Gaussian fluctuations
4.1 Saddle-point approximation
The equilibrium configuration of a black hole is given by the saddle point (
where
We assume, just like in LQG, observables used here are self-adjoint operators over the boundary Hilbert space, and hence their eigenvalues are real [3]. It suffices therefore to restrict integrations over the spectra of these operators to the real axes.
Now, in the saddle-point approximation, the coefficients of terms linear in
Of course these derivatives are calculated at the saddle point.
4.2 Quantum correction of black hole entropy
Note that in the stability criteria derived in the last section, first- and second-order derivatives of the microcanonical entropy of the horizon at equilibrium play a crucial role, in making some of the criteria nontrivial. Thus, corrections to the microcanonical entropy beyond the Bekenstein-Hawking area law, arising due to quantum spacetime fluctuations, might play a role of some significance. It has been shown that [15] the microcanonical entropy for
In Ref. [15] the above formula was derived for nonrotating, uncharged black holes in (3 + 1) spacetime dimension. But it has already been shown that the above formula equally holds in the case of black holes with charge [33]. Actually black hole entropy depends on the degrees of freedom on its horizon. It is purely a geometrical property of the isolated horizon. Adding charge to the black hole does not alter this geometry at all. In fact it is also shown that results from analysis for isolated horizons with charge is similar to that with angular momentum, except for certain technical issues [33, 35, 39]. Therefore the above formula will be taken to be valid for charged, rotating black holes as well.
4.3 Stability criteria
Convergence of the integral (19) implies that the Hessian matrix (
The necessary and sufficient conditions for a real symmetric square matrix to be positive definite are that determinants of all principal square submatrices and the determinant of the full matrix are positive [40, 41, 42]. This condition leads to the following ‘stability criteria:
Of course, (inverse) temperature
Now, the temperature is defined as
Eqs. (21) and (22) together yield
This is positive for macroscopic black holes (
So, the positivity of the quantity
Eq. (20) implies that
Similarly, Eq. (20) shows that
The convexity property of the entropy follows from the condition of convergence of partition function under Gaussian fluctuations [9, 31, 38]. The thermal stability is related to the convexity property of entropy. Hence, the above conditions are correctly the conditions for thermal stability. For chargeless, nonrotating horizons, Eq. (24) reproduces the thermal stability criterion and condition of positive specific heat (i.e. variation of black hole mass with temperature) given in ([13]), as expected. Actually for a chargeless, nonrotating black hole, both the mass and the temperature are functions of the horizon area (
For charged, nonrotating black holes, Eqs. (24), (25) and (29) describe the stability, in perfect agreement with [12], while (24), (26) and (28) describe the thermal stability criteria for uncharged rotating radiant horizons. The new feature for black holes with both charge and angular momentum is that not only does the specific heat have to be positive for stability, but the charge and the angular momentum play important roles as well.
5. Thermal stability of higher-dimensional black holes with arbitrary hairs
5.1 Thermal holography
In this section, we present a generalization of thermal holography for rotating electrically charged quantum radiant horizons discussed in [43], to the situation when the horizon has arbitrary number of hairs [44]. This section of the chapter will of course have substantial overlap with some of the appropriate previous sections of this chapter, so for brevity we focus on the novel aspects here.
5.1.1 Mass associated with horizon
Isolated horizons (
Here, Einstein summation convention is used, i.e. summation over repeated indices
The advantage of the isolated (and also the radiant or
where
5.1.2 Quantum algebra and quantum geometry
We consider a quantum black hole with
These charges are intrinsic to the black holes and independent of the horizon area (
where
Choosing mass (
where
The Hilbert space of a generic quantum spacetime is given as
Now, the full Hamiltonian operator (
where, respectively,
Now, the bulk Hamiltonian operator annihilates bulk physical states:
The charge operators
where
So Eqs. (41) and (42) together produce
where
5.2 Grand canonical partition function
We now consider the black hole with the contact of a heat bath, at some (inverse) temperature
where the trace is taken over all states. This definition, together with Eqs. (39) and (43) yield
assuming that the boundary states are normalized. The partition function thus turns out to be completely determined by the boundary states (
where
where
Following [12], we now assume that the macroscopic spectrum of the area and all charges are linear in their arguments, so that a change of variables gives, with constant Jacobian, the result
where, following [38], the
5.3 Saddle-point approximation
The equilibrium configuration of black hole is given by the saddle point (
where
Here
Now, in the saddle-point approximation, the coefficients of terms linear in
Of course these are evaluated at the saddle point.
5.4 Stability criteria
Convergence of the integral (50) implies that the Hessian matrix (
Here, all the derivatives are calculated at the saddle point. Hence the stability criteria, i.e. the criteria for positive definiteness of Hessian matrix, are given as
where
where
Of course, (inverse) temperature
The convexity property of the entropy follows from the condition of convergence of partition function under Gaussian fluctuations [9, 31, 38]. The thermal stability is related to the convexity property of entropy. Hence, the above conditions are correctly the conditions for thermal stability. For rotating charged horizons, Eqs. (53) and (54) reproduce the thermal stability criterion with
Now, we are going to show that Eqs. (53) and (54) correctly produce the criteria of stability for charged rotating black holes (24)–(30), taking
Consider the following integral,
Define
Now, we can rewrite the argument of the exponential (
Considering the notations, given in Eqs. (53) and (54), we can write
where
So, we have
Consider the following change of variables:
Therefore Eqs. (58) and (59) together give
where
This expression explicitly shows that
From the expression (57), we get:
1) If
2) If
3) The expression of
So, the positivity of
For an
Now, any generic quadratic expression of
Thus if we consider the positivity of determinants of the all submatrices of Hessian (including itself), then we have to check
6. Discussions
The novelty of our approach is that it is purely based on quantum aspects of spacetime.
In this analysis of thermal stability of black holes, two physically reasonable assumptions are made. In classical Hamiltonian GR, total Hamiltonian vanishes. So, it is considered that the total quantum Hamiltonian operator annihilates the bulk states of quantum matter coupled spacetime. A similar argument follows for the assumption of the quantum constraint on the volume charge operator. These two assumptions may be considered to be one due to their fundamental similarity, and they ultimately give rise to a single quantum constraint.
In Section (III.C), a second assumption is made regarding the eigenvalue spectrum of the energy of the black hole. The classical mass associated with the horizon is a function of horizon area, charge and angular momentum. These horizon area, charge and angular momentum are the functions of the local fields on the horizon. So, quantization of the classical horizon area, charge and angular momentum will definitely lead to a well-defined boundary Hamiltonian operator. The existence of a quantum boundary Hamiltonian operator, acting on the boundary Hilbert space of the black hole, is an assumption as the exact form of such a Hamiltonian operator is still unknown. But the fact that its eigenvalue spectrum is a function of eigenvalue spectra of the area, charge and angular momentum operators are an obvious assumption, as it is bound to happen if such a boundary Hamiltonian operator exists. It follows from the classical analogue—the mass associated with the horizon must be a function of the horizon area, charge and angular momentum for a consistent Hamiltonian evolution.
In this chapter, we have derived the criteria for thermal stability of charged rotating black holes, for horizon areas that are largely relative to the Planck area (in these dimensions). We also generalize it for black holes with arbitrary hairs in any spacetime dimension. Like earlier, results of LQG and equilibrium statistical mechanics of the grand canonical ensemble are sufficient for our analysis. The only assumption is that the mass of the black hole is a function of its horizon area and all the hairs. The obtained stability criteria can be applied to check the thermal stability of any black hole whose mass is given as function of its charges, and in fact this has been done [43] for various black holes as well.
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Notes
- ‘No hair’ theorem [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] for black holes states that black hole cannot have any hair classically
- Actually this second assumption follows from the discussion in Subsection (III.A) [16, 32] for spacetimes admitting weakly isolated horizons where there exists a mass function determined by the area and charge associated with the horizon. This is an extension of that assumption to the quantum domain.