Phytochemical quality of various parts of commonly used species of
Abstract
Ficus, a genus of plant family Moraceae, includes about 850 species. Most of the species of Ficus are used as a source of nutrition for humans. The roots, aerial roots, stem, bark, leaves, latex, fruit, and pulp of the Ficus plants are medicinally important due to the presence of a variety of bioactive phytochemical compounds, such as polyphenols, phenolic acids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, flavonols, anthocyanins, carotenoids, glycosides, polysaccharides, reducing compounds, and vitamins K, E, and C. Most of these phytochemical compounds possess strong antioxidant potential in terms of metal chelating, metal reducing, lipid reducing, and free radical scavenging capacities, which may be helpful in reducing the oxidative stress in the biological systems. On account of their high phytochemical content and strong antioxidant potential, these plants show several biological activities including antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and renal-protective, and anticancer activities. These plants have been found to be effective in the treatment of diabetes, stomachache, piles, skin diseases, inflammation, and cancer.
Keywords
- Moraceae
- Ficus
- Phytochemical composition
- Antioxidant potential
- Medicinal significance
1. Introduction
The genus
Domain | Eukaryota |
Kingdom | Plantae |
Subkingdom | Viridaeplantae |
Phylum | Tracheophyta |
Subphylum | Euphyllopsidia |
Infra phylum | Radiatopses |
Division | Magnoliophyte |
Class | Magnoliopsida |
Subclass | Dilleniidae |
Superorder | Urticaneae |
Order | Urticales |
Family | |
Genus |
2. Biochemical and nutritional composition
Since ancient times,
3. Phytochemicals of Ficus species
Phytochemicals are the bioactive components of plants having great importance in pharmaceutical and medicinal field. The genus
Ficus species | Plant parts | Extracting solvent | Class | Phytochemical components | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barks | Water, methanol, organic solvents, helium | Polysterols | Bergapten, bergaptol, lanosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol-d-glucoside (Phytosterolin) | [24, 25] | |
Flavonoids | Leucocyanidin-3-O-β-glucopyranosid, leucopelargonidin-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, cetyl behenate, acetate and α-amyrin acetate | ||||
Polyphenols | Tannin, wax, saponin, leucoanthocyanidin, leucoanthocyanin | ||||
Fruit | Water | Flavonols | Kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin | [26, 27] | |
Miscellaneous compounds | Undecane, tridecane, tetradecane, (e)-β-ocimene β-bourbonene, β-caryophyllene, α-trans bergamotene, α-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, dendrolasine, dendrolasine α-ylangene, α-copaene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, alloaromadendrene, germacrene, bicycle-germacrene, γ-cadinene and δ-cadinene | ||||
Leaves | Ethanol | Polyphenols | Eugenol, 2-phenylethyl alcohol, and benzyl alcohol, hexenol, n-hexanol, phytol, benzyl alcohol | [28] | |
Miscellaneous compounds | Phenol, salicylaldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde, allyl caproate, linalool, n-nonanal, adipoin, methylcyclopentane, 2-dione, itaconic anhydride, 2-phenylethyl alcohol, benzeneacetonitrile, nonadienal, nonen-1-ol, nonadienol, linalool oxide, catechol, coumaran, cinnamyl alcohol, vinylguaiacol, hexenyl tiglate, eugenol, hexenyl hexenoate, β-ionone, dihydroactinidiolide, α-copaene, hexenyl benzoate, eudesmol, eudesmol, epi-α-cadinol, β-eudesmol, α-eudesmol, α-cadinol, pentadecanal, palmitic acid and itaconic anhydride, 3-methylcyclopentane-1, 2-dione | ||||
Leaves and fruits | Ether, chloroform and ethanol | Flavonols | Kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin | [29] | |
Phenolic acids | Betulinic acid, lupeol | ||||
Sterols | Stigmasterol, bergapten, scopoletin, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside | ||||
Whole plant | N-butanol, ethanol and methanol | Flavonoids | Quercetin, quercetin 3-O-l-rhamnopyranosyl (1-6)-β-d-glucopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (isoquercitrin), quercetin 3,7-O-α-l-dirhamnoside, quercetin, 3-O-β-d-galactopyranosyl(1-6)-glucopyranoside | [30] | |
Sterol | β-Sitosterol-3-β-d-glucopyranoside | ||||
Phenolic acids | Gallic acid | ||||
Dried fruit | Water | Flavonoids | Alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, saponins, rennin, caoutchouc, resin, albumin, cerin, sugar and terpenes | [31] | |
Latex | Water | Enzymes | Proteolytic enzymes, diastase, esterase, lipase, catalase, and peroxidase | [32] | |
Phenolic acids | Malic acid | ||||
Leaves | Water | Coumarins | Psoralen and bergapten | [33] | |
Flavonoids | Rutin, quercetin, and luteolin | ||||
Phenolic acids | Ferulic acid | ||||
Phytosterols | Taraxasterol, psoralen and bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen) | ||||
Pulp | Water | Phenolic acids | Chlorgenic acid | ||
Peel | Water | Coumarins and sterol | Quercitin-3-O-rutinoside, psoralen | ||
Aerial roots | Water and methanol | Polyphenols | Saponins, tannins, glucoside and flavonoids | [14] | |
Sterol | β-Sitosterol-α-d-glucose and meso-inositol | ||||
Stem bark | Water | Polyphenols | Alkaloids, balsams, carbohydrates, flavonoids, free anthraquinones, tannins, glycosides, terpenes, resins, sterols and saponins, glycosides | [34] | |
Leaves | Water | Volatile compounds | Carvacrol, α-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, linalool, 3-tetradecanone, geranylacetone, 3,7,11-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-6;10-dodecadiene-1-yl acetate, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, α-caryophyllene, 2-methyl-3-hexyne and scytalone | [35] | |
Roots | Water | Phenolic acids | Betulinic acid and ursolic acid | [36] | |
Anthocyanins | Trihydroxy-stilbene-3, 5-O-β-d-diglucopyranoside, euphol-3-ocinnamate, lupeol, taraxar-14-ene | ||||
Aerial roots | Triterpenoids | Friedelin, lupeol, oleanolic acid, ursolic acids | [37] | ||
Leaves | Flavoinoids | Catechin, epicatechin and isovitexin | |||
Leaves | Methanol | Polyphenols | 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid-dibutyl ester, phenol, 4-(2aminopropyl), butyrolactone | [38] | |
Aerial parts | Ethanol | Flavonols | Luteolin, afzelechin, catechin, vitexin, β-sitosterol acetate, β-amyrin acetate, moretenone, β-amyrin | [39] | |
Sterols | β-Sitosterol, friedelenol | ||||
Stem bark | Water | Anthocyanins | Cetyl behenate, lupeol, α-amyrin acetate | [40] | |
Leaves and bark | Water | Sterols | β-Sitosterol and a new tetracyclic tritepene-glaunol acetate | ||
Fresh leaves and stem | Methanol | Anthocyanins | Amyrin acetate, α-amyrin acetate, lupeol, β-amyrin, α-amyrin, rhoiptelenol, 3α-hydroxyisohop-22(29)-en-24-oic acid, lupenyl acetate | [41] | |
Phenolic acids | Ursolic acid, betulinic acid | ||||
Stem bark | Water | Terpenes | Pentacyclic triterpenes 8,26-cyclo-urs-21-en3β, 20β-diol and 3β-acetoxy-8, 26-cyclo-ursan-20β-ol and also 3-friedelanone | [42] | |
Phenolic acids | Oleanolic acid, betulinic acid | ||||
Anthocyanins | Lupeol acetate, α and β amyrine, 3,5,7,4′-tetra hydroxyl flavones | ||||
Leaves | Hot and cold water | Flavonols | Triterpene, conrauidienol, and dihydroflavonol, conrauiflavonol, 3,4’,5-trihydroxy-6’’,6’’-dimethylpyrano[2,3-g]flavone | [43, 44, 45] | |
Anthocyanin | β-amyrin acetate, 6β-hydroxystigmasta-4,22-dien-3-one, 8-prenylapigenin | ||||
Phenolic acid | Betulinic acid, ursolic acid | ||||
Flavonoids | Luteolin, catechin, epigallocatechin, orientin | ||||
Sterol | β-Sitosterol glucoside | ||||
Whole plant | Water | Phenolic acid | Gallic acid | [46] | |
Anthocyanin | 3, β-hydroksilup-20(29)-en, (lupeol) | ||||
Polyphenols | Carbohydrates, glycosides, saponins, resins, fat, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic compounds. Alkaloids and steroid were absent | [47] |
Plant parts | ES | TPC | TFC | TF | AAC | TAC | TSC | TA | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Roots | Ethanol | 70 mg/g extract | 5 mg QE/g extract | 3 mg QE/g extract | [48] | |||||
Pulp | Water | 0.49–0.88 mg GAE/g | [49] | |||||||
Leaves | Hexane | 6.6–9.5 M/TE | [50] | |||||||
Dried leaves | Hexane | 17.44 mg/g | 3.87 mg/g | [51] | ||||||
Dried leaves | Methanol | 7.83 mg/g | 1.05 mg/g | [51] | ||||||
Fruit | Ethanol | 28.6–211.19 mg GAE/100 g FW, 11.9 mg/g of DM | 2.75 μg CE/mg sample | 9.6% | 0.59% | 0.0–298.6 μg cy-3-rutinoside/g FW | [52, 53] | |||
Fruit | Hexane | 259.2 mg GAE/g | [54] | |||||||
Methanol | 245.2 mg GAE/g | |||||||||
Chloroform | 159.2 mg GAE/g | |||||||||
Pulp | Methanol | 28–30 mg/100 g extract | [55] |
4. Antioxidant composition
Antioxidants are the substances which can scavenge free radicals and reduce the oxidative stress in the living and nonliving systems. The antioxidants possess electron donating ability and inhibit the free radical-mediated oxidative reactions by various mechanisms, such as, hydrogen donation, metal chelation, metal and lipid reduction, inhibition of lipid peroxidation and free radical inhibition [56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. Free radicals are the reactive oxygen and nitrogen species which are produced during various biochemical reactions particularly redox reactions. If not controlled properly, these free radicals may initiate the chain reactions in the biomolecules particularly the lipids and protein, cause the oxidative stress, and finally lead to the oxidative damage to the cell organelles, cells and tissues [24]. The oxidative damage to the cells and tissues may further lead to various health problems including cardiovascular, neurological, hepatic, and musculoskeletal abnormalities and aging. In nonliving system, the free radicals cause oxidative stress and rancidity in the food stuff for human [25]. The naturally occurring antioxidant compounds have been proved to be effective in preventing the oxidative damage to the living and nonliving systems [26]. These substances are either synthesized endogenously or taken from exogenous natural sources such as plants. The naturally occurring antioxidants include some enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase and some non-enzymatic phytochemicals compounds including phenolic acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, tocopherols, and β-carotenes [27, 28]. Some synthetic antioxidant compounds have been also reported to be effective against free radical-induced oxidative damage [29].
The antioxidant profile of various parts of
Part | ES | TEAC* | FRAC | DPPH-RSC | ABT-RSC | ILP | LRA | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stem | Methanol | 16.2% | 8615.3 mmol/g DM | [61] | |||||
Bark | Ethanol | 79% | 10884.6 μmol/g DM | ||||||
Roots | Water | 0.5–0.26 mg/ml | |||||||
Leaves | Water | 0.13–0.66 mg/ml | IC50: 0.34 mg/ml | IC50: 0.23 mg/ml | 83.30% | [51] | |||
Leaves | Methanol | 0.07–0.26 mg/ml | IC50: 0.69 mg/ml | IC50: 0.97 mg/ml | [51] | ||||
Mouse liver | Normal saline | 4.20–5.31 μmol TE/g ep | EC50: 313.3 μg/ml | [55, 62] | |||||
Chicken liver | Normal saline | EC50: 333.8 μg/ml | |||||||
Fruit | Methanol | 0.08–0.33 mg/ml | IC50: 0.95 mg/ml | IC50: 0.35 mg/ml | 41–83% | [51] | |||
Fruit | Methanol | 77.6 mg AC/100 g FW | 104.9 mg CE/100 g FW | 577.09 mg BH/100 g FW | [63, 64] | ||||
Ethanol | 146.67 mg AC/100 g FW | 146.9 mg CE/100 g FW | 729.45 mg BH/100 g F W | ||||||
Roots | Acetone | 0.1–0.45 mg/ml | IC50: 0.29 mg/ml | IC50: 0.25 mg/ml | 41–83% | [51] | |||
Bark | Water | 0.06–0.32 mg/ml | IC50: 1.03 mg/ml | IC50: 0.48 mg/ml | [51] | ||||
Leaves | Methanol | SC50 (74.00 μg/ml) | [65] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 0.04–0.22 mg/ml | IC50: 2.54 mg/ml | IC50: 0.86 mg/ml | 41.40% | [51] | |||
Aerial roots | Methanol | 71% | 6096.1 μmol/g DM | [61, 66] | |||||
Acetone, Water | 0.1–1.0 mg/ml | 96.07% | 6182.7 μmol/g DM | ||||||
Stem bark | Methanol | 84.088% | [67] | ||||||
Stem bark | Chloroform | 83.864% | |||||||
Stem bark | Hexane | 42% | |||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.32%, 4.73 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Hexane, water | 14.04%, 23.50 acetate/g DW | 7.9–16.1 mmol/kg FW | 11.42 mmol/100 g DW | 6.48 mmol/100 g DW | [52, 69, 70] | |||
Fruit | Dichloromethane | IC50: 0.02 mg/ml | [71] | ||||||
N hexane | IC50: 1.64 mg/ml | ||||||||
Root, Bark | Water | IC50: 1.62–47.50 μg/ml | IC50: 0.91–6.48 μg/ml | 86.13% | [72] | ||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.65%, 8.23 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Ethanol | SC50 > 0.4 mmol/100 g DW | [73] | ||||||
Bark | Water | 489.4 mg GAE/g DW | 104.57 μmol FSE/mg DE | 56.50 QE/mg DE | [74] | ||||
Unripe fruit | 62.34 GAE/g DW | 19.61 μmol FSE/mg DW | 7.3 QE/mg DE | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.60%, 9.80 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Fruit | Methanol | 55.9% | 93.91% | [75] | |||||
Fruit | Water | 5.89 mg GAE/g DW | 1.82 mmol FSE/g DE | IC50 = 111.20 μg/ml | 1.01–1.04 mmol TE/g DE | [76] | |||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.60%, 19.24 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Bark | Ethyl acetate | 436 mg GAE/g DW | 63.2 μg/ml | 1.2 μg/ml | 4.83 μg/ml | [71] | |||
Leaves | Ethanol | 86.13% | |||||||
Hexane | 86.76% | ||||||||
Leaves | Ethanol | 90.70% | [71] | ||||||
Hexane | 88.97% | ||||||||
Leaves | Ethanol | 90.13% | [71] | ||||||
Hexane | 94.38% | ||||||||
Fruit | Water organic solvents | 17.9 g GAE/g DW | [22] | ||||||
Leaves | Ethanol | SC50 (8.27, 12.14 μg/ml) | 80.41% | [65] | |||||
Methanol | SC50 (38.37 mg/ml) | [65] | |||||||
Dried leaves | Methanol | SC50 (61.67 μg/ml) | [65] | ||||||
Pulp | Methanol | SC50 (60.22 μg/ml) | [65] | ||||||
Leaves | Methanol | SC50 (81.62 μg/ml) | [65] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 3.70%, 56.85 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.35%, 4.75 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 3.15%, 8.04 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.45%,5.40 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Acetone, hexane and methanol | 2.60%, 12.33 mg GAE/g DW | SC50 (79.50 μg/ml) | 82.35% | [65, 68] | ||||
Leaves | Acetone | 2.40%, 4.64 mg GAE/g DW | [68] | ||||||
Leaves | Ethanol | 86.40% | [71] |
5. Biological activities
On the basis of their phytochemical composition and antioxidant profile,
Plant part | Extracting solvent | Activity | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Whole | Ethanol | Anticancer activity by reduction of lipid peroxidation, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and xanthine oxidase and by generation of hydrogen peroxide | [77] | |
Bark | Methanol | Hepatoprotective activity by reducing the activities of ALT, AST and ALP | [4] | |
Whole | Ethanol | Hypoglycemic activity by decreasing blood glucose level | [4] | |
Fruit | Water | Antitumor activity due to blockage of calcium uptake in pituitary cells | [13] | |
Whole | Water | Antioxidant and antidiabetic activity with lowering the superoxide dismutase exaggerated activity | [78] | |
Whole | Methanol | Anthelmintic activity with 100% effectiveness | [79] | |
Whole | Water | Antimicrobial activity with inhibition zone against | [4] | |
Bark | Methanol | Anti-parasitic effect with 100% lethality for | [79] | |
Bark | Water | Antioxidant and hypolipidemic activity by reduction in lipid peroxidation, cholesterol level and triacylglycerol | [80] | |
Fruit | Water | Anticancer and antibacterial activity but no antifungal activity | [81] | |
Roots | Various polarity solvents | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity | [82] | |
Whole | Methanol | Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity due to inhibition of malanodialdehyde formation | [82] | |
Roots | Methanol | Antiulcerogenic activity with cytoprotective nature of constituents | [83] | |
Leafs | Methanol | Mucoprotective activity and gastric antisecretory | [23] | |
Leaves | Methanol | Hepatoprotective activity with decrease in lipid peroxides with cytochrome p450 complex inhibition | ||
Fruit | Ethanol | Gastroprotective effect | [84] | |
Fruit | Phenol | Anti ulcerogenic, antimutagenic and anti cancerogenic compounds | [84] | |
Whole | Water | Antiviral activity due to inhibition of reverse transcriptase activity of HIV-1 | [85] | |
Leaves | Water | Antimalarial action against | [86] | |
Leaves | Water, ethanol | Significant antibacterial activity | [35] | |
Leaves | Water | Activate against standard human pathogenic yeasts strains | [87] | |
Leaves | Diethyl ether | Anti-pneumonia activity | [88] | |
Leaves | Water | Significant antibacterial activity but no antifungal activity | [35] | |
Leaves and fruits | Alcohol | Antifungal and antibacterial activities | [89] | |
Stem bark | Water | Antimicrobial activities against | [65] | |
Leaf | Water | Significant antimicrobial effect | [90] | |
Leaves | Acetone | Act as potent inhibitor of α-amylase | [68] |
6. Medicinal importance
Almost all of the
7. Conclusion
All species of
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