Plant pathogen
Abstract
Historically, Fusarium has been important because: (i) taxonomy of Fusarium species has been a controversial issue, (ii) Fusarium species are among the most important plant pathogens in the world, and (iii) many Fusarium species produce mycotoxins that cause animal and human diseases. The genus Fusarium was introduced by Link in 1809. “Die Fusarien” was published by Wollenweber and Reinking in 1935, described 65 species, 55 varieties, and 22 forms of Fusarium. In 1945, Snyder and Hansen reduced number of species of Fusarium to nine. In 1990s, the application of phylogenic species concept based on the DNA sequencing resulted in introducing new species of Fusarium that cannot be distinguished morphologically. In 2006, Leslie and Summerell integrated the morphological, biological, and phylogenic species concepts and published “The Fusarium Laboratory Manual,” which provides details of identification of 70 Fusarium species. Although considerable research studies on Fusarium have been accomplished in the past 200 years, yet Fusarium diseases continue to be among the most important plant diseases. Fusarium fungi are the most widespread in cereal-growing areas of the world and produce a diversity of mycotoxins, including zearalenone, fumonisin, moniliformin, and trichothecenes, which cause various disorders, including cancer, in animals and humans.
Keywords
- Fusarium
- taxonomy
- fungi
- plant diseases
- mycotoxins
1. Introduction
The genus
Several
2. Taxonomy
The genus
2.1. Wollenweber and Reinking
The basis for all modern taxonomic systems of
2.2. Snyder and Hansen
During 1940s and 1950s, Snyder and Hansen in the United Sates (US) developed a new taxonomy system and reduced number of species of
2.3. Gordon
Gordon published a number of papers on
2.4. Messiaen and Cassini
These French scientists developed a
2.5. Matuo
Matuo was a Japanese scientist who used the system developed by Snyder and Hanson and introduced a new
2.6. Raillo
Raillo, a Russian scientist, published a taxonomic system based on the shape of macroconidia, and the presence of microconidia and chlamydospores [15].
2.7. Bilai
Bilai, a Ukrainian scientist, studied variability in characteristics related to temperature, moisture, and culture media composition and offered her own revision of the taxonomy of the genus
2.8. Booth
A significant development in the taxonomy of
2.9. Gerlach and Nirenberg
Based on the taxonomy published in “Die Fusarien,” Gerlach and Nirenberg published their own
2.10. Joffe
Joffe, originally a Russian scientist and then in Israel, began his studies on
2.11. Nelson, Toussoun and Marasas
Toussoun and Nelson from the United States published a pictorial guide for identification of
2.12. 1980s and 1990s
During 1980s,
2.13. Leslie and Summerell
In 2006, Leslie from the United States and Summerell from Australia integrated the morphological, biological, and phylogenic species concepts and published “The
Although taxonomy of
3. Pathology
The members of genus
Host plants | Geographic distribution | |
---|---|---|
Legumes | Temperate regions | |
Sorghum | Africa, Australia, US | |
Many plant species | Temperate regions | |
Carnations, cereals, legumes | Temperate regions | |
Grasses | Australia | |
Soil | Australia | |
Germany | ||
Millet, | Africa | |
Bulb plant species | Europe | |
Banana, cacao | Tropical and subtropical regions | |
Conifers | Chile, Japan, Mexico, South Africa, US | |
Central America | ||
Potato, cereals | Temperate regions | |
Cereals | Temperate regions | |
Trees | Tropical regions | |
Sweet potato | Brazil, Cuba, Indonesia, US, Zambia | |
Germany, Netherlands | ||
Rice | Rice-growing areas | |
Corn, wheat | Africa, Japan | |
Barley, corn, wheat | Worldwide | |
Pineapple | Cuba, South America | |
Millet, other grasses | Africa | |
South Africa, US | ||
Grasses | US | |
Fig | US | |
Woody plants | Worldwide | |
Mango | Africa, Asia, US | |
Banana | Panama | |
Millet, sorghum | Africa, Argentina, Australia | |
Alfalfa, sorghum | South Africa | |
Bamboo, wheat | Japan | |
Sorghum | Arid regions | |
Many plant species | Worldwide | |
Europe, Japan | ||
Cereal | Worldwide | |
Sorghum grain | Australia, Italy, South Africa | |
Asparagus, corn, mango, sorghum | Worldwide | |
Corn | Southern Africa | |
Barley, triticale, wheat | Drier areas worldwide | |
Pearl millet | Africa, US | |
US | ||
Many hosts | Temperate regions | |
Corn, sugarcane | Mexico, Philippines | |
Banana | Subtropical regions | |
Many plant species | Worldwide | |
Mango | South Africa | |
Corn | Cooler corn-growing areas | |
Europe | ||
Sorghum | All sorghum-growing areas | |
Several plant species | Temperate regions | |
Pigeon pea | Southern Asia, sub-Saharan of Africa | |
Several plant species | Europe | |
Corn | Worldwide |
4. Fusarium toxins
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi and are capable of causing diseases in both animals and humans. Mycotoxins may produce birth defects, abortion, tremors, and cancers [27, 28, 29, 30]. Among the major mycotoxin-producing fungi are
Zearalenone is a group of estrogenic metabolites produced by several species of
Zearalenone is frequently implicated in reproductive disorders of farm animals and occasionally in hyperoestrogenic syndromes in humans [28, 32]. It has been reported that zearalenone possess estrogenic activity in cattle, pigs, and sheep. The biotransformation for zearalenone in animals involves the formation of two metabolites α-zearalenol and β-zearalenol, which are subsequently conjugated with glucuronic acid [32]. Moreover, zearalenone has also been shown to be hepatotoxic, hematotoxic, immunotoxic, and genotoxic.
Fumonisins are hydroxylated long-chain alkylamines esterified with propanetricarboxylic acid moieties produced by
Moniliformin is produced by several
Trichothecenes are a very large group of mycotoxins produced by various species of
There are several types of trichothecene mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2 mycotoxins, neosolaniol, nivalenol, satratoxin-H, T-2 mycotoxins, verrucarin A, and vomitoxin. Exposure to trichothecene mycotoxins can cause different symptoms in people such as dry eyes, tiredness, fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, mental impairment, rash, and bleeding [28]. In addition, T-2 mycotoxins are also substances for biological warfare that can be absorbed through a person’s skin [37].
Trichothecenes are typically found in plants when the autumn is cool and wet that delays harvest of grains such as corn. The toxins are also found in animal feeds that contain contaminated grain with
5. Conclusions
After about 200 years from the first introduction of
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