Classification of vegetation on the basis of physical characteristics and function.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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Owing to a rapidly increasing disease prevalence, the medical, social and economic burdens associated with the microvascular and macrovascular complications of type 2 diabetes are likely to increase dramatically in the coming decades. In this volume, leading contributors to the field review the pathogenesis, treatment and management of type 2 diabetes and its complications. They provide invaluable insight and share their discoveries about potentially important new techniques for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diabetic complications.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-597-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6459-3",doi:"10.5772/1541",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"recent-advances-in-the-pathogenesis-prevention-and-management-of-type-2-diabetes-and-its-complications",numberOfPages:456,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1cf5a2180b3aa02a5b7fecf161d0ab42",bookSignature:"Mark B. 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Dr. Zimering received his undergraduate training at Harvard College, MD and PhD degrees from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and completed an endocrinology fellowship at the NIH. His research has focused on roles for basic fibroblast growth factor (or autoantibodies which mimic or inhibit its effects) in diabetic vascular complications. He reported markedly increased plasma basic fibroblast growth in a subset of obese adult participants from the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial having increased coronary heart disease occurrence. His group reported low levels of plasma basic fibroblast growth factor in adult diabetes having a cluster of microvascular complications (macular edema, albuminuria, painful neuropathy) in association with endothelial cell inhibitory autoantibodies which activated the RhoA/Rho kinase signaling pathway in endothelial cells or caused global increases in intracellular calcium in endothelial cells, neurons or cardiomyocytes.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Department of Veterans Affairs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1013",title:"Pediatric Endocrinology",slug:"pediatric-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"18533",title:"New Treatment Strategies in Diabetic Neuropathy",doi:"10.5772/20873",slug:"new-treatment-strategies-in-diabetic-neuropathy",totalDownloads:2598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Anders Björkman, Niels Thomsen and Lars Dahlin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18533",authors:[{id:"40852",title:"Dr.",name:"Anders",surname:"Björkman",slug:"anders-bjorkman",fullName:"Anders Björkman"}],corrections:null},{id:"18534",title:"Sonographic Imaging of the Peripheral Nerves in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/21389",slug:"sonographic-imaging-of-the-peripheral-nerves-in-patients-with-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:2666,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tsuneo Watanabe, Shin-ichi Kawachi and Toshio Matsuoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18534",authors:[{id:"42913",title:"Mr.",name:"Tsuneo",surname:"Watanabe",slug:"tsuneo-watanabe",fullName:"Tsuneo Watanabe"},{id:"52853",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshio",surname:"Matsuoka",slug:"toshio-matsuoka",fullName:"Toshio Matsuoka"},{id:"53554",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinichi",surname:"Kawachi",slug:"shinichi-kawachi",fullName:"Shinichi Kawachi"}],corrections:null},{id:"18535",title:"Diabetic Neuropathy – Nerve Morphology in the Upper Extremity",doi:"10.5772/24483",slug:"diabetic-neuropathy-nerve-morphology-in-the-upper-extremity",totalDownloads:2855,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Niels Thomsen, Anders Bjorkman and Lars B. 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Landscape can also be referred to as an area of either land or water, taken in aggregate. According to Norman T Newton in the forward to his “Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture” book, stated landscape architecture as “the art or the science if preferred of arranging land, together with the spaces and objects upon it, for safe, efficient, healthful, pleasant human use.”
\nLandscape elements include parks, turfs, golf courses, managed bio reserves, soil systems, water systems, street-furniture, outdoor spaces, side-walks, lighting features, railings, and of course, vegetation.
\nLandscape is a common element in most architectural works. It has many functional values even though it is largely used for its esthetic properties. It can be shading devices & evaporative coolers during the summer period, windbreaks during the winter period, and light filters throughout the year. Environmental quality within a building can be improved significantly by plants. Urban heat island is one of the most discussed phenomena in the present world. It is more evident in dense urban forms. It affects human beings as well as the environment by having both physical and physiological impacts. Some of the causes for this phenomenon are inappropriate material selection for building envelopes, improper land use, transportation & traffic, impermeable surfaces, etc. However, the landscape can improve this situation at different levels. Urban heat island can be reduced by proper planning of vegetation around the dwellings at micro and macro levels [1].
\nHard-scape & soft-scape are the two constituents of landscape design. Both differ in their characteristics; Hard-scape has a solid character while soft-scape is more fluid in nature. Hard-scape remains unchanged throughout time but soft-scape changes with time as they mature. Soft-scape acts as a breathing animated component of the landscape (\nFigures 1\n–\n3\n).
\nSoftscape (vegetated swales). Source: Co-author.
Hardscape (hard paving).
Energy efficient landscape solution-combination of hard and soft paving: grass-paver blocks: Source: Co-author.
Hard-scape elements – walkways, driveways, rocks, paver patios, etc.
\nSoft-scape elements - flowers, trees, turf, plants, vines, shrubs, etc.
\nSome of the key advantages of landscaping are as follows:
Reducing energy consumption, CO2 impact & heat island effect.
Treating nitrogen pollution in rain.
To negate acid rain effect.
Aesthetical value
Some of the major concerns that landscape deal with are:
Improving both outdoor & indoor environmental quality.
Integrating man-made structures such as agriculture, forests, transport, settlements, industry etc. to the natural world.
Composing land, water & vegetation with built elements & paving.
Designing land, together with spaces & objects upon it, to develop a public realm.
Growth habits define the shape or form of the plants and play a key role in both their esthetic character and their function in the landscape. Based on growth habit, plants can be classified as trees, shrubs, groundcovers, or vines. The boundaries between these growth habit types are not always distinct, nor consistent. A plant species may fall into several categories depending upon the conditions of a particular site or its maintenance regime. Despite the shortcomings of this classification system, it is widely used in landscape design.
\nHerbaceous & woody plants are the main two kinds of landscape plants. Both kinds of plants differ in their characteristics. Plants that do not produce woody stems are known as herbaceous plants. They are known botanically as herbs. They can grow either in an upright, prostate, or creeper manner. Trees, shrubs, or woody vines are different types of woody plants. It is usually difficult to find out a clear distinction between trees and shrubs. Woody plants can be further divided into evergreen & deciduous plants. Deciduous trees usually shed their leaves in autumn while evergreen trees keep their leaves. Trees are relatively larger than shrubs. Shrubs are usually taller than 0.5 m and less than 3 m in height. Plants that grow over and cover ground areas are known as ground covers. They act as the bottom layer in a planting design. Groundcover has various advantages and can be used for different purposes. It can protect from drought & soil erosion. It is also used to improve the aesthetical value of a landscape as it fills the area between trees & large plants. Vines are climbing plants that can spread in different directions. Vines can be used to control erosion as well as for protecting horizontal & vertical planes from the summer sun (\nFigures 4\n and \n5\n).
\nTrees with different foliage columnar, oval, weeping, conical and round-spread out. Source: Authors.
Typical broad-leaved-evergreen tree with large canopy. Source: Authors.
Plants can also be classified according to their lifespan. Ecological origin, growth habit & seasonal pattern of plants are important factors that have to be considered in a landscape design. Region or place from which a plant species originated is considered as its ecological origin. Therefore, plants can be either native or non- native. Native plants usually have an integrated growth habit & pattern with its native ecology. Native plants can provide food to native insects and birds, developing an inter-relation with the native ecology. They usually require comparatively lesser resources & maintenance. So that, the use of non-native plant species may not help the native ecology & also can have negative impacts in some cases.
\nSome plant species shed their leaves during a period of the year while some others keep their leaves throughout the year. So that annual retention of foliage is another factor that has to be considered in landscape design as this foliage retention pattern can have a larger impact on its properties such as protection from sun & wind. Landscape can implement improvements by applying principles & practices that are environmentally friendly. Some of the changes that can be made in the micro-climate of urban public green spaces, streets & housing by proper planning, implementation & management of landscape are (\nTable 1\n).
Increasing the esthetic value
Increasing the real estate value
Decreasing the maintenance cost
Improving energy efficiency
Sr. no. | \nName | \nPhysical characteristics | \nFunction/benefits | \n
---|---|---|---|
1. | \nGround cover | \nTypically grow to less 0.5 m tall or are maintained at that height. In general, they reach 15–30 cm high. | \nA groundcover is utilized to provide protection from erosion and drought, and to improve the esthetic appearance of a landscape by filling areas between large plants and trees. | \n
2. | \nShrubs | \nIt can be defined as being larger than 0.5 m, but less than 3 m in height. | \nUsed for Esthetic purpose, Buffer and fencing also sometimes | \n
3. | \nVines/Climbers | \nVines are climbing & rambling plants. | \nThey are used on man-made structures such as a trellis, a pergola, a balcony to protect from summer sun the horizontal and vertical planes. Various vines can also be used for an effective erosion control. | \n
4. | \nTrees | \nTrees measuring 3 to 6 m is height can be classified as `small trees`, trees 6 to 9 m can be considered as `medium trees`, and trees taller than 9 m can be considered as `large trees`. | \nForm and Foliage persistence of the tree perform various function, in terms of shading, wind breakers, cooling, buffering and also add Esthetic value. | \n
4a. | \nDeciduous | \nDeciduous plants are those which completely or significantly, shed their foliage during the winter or dry season. and remain bare for a period of time, followed by the growth of new leaves in the next growing season, typically spring. | \nThese trees are helpful for shading during the w Summer season and Allowing Sun light and warmth during the winter season. | \n
4b. | \nEvergreen | \nEvergreen plants retain foliage throughout the year. | \nAll of these plants have special leaves that are resistant to cold and/or moisture loss. Evergreens may continue to photosynthesize during the winter or dry period. | \n
Classification of vegetation on the basis of physical characteristics and function.
Source: Authors.
Energy consumption can be reduced to a greater extent by proper utilization of landscape elements such as trees, shrubs, ground covers, or vines in strategic locations and proper quantity. Such kind of landscape systems can convert solar heat energy into moderate thermal loads. Thus, the need for mechanical cooling is reduced. Proper planning and management of landscapes help us to achieve a higher comfort level within the buildings. Landscape elements can be used to alter the microclimate around a building to regulate the heat gain in summer & heat loss in winter.
\nHeat exchange within a building occurs through three different processes – air infiltration, heat conduction & transmission of solar radiation. Outside air can infiltrate into the buildings through its openings in the ceilings or walls. Passage of air is also possible through cracks around doors & windows. This is the first heat exchange process. Air infiltration results in heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter. Surfaces that face wind subject to comparatively higher air pressure as the wind velocity increases and thus air enters through the openings or cracks in these surfaces. Proper planting of plants can reduce the wind velocity and thus reducing the air infiltration. Heat conduction is the second process. Heat can conduct through materials used for constructing the building. The Rate of heat conductions depends upon the insulating properties of these materials. Landscape can also reduce the heat conduction by regulating the difference between the inner & outer surfaces of the building. Landscape elements such as trees & shrubs also regulate the solar radiation receiving on the outer surfaces. Solar radiation can reduce heat loss in the winter period by increasing the temperature of outside surfaces. The Landscape system can block cold winds during the winter period to reduce conductive heat loss. Transmission of solar radiation via windows is the third process. South facing and east or west -facing glass allows an undesirable amount of solar radiation during the summer period. Glass can also heat a building in the winter period. Proper planning & planting of vegetation helps to regulate the transmission of solar radiation in different seasons. Thus landscaping & orientation on the site are two important factors that can affect the heating, cooling & lighting of a building.
Landscape reduces air infiltration & creates air spaces adjacent to buildings. These air spaces act as insulation.
Landscape elements can be shading devices that can reduce the total thermal heat loads on a building, especially during the summer period. Trees are better than man-made structures to provide canopy as trees do not heat up & reradiate down.
Vegetation cools the air in contact with it by transpiration of water from the leaves and thus reducing the cooling load on buildings. It is better for the building to be surrounded by trees, rather than concrete walls.
The advantage of using native plant species is that they are more adaptable to the local soil, climate & pathogens.
Longwave radiations are reduced by the trees and thus regulating the natural cooling at night. Radiant cooling will be more in an open field than in a canopy.
Vegetation can improve the quality of daylight passing through the windows and it can also moderate the light intensity & glare from the bright sky.
Vegetated green walls are more efficient in reducing the cooling load as compared to green roofs.
Strategic designing of the landscape is required in achieving these advantages. For example, plants are more effective when they are planted adjacent to the east & west walls, as those sides are more exposed to the summer sun. The north side requires comparatively lesser shading. The selection of plant species for shading the southern windows is difficult for a building that requires winter heat.
\nProper shading of building surfaces is an effective method to reduce the undesirable thermal load, especially during periods of high-intensity solar radiation, such as the summer period of the year. The effectiveness of shade is largely dependent on canopy spread, the height of the trees, and the location of trees & shrubs within the site. One of the best methods to reduce the air temperature is by providing shade to the building roof, south-west &west facing walls & windows. This also helps in hastening early evening cooling. South-facing roof & wall surfaces have to be shaded as these surfaces receive the majority of direct sunlight when the sun is higher in the sky. Proper plants have to be provided for shading the east or west-facing surfaces as these surfaces receive direct sunlight in the morning & afternoon. Deciduous trees can be used to block the sunlight during the summer period. Sun crosses the sky at a lower angle during the winter period but proper planting of tall trees or trimming up the branches helps to achieve desirable winter sunlight. The ambient temperature around the structure as well as the indoor temperature can be reduced to some degree by shading other parts of the building & its adjacent site. The landscape design of the site is also an important tool to reduce the reflected light towards a building from surrounding surfaces (\nFigure 6\n).
\nShaded alleys under canopy cover. Source: Co-author.
Vine covered frames or pergolas & high bushes can also be used for shading the surfaces. One main advantage of a newly planted vine is that it can provide shade much earlier than a newly planted tree. It is an effective method to cover east and west-facing surfaces by vertical vine-covered trellis while horizontal trellis can be used on any orientation. Bushes can be used on north-facing surfaces to block the low sun (\nFigure 7\n).
\nShading of west walls through landscaping. Source: Authors.
Evergreen plants can be used in landscape designing to protect the cold winter winds. These plants can be used on the north, east & west sides of a building. Both evergreen trees and shrubs are used for continuous shading or to block heavy winds. Trees and shrubs with low crowns are used as an effective windbreak system that can block wind, close to the ground. Key locations, a well-designed landscape system & proper selection of plants help to reduce the total expenses for winter heating & summer cooling of a building. It can be reduced as much as twenty-five percent.
\nDeciduous plants are the best shading devices. They can shed their leaves in response to the change in temperature.
Advantages - low cost & aesthetical value, glare can be reduced, these plants have the ability to cool the air via transpiration.
Disadvantages - limited height, diseases can affect growth & slow growth
The east, south-west & south-east sides of a building are usually considered as proper locations for deciduous plants. Deciduous plants may also cause more harm during winter than good in the summer if those plants are not carefully placed on the southern side of a building.
\nThe Wind is an important climatic factor that has to be considered in a landscape design. The Windbreak is an effective system used in a landscape to control wind & its impacts. These shelter belts, formed by rows of trees and shrubs can reduce the wind speed or redirect its movement. Properly planted windbreaks in a cold climate can regulate the heat loss & air infiltration by reducing the wind velocity around the building. Plants that can withstand the winter climate conditions have to be selected for windbreak systems. It is an effective technique to use evergreen species as the major constituent of a windbreak composition. They occupy a significant portion of the system as these plant species retain wind-blocking mass in winter. These species can divert cold winds from the buildings & thus reducing the expense for heating. Distance between the tree and building depends upon the tree height. The Optimum distance is usually taken as 1 to 3 times the windbreak height. Distance up to which the wind can be reduced depends upon the height of the tallest row. It is considered to be 30 times the height. The effective distance of a windbreak system is generally indicated based on the windbreak multiplier, which is measured from the middle of the outermost layer of vegetation, downwind, along a line following wind direction. Components of a windbreak system have to be closely spaced to act as a continuous barrier against the wind. It is necessary to consider the final form that plant species will achieve once they get matured. A one-row windbreak system is formed by a single linear row of trees & shrubs. Evergreen plant species are densely planted in a one-row windbreak as these species retain their lower limbs & foliage. Deciduous plants with narrow clowns can be used and these plant species have to be densely planted. Two-row & twin-row windbreaks are composed of two linear rows of trees or shrubs. A single species, a set of 2 species, or a mixture of species can be used to form this windbreak system. Each row of the windbreak has to be densely planted in the same way as in a one-row windbreak. Three-row windbreaks are composed of 3 rows of trees or shrubs. It should include at least one row of dense evergreen trees. Other rows can be either deciduous or evergreen plantings. Shrubs can also be used as a front-row to catch the snow, if necessary. The three-row system provides additional sheltered spaces and there is a possibility for greater diversity. Thus, the three-row windbreak system has more wildlife value than a single or double-row system (\nFigure 8\n).
\nWind-shadows created by landscaping. Source: Co-author.
The mature size of plant species has to be considered in designing the landscape. The growth rate is thus an important factor. Fast-growing plant species may not be a good choice as most of these species have poor strength even though some vines are effective fast-growing species that can be used in landscaping. Man-made structures such as a pergola, framework, wall, etc. can be used for supporting vines. Vines can also act as shading devices. Properly designed and executed landscape consisting of trees, shrubs, vines & man-made structures can regulate the micro-climate around a building and thus reducing the heat gain in the summer and heat loss in the winter. Vegetation can guard buildings from the cold winds during winter. It also provides shade from the summer sun and controls the solar radiation during different periods of the year. Thus, landscape strategies can be used for solar, thermal & wind control, according to the climate types.
\nThe climate of hot-humid zones is characterized by high rainfall and high humidity. The temperature range is relatively high at around 30–35°C and is fairly even during the day and throughout the year. Due to minimal temperature differences, winds are light or even non-existent for longer periods. However, heavy precipitation and storms occur frequently.
\nLandscape design strategies can be used to maximize the shade throughout the year and improving the air movement, thus increasing thermal comfort. Deciduous vines covering the wide trellises on the north & south sides of a building act as shading devices. These can provide comfortable outdoor areas and solar protection. Planting beds that require frequent watering have to be avoided in areas adjacent to the building. Plant species that allow penetration of low-angle winter sun have to be used for shading the buildings and outer spaces (\nFigure 9\n).
\nIn buildings it is possible to have vines/creeper covered trellises which provides shading in summer, allows diffused sunlight. Source: Created by Nivedhitha Ravichandran.
Deciduous trees with high-canopy can be used on the east & west sides of a building to improve its solar protection in the morning & afternoon. These trees allow the movement of air underneath the canopies. Low vegetation has to be kept away from the building. This allows breezes to pass through and also prevents dampness. Proper landscape placements & deflection techniques help to channel prevailing winds and thus increasing the air movement. Glare & heat absorption can be reduced by light-colored materials that are paved around the building (\nFigure 10\n).
\nChanneling prevailing winds with appropriate landscaping. Source: Authors.
Other strategies which shall be adopted to minimize the discomfort occurred due to hot and humid climatic conditions like buildings should be separated with large, free spaces between them. This allows airflow which provides ventilation for cooling and a hygienic environment. Certain species of trees (e.g. rain trees) form an extraordinary outdoor space by creating a canopy effect. They should not be planted too far from each other, so that the crowns form a wide hall-like space, creating a comfortable microclimate. An un-shaded pavement should be avoided as far as possible and air should not be allowed to pass over such hot surfaces before reaching buildings. High bushes, however, should be avoided near buildings because the space between the ground vegetation and the high crowns of the trees should remain open, providing free access for the wind at the level of the living spaces.
\nThe hot and dry climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds. The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. Hence, strategy should be such that it should prevent formation of dry dusty air due to overheating. It should maximize filtered air movement in summer. Vegetation is desirable as a radiation absorbent surface and for it has evaporative and shade giving properties.
\nThe main aim of landscape design should be to provide maximum shade during the late morning & late afternoon hours. Forestation can be avoided on the north & south sides of the building and landscape elements such as shrubs, deciduous trees, vines, etc. can be used at the eastern & western sides. More shade-providing trees can be used at the east & west sides of the building. This helps to improve shade. Solar heating of the southern walls can be regulated by using shade trees or trellis structures with vines.
\nVines help to cool the air adjacent to it via transpiration. Vines growing on vertical structures can also protect the east & west sides from heat gain during the morning & afternoon. Water features are also effective landscape tools that can cool the air in a hot dry zone. The Cooling effect is produced when hot, dry winds pass across the water body. This generates required moisture. It is better to reduce the use of paving materials and provide vegetation as much as possible. This reduces the glare as well as the potential for heat absorption by the paving materials. Light-colored paving material is an effective choice. Courtyard & garden walls are the other tools that can keep out the hot winds and conserve moist air. By planning narrow winding alleys and streets, which are shaded and relatively cool and break stormy winds, but allow through-ventilation and adequate natural lighting.
\nThe Composite climate is characterized by three seasons. A hot and dry season, usually the longest period, is followed by a wet and warm season, the monsoon period. In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude, temperatures can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas daytime temperatures are moderate and the solar radiation intense.
\nIt is necessary to maximize the shade throughout the year as well as improving the air movement. Proper humidity levels have to be maintained in dry seasons. These are the main objectives for landscape design in a composite climate zone. Some of the landscape design interventions that should be used in a composite climate zone are as flows:
Water features are effective strategies for cooling effect during dry seasons in a composite climate zone.
Deciduous trees with high canopy & terrace gardens can be used on the west & east sides of a building. This provides solar protection during morning & afternoon. It also allows air movement underneath the canopies.
Light-colored paving materials can be used around the building as this reduces the glare & heat absorption. Channeling prevailing winds with wind channeling & deflection techniques helps to maximize the air movement.
Wide trellises with deciduous vines can be used as shade structures on the north & south sides of a building to provide additional help for solar protection. It also develops comfortable outdoor spaces (\nFigures 11\n and \n12\n).
\nWindow shaded by trellises with deciduous vines. Source: Co-author.
Deciduous trees cutting off summer solar radiation. Source: Co-author.
Temperate climates are generally defined as environments with moderate rainfall spread across the year or portion of the year with sporadic drought, mild to warm summers and cool to cold winters.
\nIt is necessary to consider more substantial seasonal variations to effectively accommodate the climatic conditions of temperate regions. It is a good method to increase shade during the summer and the warming effect of the sun in winter. Winter winds should be prevented while summer winds have to be directed towards the buildings. Some of the elements that can be used in a prototypical landscape design for these climate regions are:
Use of high-canopy deciduous trees with high branches on the west & east sides. This allows penetrating warming rays from the lower sun in the winter as well as it protects from the high summer sun.
Use of low-branching evergreen tree clusters to block cold winds from north-west or north-east during the winter.
Dense evergreen shrubs can be used on the north, west, and east sides of a building to create an insulating air space between the building & vegetation. This helps to reduce heat loss during the winter.
Distance between the building and windbreak on the north side should not be more than four times the height of the windbreak
An overhead trellis with deciduous vines can be provided adjacent to the southern façade as it adds additional shade to the building. It also creates a shaded outer space for summer use.
Light-colored outdoor paving materials reduce the heat absorption and cooler air temperature can be maintained during the warm weather climate. It also reduces glare.
It is necessary to channel prevailing winds with wind channeling & deflection techniques.
Low vegetation has to be kept away from the building to prevent dampness & allow breezes to pass through.
Regions that lie in the cold climate zone are situated at high altitudes. The temperatures range between 20 and 30°C in summers, while in winters, it can range from −3°C to 8°C, or less.
\nLandscape design in a cold climate region has to consider the protection of the building from norther winds in winter. Windbreaks can be densely planted to prevent these cold winter winds. Overheating from the direct summer sun can be a problem and this can be avoided by providing shade to the south & west surfaces of the building. Dense evergreen shrubs can be planted at the northern sides of the building to create dead air spaces. This acts as insulation during the winter and summer. The speed of cold winter wind can be regulated by planting dense rows of evergreen trees and forming an earthen berm on the north & northwest sides. Low shrubs & grass should be applied in the southern windbreaker. Deciduous trees can be used in the south-west and south-east directions away from the building.
\nEarth sheltering is also an effective landscape tool in cold climates. It can be used if the building site is located on a south-facing slope that receives sufficient sunlight. Deciduous trees and shrubs can be used on the southern side of a building, as it helps to provide summer shading when required. It also allows low winter rays.
\nAdvantages of using deciduous high canopy trees on the east & west sides are:
It allows warm winter rays, provides summer shade, and maximize summer breezes.
A sunken terrace with light-colored reflective material can be incorporated into the southern side of the structure to further capture low winter sun & reflect its warmth to building interiors. Darker paving materials can be used around the building to capture warmth & promote snowmelt.
\nLightweight soil medium is used in green roof gardens (\nFigure 13\n). A drainage layer & a high-quality impermeable membrane is provided beneath the soil medium to prevent the seepage of water. Plant species are selected that can withstand severe, dry roof temperature and resist short bursts from heavy rains [2].
\nSchematic cross section of a green roof. Source: Redrawn by Co-author, reference from American Wick Drain:
Swales are constructed wetland systems. They are mainly used for managing storm-water runoff. These systems are used to maximize the removal of pollutants from the storm-water runoff and it is carried out through settling, uptake & filtering by proper vegetation planted. Some of the advantages of using swales are [3]:
reduce peak runoff rates
help in rainwater harvesting efficiency
contribute to the green goals of the site & project
Plants are immensely useful in the heating, cooling, and lighting of buildings. Simple strategies utilizing landscape planting elements such as trees, shrubs, groundcovers or vines in key locations and in proper quantities can greatly reduce energy consumption. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the energy a typical household uses. Appropriately utilized landscape elements and systems can deflect and diffuse sunlight or dissipate solar heat energy to moderate thermal loads and reduce requirements for mechanical cooling. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a cleaner air.
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',metaTitle:"Order and delivery",metaDescription:"Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through free DHL Express delivery. A selection of our books in soft cover is also available through Amazon.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\nIntechOpen books retail price range is:
\n\n100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\nDiscounts available:
\n\nBulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\n\nThere is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\n\nOrders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
\n\nWe currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nWhen paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. 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One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. The type of methods, culture species, influencing factors, and pros and cons of rice-aquaculture integrated farming are discussed in the present chapter.",book:{id:"7229",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates"},signatures:"Pamuru Ramachandra Reddy and Battina Kishori",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"},{id:"255022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kishori",middleName:null,surname:"Battina",slug:"kishori-battina",fullName:"Kishori Battina"}]},{id:"24074",title:"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish",slug:"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:7447,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"612",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms"},signatures:"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu",authors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"},{id:"29132",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafer",middleName:null,surname:"Dogu",slug:"zafer-dogu",fullName:"Zafer Dogu"},{id:"39952",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdinc",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinoz",slug:"erdinc-sahinoz",fullName:"Erdinc Sahinoz"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1922,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Ammonia is one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp culture. There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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