The main applications of enzymes in different food sectors [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
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Khalil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10578.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226598",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",surname:"A. Khalil",slug:"islam-a.-khalil",fullName:"Islam A. Khalil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79883",title:"Prospective Application of Aspergillus Species: Focus on Enzyme Production Strategies, Advances and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101726",slug:"prospective-application-of-aspergillus-species-focus-on-enzyme-production-strategies-advances-and-ch",body:'With the exponential increase in science and knowledge about biochemical processes; it would be fair to say that it is inconceivable to consider any biological process without an enzyme. They are biocatalysts that enhance the rate of reaction in numerous folds. Enzymes usually are reusable. In other words, they are not used up by the reaction and can be reused. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the reaction, the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another reaction. This means that for each reaction, it is not necessary to have a ratio of 1:1 between enzymatic molecules and substrate molecules. Enzymes mostly are proteinaceous-based in nature (there are a few RNA-based enzymes) and necessary for all living organisms [1]. A significant number of them have been recognized as safe from a biotechnological perspective. Fungi, as one of the simplest organisms, are often used to produce enzymes. In addition, factors such as low energy, low cost, non-toxic and environmentally friendly nature make them popular in many industrial processes [2]. Also, the need for gentle temperature and pressure for enzymes to function enables them to become a viable alternative to hazardous chemical catalysts [3]. Enzymes are commonly used to make wine, beer, bread, cheese, vinegar, and leather and textiles. However, the pure and clean form of enzymes has found wide applications in industry only a few decades ago [4]. Enzymes produced by the fungal system are commonly used in various sectors including food, chemicals, medicine, agriculture and energy [5]. Today, due to multiple applications, the demand for different kind of enzymes in various food sectors has increased greatly [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18], as shown in Table 1. Additionally, the manipulation of strains through recombinant DNA techniques and protein engineering technology has made it possible to meet the growing demand for enzymes [19]. Fungi are metabolically dynamic, simple to ferment and can work on an industrial scale, require simple nutrients and can be used throughout the year and are not subject to seasonal conditions [20]. The genus
Enzymes | Food sectors | Applications |
---|---|---|
Amylases | Brewing industry | Fermentation of alcohol by converting starch to sugars |
Baking industry | Breakdown of starch into simple sugars; thereby allowing the bread to rise and impart flavor | |
Dough conditioning | ||
Generates additional sugar in the bread, which improves the taste, crust color and toasting quality | ||
Anti-staling effect during bread making; improves the softness and shelf-life | ||
Cellulases | Fruit industry | Fruit and vegetable juice clarification |
Reducing the viscosity of nectars | ||
Alteration of fruit sensory properties | ||
Beverages industry | Concentrating purees | |
Health food industry | Carotenoids extraction | |
Edible oil extraction industry | Olive oil extraction | |
Baking industry | Improvement quality of bakery products | |
Chitosanases | Seafood industry | The degradation of crustacean chitinous waste |
Agriculture industry | Biological activities such as antifungal effect | |
Galactosidases | Dairy industry | Production of low lactose/milk free lactose |
Production of prebiotics | ||
Prevents crystallization of lactose Improves the scoop ability and creaminess of the product | ||
Production of ice creams, sweetened flavor and condensed milks | ||
Improves the scoop ability and creaminess of the product | ||
Invertases | Food sweetener market | Invert sugar production |
Confectionery food industry | Production of high fructose syrup | |
Manufacturing of soft-centered candies | ||
Manufacture of artificial honey | ||
Laccase | Wine industry | Removal of polyphenol, thereby providing stability to wines |
Preparation of cork stoppers of wine bottles | ||
Reduces cork taint generally imparted to aged wine bottles | ||
Brewing industry | Removal of oxygen at the end of beer fermentation process | |
Prevent the formation of off-flavors (trans 2-nonenal) | ||
Fruit industry | Juice clarification | |
Baking industry | Increase strength, stability and reduce stickiness | |
Increase volume, improved crumb structure and softness of the product | ||
Lipases | Fats and oils food industry | Production of mayonnaise and other emulsifiers, Triglycerides synthesis and trans-esterification of triglycerides in non-aqueous media; specially fat production |
Dairy industry | Development of flavoring agent in milk, cheese, and butter | |
Hydrolysis of milk, fat, cheese ripening, and modification of butter fats | ||
Meat industry | Degumming during the refining of vegetable oil | |
Flavor development, meat and fish product fat removal | ||
Baking industry | Flavor development, shelf-life prolongation | |
Naringinases | Fruit industry | Debittering of citrus fruit juices |
Wine industry | Enhances the aroma in the wine | |
Production of pruning, a flavonoid | ||
Pectinases | Fruit industry | Clarification of the fruit juices |
Enhanced levels of fruit juice volume when fruit pulps treated with pectinase | ||
Soften the peel of citrus fruits | ||
Enhances the citrus oil extraction such as lemon oil | ||
Beverages industry | Accelerates tea fermentation | |
Reduces foam forming property in instant tea powders | ||
Remove mucilaginous coat from coffee beans | ||
Wine industry | Imparts stability of red wine | |
Phytases | Baking industry | Reduction of phytate content in dough & fresh breads |
Shortening of formulation time without any change in pH | ||
Increase in bread volume and an improvement in crumb texture | ||
Softer bread crumbs were obtained | ||
Other texture parameters like gumminess and chewiness were also decreased | ||
Proteases | Dairy industry | Prevent coagulation of casein during cheese production |
Flavor development | ||
Meat industry | Meat tenderization | |
Baking industry | Assures dough uniformity | |
Improve dough consistency | ||
Gluten development | ||
Improve texture and flavor | ||
Reduce mixing time | ||
Tannase | Brewing industry | Removal of polyphenolic compounds |
Beverages industry | Manufacture of instant tea |
The use of various
A general overview of the enzyme production process has been shown in Figure 1. Fermentation has two parts, upstream processes (UsP) and downstream processes (DsP). The UsP for the enzyme manufacture include the selection of
Process steps for conversion of low-cost substrate to various enzymes by Aspergillus strains. The fermentation (submerged or solid-state) is generally followed by cell-lysis/extraction, then elimination of cells-residue from the culture, either using centrifugation, filtration, sedimentation. The cell-free culture is then concentrated using ultra-filtration, ammonium sulphate precipitation or liquid extraction with organic solvents. Then followed by a combination of various chromatographic techniques for example gel filtration and affinity chromatography.
Both submerged (SmF) and solid-state (SSF) fermentation are used for making different enzymes by fungi [35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99]. Due to easy measurement and of control fermentation parameters, reduction fermentation time and basic ways for harvesting and refining enzymatic products, more attention has been paid to SmF [62, 63, 64, 65]. In recent time, intensive investigate on SSF has been conducted and has gained reliability due to low water consumption, low energy necessities, less contamination and high manufacture yields [35, 52]. However,
Enzymes | Substrate | Type of fermentation | Fermentation conditions | Yield of enzymes | Reference | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | T (°C) | D | M (%) | ||||||
Amylase | Wheat bran | SSF | 4.5–9.0 | 22–40 | 4 | 43–81 | 74 U/mgds | [34] | |
SmF | — | 58.06 U/ml | |||||||
Pearl millet | SSF | 7.0 | 30 | 4 | 70 | 19.19 U/gds | [35] | ||
Maltose | SmF | 6.0 | 30 | 8–10 | — | 60–130 U/mgds | [36] | ||
Starch or maltose | SmF | 4.0–10.0 | 25–42 | 6 | — | ND | [37] | ||
Wheat bran | SSF | 6.0 | 28–30 | 7 | 50 | 14,249 U/gds | [38] | ||
Groundnut oil cake, coconut oil cake, sesame oil cake | SSF | 4.5 | 32.5 | 4–5 | 64 | 9868.12 U/gds | [39] | ||
Mandarin ( | SmF | 4.0–5.5 | 28–40 | 4–5 | — | 26.90 U/ml | [40] | ||
Rice flour | SmF | 6.5 | 30 | 2 | — | 0.18 U/ml | [41] | ||
0.08 U/ml | |||||||||
Wheat bran | SSF | 5.5 | 35 | 4 | 85 | 4528.4 ± 121 U/gds | [42] | ||
Ground millet, starch or carboxymethylcellulose | SmF | 5.6 | 28 | 4 | — | ND | [43] | ||
Cassava root fiber | SSF | 3.62 | ND | 2 | ND | 1.327 U/ml | [44] | ||
Cellulases | Agricultural and kitchen waste residues | SSF | 3.0–8.0 | 20–50 | 4 | 57–67 | 17–310 U/gds | [45] | |
Wheat straw | SmF | 5.0 | 30 | 5 | — | 3.2 U/ml | [46] | ||
Rice straw and wheat Bran | SSF | 5.0–6.0 | 40 | 4 | 75 | 0.68–42.7 U/gds | [47] | ||
Lantana leaves | SmF | 5.0 | 25 | 7 | — | 213.3 U/ ml | [48] | ||
Wheat bran, rice bran, rice husk, coir waste and saw dust | SSF | 6.0 | 30 | 4 | 50 | 29.11 U/gds | [49] | ||
SmF | 2.04 U/ml | ||||||||
Corn steep liquor | SSF | 7.0 | 30 | 5 | 70 | 3. 4 U/gds | [50] | ||
Chitosanases | Wheat bran | SSF | 6.6 | 28 | 5 | 65 | 41.33 U/gds | [51] | |
Yeast glucose | SmF | 4.0 | 30 | 1 | — | 85.816 U/ml | [52] | ||
Vogel’s medium | SmF | 6.0 | 37 | 1 | — | 8.80 U/mg | [53] | ||
Yeast-peptone glucose | SmF | 5.0 | 30 | 4 | — | 352 mg/l | [54] | ||
Galactosidases | Rice straw and wheat straw | SSF | 7.0 | 30 | 6 | 70 | 4681 U/mg | [55] | |
Red gram and waste-wheat bran | SSF | 5.5 | 35 | 6 | 50 | ND | [56] | ||
Lactose and wheat bran | SmF | 4.8 | 30 | 7 | — | ND | [57] | ||
Wheat bran and rice husk | SSF | 5.0 | 30 | 7 | 90 | 146.6–386.6 U/ml | [58] | ||
Invertases | Wheat bran | SSF | 4–6 | 30–40 | 3 | 70 | 117.4 U/gds | [59] | |
SmF | — | 19.1 U/ml | |||||||
Orange fruit peel | SSF | 5.0 | 30 | 4 | 80 | 43 U/ml | [60] | ||
Rye flour | SmF | 6.0 | 30 | 3 | — | 30–33.6 U/ml | [61] | ||
Laccase | Starch and yeast extract | SmF | 7.0 | 35 | 14 | — | 17.39 U/ml | [62] | |
Banana peel and peptone excelled | SmF | 5.2 | 31 | 7 | — | 15.1 and 2.60 g/l | [63] | ||
Glucose and straw | SmF | 5–7 | 28 | 2 | — | 0.052 and 0.0677 U/ml | [64] | ||
Lipases | Wheat bran + synthetic oil based | SSF | 5.5 | 30 | 6 | 40 | 630 U/gds | [65] | |
Sheanut cake | SSF | 7.0 | 30 | 7 | 60 | 49.37 U/gds | [66] | ||
Sorghum, wheat bran | SmF | 5.5 | 30 | 3 | — | 5.66 U/ml | [67] | ||
Bran-wood flour-olive oil, bran-soy bean | SSF | 5.0 | 28 | 3–4 | 50 | 37.4 U/gds | [68] | ||
Rice husk, cottonseed cake and red gram husk | SSF | 6.0 | 40 | 1 | 75 | 28.19 U/gds | [69] | ||
Naringinases | Citrus wastes | SmF | 3–5 | 26–30 | 6–8 | — | 426.4–545.2 U/gds | [70] | |
Orange and grapefruit rind | SSF | 5.4 | 35 | 8 | ND | 2.58 U/ml | [71] | ||
Yeast extract, naringin | SmF | 6.0 | 28 | 7 | — | 1.16 U/ml | [72] | ||
Orange peel | SmF | 5.0 | 45 | 4 | — | 2194.62 U/mgds | [73] | ||
Rice bran, wheat bran, sugar cane bagasse, citrus peel, and press mud | SSF | 4.0 | 27 | 4 | 50 | 58.1 U/gds | [74] | ||
Cassava waste | SSF | 5.0 | 27 | 5 | ND | 889.91 U/mg | [75] | ||
Mildew pomelo peel | SSF | 4.0 | 30 | 5 | ND | 808.85 U/mg | [76] | ||
Soybeans | SmF | 4.5 | 28 | 6 | — | 1.5 U/mgds | [77] | ||
Pectinases | Wheat bran | SSF | 4.0 | 30 | 3 | 63 | 68 U/gds | [78] | |
Orange peels and pulps | SmF | 5.0–5.5 | 30–55 | 5 | — | 40 U/ml | [79] | ||
Lemon peel | SmF | 4.2 | 37 | 6 | — | ND | [80] | ||
Wheat bran, banana peel, sugarcane bagasse, lemon peel, coffee pulp and orange peel | SSF | 6.0 | 30 | 4 | 70 | 101.05 U/ml | [81] | ||
Agroindustrial residues and polysaccharides | SmF | 3.5–9.0 | 37 | 5 | — | 1.35–7.89 U/ml | [82] | ||
Polygalacturonic acid, citrus pectins | SmF | 4.0–5.5 | 30 | ND | — | 805 and 839 U/mg | [83] | ||
Phytases | Wheat bran, rice bran, and groundnut cake | SSF | 2.0–7.5 | 30 | 8 | 10–80 | 60.6 U/gds | [84] | |
SmF | 10 | — | 9.6 U/mL | ||||||
SSF | 8 | 10–80 | 38 U/gds | ||||||
SmF | 10 | — | 8.2 U/mL | ||||||
Chickpea flour | SmF | 7.0 | 35 | 4 | — | 164 U/mL | [85] | ||
Potato waste | SSF | 6.1 | 27 | 6 | 79 | 12.93 U/gds | [86] | ||
Rice bran | SmF | 4.5 | 30 | 4 | — | ND | [87] | ||
Proteases | Wheat bran | SSF | 8.0 | 40 | 8 | 3.3 | 30.21 U/mg | [88] | |
Wheat bran | SSF | 5–5.5 | 23 | 3 | 50 | 3961.30 U/gds | [89] | ||
Vogel medium with glucose | SmF | 9.5 | 37 | 10 | — | 38 U/ml | [90] | ||
Wheat bran | SSF | 7.5–9.5 | 32 | 2 | 63 | 6.8 U/ml | [91] | ||
Tannase | Tannic acid, gallic acid and methyl gallate | SmF | 5.0 | 30 | 2 | — | 20.6 U/ml | [92] | |
Jamun ( | SSF | 5.5 | 30 | 4 | 50 | 69 U/gds | [93] | ||
Cashew testa | SSF | 3.0–8.0 | 32–35 | 3–5 | 60 | 97.32–301.7 U/gds | [94] | ||
Rosewood ( | SSF | 5.5 | 30 | 4 | 70 | 1.84 U/gds | [95] | ||
Khanna medium | SmF | 5.0 | 40 | 3 | — | 0.92 U/mgds | [96] | ||
Achachairu seed powder | SSF | 5.5 | 40 | 2 | 60 | 452.55 U/ml | [97] | ||
Wheat bran, rice bran, saw dust, rice straw dust, sugarcane pith | SSF | 5.0 | 30 | 3 | 80 | 1.32–3.95 U/gds | [98] |
Production of industrial enzymes from various
ND = not determined.
SSF: solid-state fermentation; Smf: submerged fermentation; T: incubation temperature; D: day incubation time of fermentation; M: moisture content in case of SSF.
U/ml = μmoles of fatty acids released per minute per ml of crude enzyme; U/gds = μmoles of fatty acids released per minute per gram of dry solid substrate from which enzyme has been extracted; U/mgds = μmoles of fatty acids released per minute per milligram of dry solid substrate from which enzyme has been extracted; mg/l = milligram per liter is a unit of measurement of mass concentration that shows how many milligram of a certain substance are present in one liter of a mixture; g/l = gram per liter is a unit of measurement of mass concentration that shows how many gram of a certain substance are present in one liter of a mixture.
A large amount of agro-industrial waste like wheat straw, rice straw, rice husk, bagasse, potato waste, industrial effluents, citrus wastes, sludge, etc., are produced annually. They are rich sources of sugars, mineral elements, vitamins, fiber and different phenolic compounds, etc. Consequently, they can be used for the manufacture of commercially important products like enzyme, due to their nutritional potential (Table 2). Enzymes like amylases, celluloses, chitosanases, galactosidases, invertases, laccase, lipases, naringinases, pectinases, phytases, proteases, tannase, etc., have industrial significance and are broadly used in different industries such as pulp and paper, textile, wine and brewery, food processing, laundry and detergent, agricultural industries and bio-ethanol production [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. The cost of these enzymes is a big subject faced by these industries, and efforts are going on to decrease the cost through strain improvement, better fermentation and recovery system and utilization of easily available low-cost substrates [60]. These agro-industrial wastes have exposed potential for the production of various kinds of enzymes using
Enzymes are recovered from fermentation through chemical engineering operations that are broadly used to produce enzymes [101]. When the enzyme is intracellular, the cells must be broken down to release the enzyme. This can be done using mechanical methods (such as high-pressure press, grinding, or ultrasound) or non-mechanical methods (such as drying or lysis). In the case of extracellular enzymes, an early stage of isolation (centrifugation, filtration or both) is often used to eliminate residue of the cells [101]. Then the dissolved enzyme is concentrated by eliminating the water (cross-flow filtration or evaporation), resulting in an enzyme concentrate. Alternatively, a whole enzyme preparation containing inactivated cells or cell debris may be suitable where the resulting food undergoes further refinement, for example in potable alcohol production. In all cases, the prepared enzyme is free of viable fungi [101]. The concentrate is then formulated using the correct ingredients to stabilize and standardize the enzyme [101]. The raw materials used for recovery and formulation require to be of suitable purity for the future use and require to be used according to good manufacturing Practices, i.e., in the minimal quantities required to achieve the desired effect [101]. The utilize of potential allergens in the process of producing food enzymes must be addressed and, if necessary, included in the enzyme preparation. At the end of the manufacturing procedure, the last formulated enzyme generate is introduced in the market after testing to verify agreement with qualifications for contaminants (microbial and chemical) established for enzyme preparations by the Food Chemicals Codex and FAO/WHO’s JECFA. In other words, enzymes come in three diverse forms. Firstly, there is the enzymatic protein itself, which is a pure substance that is used in labs [102]. Secondly, enzymatic concentrates are products produced following fermentation or extraction [102]. They contain the enzyme produced in much smaller amounts from other substances obtained during the fermentation process, like other (secondary) enzymes or the remainder of the fermentation [102]. These enzymatic concentrates are evaluated for safety prior to being approved for marketing. Finally, there are enzymatic preparations, which are formulations containing one or more enzymatic concentrates with added stabilizers, preservatives, and diluents to stabilize enzymes and maintain activity. These formulas are sold commercially. In general, a proven quality feature of enzymes produced by microorganisms is the lack of viable cells. In addition, other specific features of microbial enzymes include their ability and significant activity under abnormal conditions, mostly temperature and pH. For example, some microbial enzymes are produced in thermophilous, acidophilic or alkalophilic forms.
In industries, the rDNA technique will contribute to the manufacture of chemicals of commercial importance, to the advancement of existing fermentation processes and protein/enzyme production from waste materials. For this purpose, more effective strains of microorganisms can be developed. Thus, the technology of rDNA has many useful applications in crop betterment, medication and industry.
The rDNA in microorganisms occurs through three different parasexual processes namely conjugation, transduction, and transformation [103]. Internal genetic rearrangements can also occur via translocatable DNA segments (insertion sequences or transposons) [103]. Conjugation implies DNA transfer through cell-to-cell contact. Transduction occurs from the host cell to the recipient cell through bacteriophaging mediation. Transformation involves the absorption and expression of bare DNA by the appropriate cells. Competence occurs naturally but can also be induced by changes in the physical and chemical environment. In the laboratory, it can be induced by cold calcium chloride treatment, protoplasting, electroporation and heat shock [103]. After 1980, there was a heightened interest in the application of genetic recombination to the production of important microbial products such as antibiotics. The use of rDNA technology has made it possible to produce new enzymes appropriate for specific food-processing conditions [104]. Various substantial enzymes (lipases, pectinases, cellulases, amylases, etc.) are useable for the specific manufactures because of their exclusive roles and utilization in food and feed industries. Manufacture of microbial strains is another vast accomplishment that became feasible with the assist of rDNA technology. Various microbial strains have been expanded to manufacture superior enzymes by particular engineering. Specific strains of fungi have been modified in order that their capability of manufacturing toxic and hazardous materials could be decreased. Wide ranges of recombinant proteins/enzymes have been expressed in different species of fungi to be used as enzymes in industries [105].
Several
The
Cellulases are groups of enzymes that are secreted using a wide range of
Chitosanases can degrade chitin and it can generate using various
Galactosidases can be generated by various
Invertases are generated using plants, bees, and microorganisms [10], but the filamentous fungi belonging to the
Fungi such as
Lipases are one of the most important biocatalysts that perform different reactions in aqueous and non-aqueous media [11]. These enzymes usually catalyze the hydrolysis of long-chain triglycerides. They can operate on a diversity of substrates counting natural oils, artificial triglycerides, and esters of fatty acids. They are manufactured using animals, plants, and microorganisms. Presently, fungal lipases are achieving much consciousness with the rapid development of enzyme technology. Fungi-produced lipases have played an interesting role in industrial biotechnology because many of them are stable in a wide range of pH, high temperatures, and organic solvents. They are signifying one of the most important groups of biocatalysts for industrial applications.
Various microbial sources of naringinases have been reported worldwide by various investigators [12]. Production of naringinases has been very well studied in fungal sources. Among fungi,
Pectinases have the most important role in fruit and veggie juice marketing by breaking the pectin (polysaccharide) structure present in the cell wall of plants. They are mainly manufactured using microorganisms and plants. Among microorganisms, fungi (especially
Phytases have a role in food and feed industry. They are synthesized using fungi, mainly from
Proteases are produce in all organisms, such as plants, animals, and microbes [15]. The peptide bond present in the polypeptide chain is hydrolyzed by proteases. They are degradative enzymes and demonstrate specificity and selectivity in protein modification. They are one of the most important industrial enzymes and their international market is significantly growing annually. Of the 60% of enzymes marketed worldwide, proteases account for 20%. Proteases have been successfully produced by researchers from various microbial sources [15]. Reports suggest that two-thirds of the world’s commercial proteases are produced by microorganisms because of their greater yield, reduction in time consumption, reduction in space requirement, lofty genetic manipulation, and cost-effectiveness, which have made them suitable for biotechnological application in the market. Among microbes,
Tannases are a group of enzymes that are employed in multitudinous industries such as food, brewing, and pharmaceutical [18]. They have an expansive range of scattering and are generated form animals, plants, and microbial sources. However, manufactured tannins of microbial origin are favored over other sources for industrial utilization. Fungi such as
At present, enzymes have become an important part of various industries [1]. The total enzymes market size in the worldwide is anticipated to reach over $13–14 billion by 2027. However, the manufacture of different enzymes has always been a challenge. They are produced from plants, animals and microorganisms [4]. Microbial enzyme production is generally accepted and occupies approximately 85–90% of the global enzyme market. In microbial enzyme manufacture, the localization of enzyme is a major aspect to be considered. If an enzyme is extracellular, the cost of downstream processing is reduced [100]. However, when it comes to intracellular enzymes, it becomes an expensive process to purify such enzymes. The degree of purification also varies according to the use of enzymes. Among microorganisms, fungi are especially used for the manufacture of various enzymes in a wide range [5]. Out of about 260 commercial enzymes, 60% are sourced from about 25 fungal genera [115]. Fungi can produce a number of industrial enzymes that are used in variety different industrial processes. Owing to their ability to use low-value substrates, their ability to handle and their ability to produce high enzymatic titres, fungi are the subject of extensive studies for industrial enzymes. Enzymes of fungal origin (especially from
Research reported in this publication was supported by Elite Researcher Grant Committee under award numbers [958634 and 963646] from the National Institute for Medical Research Development (NIMAD), Tehran, Iran to MRA.
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"