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Human beings receive oxygen from air through respiration. It is a right for them to have clean air around them. Pollution of air have adverse effects on the health of living things. The relation between health and air quality has been a fact acknowledged since Hippocrates. Indoor environments may pollute the air with the outdoor pollutants and indoor pollutants. Indoor air quality is of particular importance for people who spend 90% of their time in public or private indoors such as houses, schools, fitness centers, shopping malls, supermarkets, workplaces and transportation vehicles. The health risks accompanying exposure to indoor air pollution can be worse for many people when compared with those of the outdoor air pollution. Unhealthy indoor air may be harmful particularly for risk groups, such as children, the elderly or the patients suffering chronic disorders. Workplace indoor air quality is equally important for those spending at least 1/3 of their lifetime in workplace [1, 2].
Workplace indoor factors are among the factor which affect the health of workers most in all sectors. Another important one of these factors is the air quality of the workplace. One of the focal points of occupational health is environmental effect on the workers working in the indoors of workplaces, when compared to those working in industrial workplaces, such as construction, mining and agricultural workplaces which are very dangerous or dangerous. Furthermore, workers working indoors are less prepared or experienced against environment risks in comparison to the ones working in industrial workplaces. Overview of relevant legislation shows control mechanisms used in such workplaces are not sufficient [3]. Workplace indoor air quality is an optimal indoor requirement which ensures health, comfort and wellbeing of workers and includes minimum air pollutants. Indoor air quality varies according to air temperature, relative humidity, air speed and chemicals at workplace [4]. In today’s workplaces, materials, equipment, various cleaning products and chemical and particle emissions determine the indoor air quality. Indoor air quality affect workers’ health, incidence of occupational accidents, nonattendance and productivity. For this reason, ensuring that the workplace indoor air quality conforms to the norms is of particular importance. Indoor air quality affects workers’ health, emergence of occupational accidents, in attendance and productivity [5]. This article aims at shedding light on the adverse effects of workplace indoor air quality on the health of workers and also the measures which need to be taken for preventing such effects. For this reason, this part covers information on factors deteriorating indoor air pollution, health problems which might develop in workers as a result of the indoor air quality, workplace indoor air quality assessment criteria stemming from international and national source data, the measures to be taken to protect workers from indoor air pollution, indoor air quality and Covid-19.
Healthy indoor air quality (IAQ) is defined as the indoor air which does not contain hazardous substances and does not create sense of discomfort in at least 80% of the workers in the workplace [8, 9, 10]. Poor indoor may result in a variety of health problems, from headache, dizziness and nausea, to asthma, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and death. The typical effect of some common indoor air pollutants on the health and wellbeing of the residents can be seen in Table 1. Poor air quality may also have adverse impact on workplace performance, learning at the education/training institutions and improvement of health services, in addition to being hazardous in terms of health and comfort. The impact of indoor air pollutants on the health of the people depends on the concentration of the concerned pollutant, exposure duration, age and gender of the people exposed to it. As for the industrial workplaces, most of the primary risks are evaluated in terms of use of personal protection equipment (PPE), exposure risk and local air conditioning [7, 8, 9, 10].
Pollutant | Impact on health |
---|---|
Carbon monoxide can cause headaches, dizziness, nausea and at very high levels, death. Elderly people, pregnant women, young children and people with heart disease and lung disease are more sensitive to the adverse effects of carbon monoxide. | |
Formaldehyde can cause eye, nose and throat irritation and is considered a potential human carcinogen. | |
Exposure to nitrogen dioxide can cause inflammation of the airways, respiratory illnesses and possibly increases the risk of lung infections. Young children and people with asthma are the most sensitive to NO2. It plays a major role in the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adults which will affect more people than heart disease by 2020 (Environmentalist 2012). Long-term exposure may also affect lung function and can enhance responses to allergens in sensitized individuals. | |
Odorous discharges are subjective and cause nausea and irritation for some people. | |
Ozone exposure can cause asthma, irritation and damage to the eyes, nose and airways. Prolonged exposure to high levels may result in damage to the lungs and airway linings. | |
Inhalable particles have been linked with a number of respiratory illnesses, including asthma and chronic bronchitis. Long-term exposure to fine particles can cause premature death from heart disease and lung disease including cancer. Short-term exposure to higher levels of fine particle concentrations have also been linked with cardio-vascular problems and increased death rates. Exposure to fine particles has also been linked to prevalent anxiety and hypertensive disorders. | |
Key symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include eye irritation, nose and throat discomfort, headache and allergic skin reaction. |
Typical health impacts of some common pollutants found indoors.
EU-OFFICER research Project showed the association between the indoor chemicals in the office and sick building syndrome-SBS symptoms. The most expressed complaints are ocular irritation (dry eyes, watering eyes or itching, burning or irritation), headache, lethargy, extraordinary tiredness. The researchers also reported that xylene, ethylbenzene, α-pinene, d-limonene, styrene, formaldehyde, acrolein, propionaldehyde, hexane and ozone might increase in the incidence of the symptoms. They concluded by underlining the need for further research in order to better depict the complicated relationship between IAQ and health interaction symptoms [11]. A research conducted on the effects of indoor air quality on the health of workers in Middle East showed that the first most affected part of workers’ bodies is their respiratory system; the second most affected one is their cardiovascular system, and the third most affected one is their visual system [12].
People living in developed European and American countries are reported to be more exposed to airborne substances deriving from indoors where they spend most of their time (>90%) causing environmentally associated symptoms that should be evaluated by health professionals. However, this percentage is expected to be higher for infants and the elderly, chronically ill people and in urban settings [13]. Many pollutants present with higher concentrations indoor than outdoor, especially in case of longer and non-intermittent exposure like in the home, workplace and school. It should be taken into account that some of the signs and symptoms presented in the text may occur only in the case of significant exposures. However, lower or shorter exposures with milder or indeterminate symptoms, or atypical presentation (noted in the text) in younger aged children render the diagnosis more difficult. The cooperation of the individual and the health care professional is essential for the correct diagnosis noting clues suggestive of indoor air pollution, like time patterns or location of occurrence by the help of a log or diary of symptoms. In the absence of this cooperation, the following questions in addition to the medical history may be useful.
Start, duration and periodicity (diurnal, daily, weekly, seasonally) of symptom or complaints.
Their relation with location under consideration (cessation when away or reoccurrence when returning)
The work type, work place, any change including moving or decoration.
Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at work, school, home, etc.
Place of residence including internal change or moving
Exposure to a new hobby etc., a new pet.
Similar problem in anybody in close contact at home or work (Table 2).
Signs and symptoms | Environmental tobacco smoke | Other combustion products | Biological pollutants | Volatile organics | Heavy metals | Sick building syndrome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Respiratory | ||||||
Rhinitis, nasal congestion | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes |
Epistaxis | No | No | No | Yes1 | No | No |
Pharyngitis, cough | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes |
Wheezing, worsening asthma | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Dyspnea | Yes2 | No | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Severe lung disease | No | No | No | No | No | Yes3 |
Other | ||||||
Conjunctival irritation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes |
Headache or dizziness | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Lethargy, fatigue, malaise | No | Yes4 | Yes5 | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Nausea, vomiting, anorexia | No | Yes4 | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
Cognitive impairment, personality change | No | Yes4 | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Rashes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
Fever, chills | No | No | Yes6 | No | Yes | No |
Tachycardia | No | Yes4 | No | No | Yes | No |
Retinal hemorrhage | No | Yes4 | No | No | No | No |
Myalgia | No | No | No | Yes5 | No | Yes |
Hearing loss | No | No | No | Yes | No | No |
Diagnostic quick reference.
Associated especially with formaldehyde.
In asthma.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis, Legionnaires’ Disease.
Particularly associated with high CO levels.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis, humidifier fever.
With marked hypersensitivity reactions and Legionnaires’ Disease.
It is the most observed indoor air contaminants. It easily disperses and it is hard not be inhaled by workers in the workplace.
ETS is also defined as Group A human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and related to three thousand pulmonary cancers per year among people who do not smoke in the U.S [14, 15, 16]. Among very young children, the incidence of pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis is reported to increase two-fold and the effects to be proportional with the frequency of smoking and smokers at the home [17].
The odor of ETS can be eliminated by ventilation, but not meaning that health risks are also removed as it is not possible to totally remove tobacco smoke [18]. The most effective remedy is strict smoking prohibition in the work-place or adapting special smoking rooms with separate ventilation to the outside [19].
Diagnostic Leads
Types of heating, cooking or similar equipment and used combustion material (especially charcoal).
Similar findings/symptoms among households in heating season.
Odor felt during heating or any damage in the equipment, if they undergo periodic professional inspection.
Remedial Action.
All equipment should be periodically checked by specialized services, especially before each cold season. The ventilation of equipment (including kitchens) is required to be connected to the outdoor environment.
Health Problems Caused By Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).
Even at room temperature certain solids or liquids may emit VOCs like formaldehyde, benzene, perchloroethylene for different length of time. They have been observed indoors than outdoors up to 10 times in six locations of the United States as reported by the EPA, even where there were petrochemical plants in use [21].
Diagnostic Leads
Presence and quantity of pressed wood products at the resident.
Exposure to VOCs at work, home, school.
Exposure to pesticides, paints, or solvents.
Formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde is a possible human carcinogen (EPA). It may irritate ocular (burning or tingling sensations) or respiratory mucosa (dyspnea or wheezing). Formaldehyde vapor may result in hypersensitivity reactions including asthmatics [22].
Pesticides.
They are used in daily life as pesticides and harmful when inhaled or exposed to their vapors or contaminated dusts. Cephalgia, dizziness, muscular weakness, and nausea are the main symptoms. Some of them are considered possible human carcinogens [23].
Remedial Action.
A forced ventilation is required when such products are used. Avoid storage of opened containers of unused paints etc. at home or workplace and similar materials within home or office.
Key Signs/Symptoms.
Lead Poisoning.
Diagnostic Leads
Housing or working in old or restored buildings or nearby busy highway or industrial area.
Working with lead material (automobile radiators, solder etc.)
Lead poisoning among people in close contact.
Exposure to mercury in latex paints or in religious or cultural activities
Remedial Action.
The possible lead dust should be cleaned by wet-mopping. Professional intervention should be sought when handling paints containing lead and adequate protective gear and good-ventilation provided in work areas.
Diagnostic Leads
Temporal ceasing or aggravation of problems in relation to exposure frequency to suspected building, or seasonality
Similar complaints in co-workers or peers.
Remedial Action.
The building, HVAC systems or possible conditions should be investigated and examined appropriately.
Asbestos and radon are among the most publicized indoor air pollutants. Both are known as carcinogens. Their carcinogenic effects are not immediate after prolonged exposure.
Asbestos.
Materials containing asbestos can lose its integrity with time releasing microscopic fibers into the environment. If they remain present in the lungs for many decades as in the case of heavy occupational exposure, they may lead to asbestos-caused pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary, pleural or peritoneal (including gastrointestinal) carcinoma, or mesothelioma [24].
Radon.
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas resulting from the decay of radium, itself a decay product of uranium, follows smoking for causing pulmonary malignancies due to the emitted alpha-particles during the decay. It has no odor, color, and taste. Tobacco smoke has a synergistic effect to radon exposure putting smokers and ex-smokers in increased risk.
Every home, school, and workplace are subject to biological air pollutants. Some reside outdoor or in human (viruses and bacteria), some in animals or insects (allergens), and some indoor and in water reservoirs (fungi and bacteria), such as humidifiers. High relative humidity is the most important factor contributing to the growth and dissemination of biological agents like house-dust mite populations or fungal growth on damp surfaces. They may cause infections by invading human tissues; hypersensitivity by activating the immune system; and toxicosis by direct effects of toxins [25].
Diagnostic Leads.
Infectious disease:
Mounting evidence regarding the workplace, home, etc. as a source place (although very difficult) like presence of a reservoir or disseminator of biologicals
Evidence of mold growth (visible growth or odors)?
Hypersensitivity disease:
Relative humidity consistently above 50%.
Presence of humidifiers or other water-spray systems, proper maintenance.
History of flooding or leaks or other sources of surface wetting.
Pets, cockroaches or rodents in the place.
Toxicosis and/or irritation:
Appropriate ventilation with fresh air.
Relative humidity consistently above 50% or below 30%.
Presence of humidifiers or other water-spray systems.
Evidence of mold growth (visible growth or odors)?
Presence of bacterial odors (fishy or locker-room smells)?
Remedial Action
Adequate outdoor air ventilation.
Cleaning of water reservoirs and chlorination of potable water systems
Repairing of leaks and seepage.
Keeping relative humidity below 50%
Controlling exposure to pets.
Regular vacuuming of carpets and furniture.
Covering of mattresses. Washing in hot water (>54.4°C to kill dust mites in soft materials)
Distinguishing whether indoor air pollution originates from the home or workplace.
Some information may help to determine the presence of an indoor air quality problem at workplace:
Symptoms observed to occur at workplace and to disappear when leaving the workplace, their temporal or locality pattern (day, season or location at work)
Similar complaint in co-workers.
Any diagnosis related to IAQ by a physician [26].
There are some international guiding principles set for indoor air quality. The recommended guidelines define indoor air quality issues with legal standards. These guidelines are prepared and updated by professionals. There is limited information in the World, particularly on concentration guidelines and standards proposed for indoor air pollutants. Only in the United Kingdom and USA, there are concentration guidelines and standards proposed for indoor air pollutants.
Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP) issued “Report on the Impact of Air Pollution on Health for public institutions and agencies. It determined allowed amounts of indoor air pollutants (COMEAP-2004);, formaldehyde, benzene, PAHs (as the equivalent of benzo[α]piren), NO2 ve CO for indoors. Air Quality Strategy for England, Wales and Northern Ireland (DETR, 2000; Defra, 2007) sets out policies for the management of indoor air quality. These include air quality targets for ten basic air pollutants for protecting the health of people and the environment, without bearing unacceptable “economic and social costs. These are Particles (PM10 and PM2.5), NO2, O3, Sulfur dioxide (SO2), PAHs, benzene, 1,3 butadiene, carbon monoxide (CO) and lead. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) supports the regulatory framework for the workplace health and safety in England, Wales and Scotland, in line with the Occupational Health and Safety Law (HSE, 1974).
Regulation on Control of Substances Hazardous on Health 2002 (HSE, 2002) set out Official Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs) for 500 substances which are listed in the EH40 document (HSE, 2011 and the following revisions), as an action against specific pollutants. These limits include maximum concentrations for short term (15 minutes) and long term (8 hours) exposure in any period of 24 hours. Although it is mostly related about indoor emissions, exposure limits determine the indoor values which should not be exceeded, no matter what the source is. HSE does not set limits for continuous (24 hours) exposure. For this reason, WELs are not considered as safe concentrations for periods longer than those specified [7].
A research conducted in Europe in 2005 collected formaldehyde, CO, NO2, benzene and naphthalene under “Group 1: High Risk Chemicals”, as they can form in high concentration and impose a significant risk for the health of residents of the building (INDEKS, 2005). “Group 2” included acetaldehyde, toluene, xylene, styrene as the chemicals of second highest risk. These compounds may occur in high concentrations in indoors, but they require less urgent action under risk management practice [7]. Leading institutions regulating the national official rules are American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and American Society of Heating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) [8, 9, 10].
The focus point of EPA air quality is to protect the human health against outdoor air. The objective of this Standard is to control emissions of six pollutants during the release of large amounts of vehicle exhaust gas and industrial waste. These standards can be used for the indoor air quality researches as outdoor air quality offer potential contribution to the indoor exposure (Table 3) [8, 9, 10].
Indoor air pollutants | Permissible concentrations |
---|---|
Carbon monoxide (CO) | < 9 ppm |
Carbon dioxide (CO | < 800 ppm |
Mold | Indoor and outdoor values should be the same |
Formaldehyde (CH | < 20 μg/m3* |
Total volatile organic compounds (VOC) | < 200 μg/m3* |
4-Phenyl Cyclohexane (4-PC) | < 3 μg/m3 |
Total particles (PM) | < 20 μg/m3 |
Regular pollutants | < National indoor standard |
Other pollutants | < 5% of the limit value |
EPA maximum indoor air standards.
Above outdoor air concentrations.
OSHA claims that it has jurisdiction in all workplace environments. These standards are concerned about indoor air quality at office buildings, industrial and construction workplaces. However, OSHA standards have limitations in terms of knowledge of pollutants and limited exposure limits, as OSHA’s standards are based on old limits issued by ACGIH in 1968. Original OSA exposure limits were developed out of ACGIH recommendations dated 1968. Up to now, only limits for some chemical pollutants (for example, asbestos and benzene) have been updated. For this reason, general tendency of industrial hygienists to prefer ACGIH Instructions to OSHA limits. Although backed up by federal laws, OSHA limits are rarely exceeded in office environments where one or more pollutant substances are correctly defined. The complicated nature of the indoor air quality is not supported by the OSHA limits [8, 9, 10].
ACGIH is a professional institution which revises and recommends user manuals used for evaluation of Professional workplace exposure by industrial hygienists every year. There are approximately 400 chemicals that are listed with exposure limits of 15 minutes and 8 hours. These directives were prepared to treat the workplace exposure. Professional exposure is generally limited with a period of 8 hour exposure for healthy individuals aged between 18 and 65. For this reason, ACGIH exposure rules do not apply for house exposure for which exposure parameters are different [7, 8, 9, 10].
ASHRAE issued a revised mechanical ventilation standard namely “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality Standard” in 1981. ASHRAE developed consensus principles for the indoor air quality in public buildings. The Standard aims at “stating minimum ventilation rates and indoor air quality”. Health effects and acceptable exposure limits are based on specific authorized people and their recommendations. For this reason, ASRAE Standard “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality” has become the guideline which is most widely used for the evaluation of indoor air quality in commercial facilities and enterprises. ASHRAE previously issued Standard 62 which is a ventilation standard. This Standard was revised a few times in the following years. The amount of fresh air was specified for smokers and non-smokers separately in 1981. This value was 2,5 L/s foreseen for non-smokers and 10 L/s for smokers, which is four times higher than the one for nonsmokers. Cigarette monopolies prevented the recognition of this Standard by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and its integration to the building regulations, by conducting intensive propagandas. Application of this Standard will increase the ventilation cost by four times in the buildings where smokers work. In 1989, the acceptable fresh air was accepted to be the amount for which 80% of the people did not express dissatisfaction. The dissatisfaction rate was increased to 20% of the people in the place.
ASHRAE’s Standard numbered 1989–2062 introduced the limit of 1000 ppm carbon dioxide for office workers. OHSA in USA defined a limit of 5000 ppm, on the condition that it does not exceed 40 hours a week. ASHRAE’s Standard 62 recognized that carbon dioxide is not a pollutant by itself, but it is one of the indicators of air polluted by people. This CO
An employer should use a systematic approach is needed when treating the air quality at the workplace. The systematic approach to indoor air quality (IAQ) comprise commitment of the management, training, participation of employees, hazard definition, control and program inspection. A management coordinator needs to be assigned for IAQ and a management plan needs to be developed.
There are three main control methods used to decrease the concentration of the indoor air pollutants:
Source Management
It includes eliminating the pollutant or replacement of pollutant with a less hazardous one. It is the most effective control method in practice. For example, an employer may install temporary barriers in order to prevent pollutants during construction activity or impose negative pressure on the field in Ref. to the adjacent fields.
Engineering Controls
Management Controls
Eliminate or decrease the duration in which one worker is exposed to a pollutant (in other words, programming the maintenance or cleaning work in the absence of inhabitants)
Decrease the amount of chemical substances used by workers or used near to workers (limit the amount of chemicals used by workers for maintenance or cleaning activities during the activity).
Control the place where the chemicals are used (conduct maintenance on moving equipment in a maintenance workshop or place equipment- printers, copy machines to a separate room).
COVID-19 spreads through particles and droplets in the air. Individuals infected by COVID may release particles and droplets of inspiration liquids containing SARS CoV-2 virus to the air (by breathing, talking, singing, exercising, coughing and sneezing). Droplets- particles may continue to disseminate and accumulate indoors of workplaces. Infection may happen in case of inhaling the COVID-19 virus from air in a distance shorter than six feet. The particles from an infected person may move along all room or closed area. The particles may hang in the air for hours even after the person leaves the room. A worker may be exposed to it, if respiration liquids directly jump to the mucosa membrane and if it is sprayed on him or her. The following cases may increase the infection risk:
Spending time indoors where the amount of outdoor air and ventilation is poor
Performing activities which increases emission of respiration liquids, such as talking loudly, singing, exercising
Long term exposure (longer than a few minutes)
Spending time in crowded areas (especially without proper mask protection).
Measures to decrease the infection potential of COVID-19:
Layout, design of a building, occupancy state, heating, ventilation and acclimatization (HVAC) system may affect the spread potential of virus through air. Although improvements made on ventilation and air cleaning do not alone eliminate of risk of spread for the SARS-CoV-2 virus, EPA recommends that physical distance should be maintained and ventilation should be improved by using outdoor air and air filtering, as the important components of a strategy which includes hygiene and clothing.
Cloth masks, face guards or masks should be used. Attention should be paid to surface cleaning, hand washing, disinfection, personal and environment hygiene [8, 30].
WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury (2000–2016: Global Monitoring Report) revealed that approximately 450.000 workers’ deaths were associated with air pollution (particle substances, gas, smoke, etc.). This association was reported to be the second most important factor which comes after the factor of working for long hours among the risk factors causing death of workers. Workplace indoor air pollution can significantly increase the health risks of workers, including asthma, allergenic reactions, lung cancer and death as a result of occupational accident [1, 29].
1989 EPA Report showed that improved indoor air quality may result in higher productivity and less working day loss. EPA stated that the poor indoor air quality may bring a cost of tens of million dollars to the respective country, employer and the enterprise every year, due to the loss of productivity and medical care cost [8].
Further research is needed to detect new indoor pollutants which are increasing in number and control their effects. Lifelong awareness, elimination of potential indoor hazards, increased awareness of health service providers and professionals are reported to be important to encourage long term lung health and wellbeing [1].
Indoor air quality can be defined as an optimal indoor requirement specifying the possible minimum amount of air pollutants to ensure the health, comfort and wellbeing of majority of the workers in any closed workplace, at any given time. Temperature at the workplace depends on relative humidity and flow of air in industry. In addition, indoor air at industrial facilities is associated with the technological processes conducted and contents of the chemicals used. Workplace risk assessment is a means which helps creation of a safer environment and it is a process allowing determination of potential adverse effects imposed on the health of workers. The obligation to determine risk assessments which are both correct and simple led to the development of approaches to asses and control risks, including COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) and “Chemical Control Kit” designed to assess chemical risks. Enterprises developed Process Route Healthiness Index (PRHI) to analyze new processes which are not yet in implementation [3].
It was seen that some people had health symptoms although concentrations of indoor air pollutants are below the indoor air quality guidelines. For this reason, further research is needed to better understand and explain the complicated relationships between IAQ and health symptoms [11].
A multidisciplinary team comprising experts of occupational medicine, IAQ, building physics and toxicology is recommended for evaluation and management of IAQ problems [5].
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Therefore, the RNAi-based biopesticides are expected to reach the market also in the form of nontransgenic strategies such as sprayable products, stem injection, root drenching, seed treatment, or powder/granule. While the delivery of dsRNA by transgenic expression is well established, it requires generations of crop plants and is costly, which may take years and delays for practical application, depending on the regulatory rules, plant transformability, genetic stability, and public acceptance of genetically modified crop species. 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In fact, the imperfect maintenance of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA likely represents a critical contributor of aging. Each day, the integrity and stability of DNA are challenged by exogenous physical, chemical, or biological agents, as well as by endogenous processes, including DNA replication mistakes, spontaneous hydrolytic reactions, and reactive oxygen species. In this way, DNA repair systems have evolved a complex network that is collectively able of dealing with most of the damages inflicted. However, their efficiency may decrease with age and, therefore, influence the rate of aging. Thus, the purpose of this work is to summarize the recent knowledge in cellular aging process and its link with DNA repair systems, with a particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms associated.",book:{id:"8605",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",title:"DNA Repair",fullTitle:"DNA Repair- An Update"},signatures:"Francisco Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel and Rosa María Bermúdez-Cruz",authors:[{id:"205238",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Bermudez",slug:"rosa-bermudez",fullName:"Rosa Bermudez"},{id:"287111",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco-Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Lagunas-Rangel",slug:"francisco-alejandro-lagunas-rangel",fullName:"Francisco-Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69649",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",totalDownloads:1242,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8992",slug:"gene-expression-and-phenotypic-traits",title:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits",fullTitle:"Gene Expression and Phenotypic Traits"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"64290",title:"Strand Displacement Amplification for Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids",slug:"strand-displacement-amplification-for-multiplex-detection-of-nucleic-acids",totalDownloads:2177,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The identification of various targets such as bacteria, viruses, and other cells remains a prerequisite for point-of-care diagnostics and biotechnological applications. Nucleic acids, as encoding information for all forms of life, are excellent biomarkers for detecting pathogens, hereditary diseases, and cancers. To date, many techniques have been developed to detect nucleic acids. However, most of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. These methods are sensitive and robust, but they require expensive instruments and trained personnel. DNA strand displacement amplification is carried out under isothermal conditions and therefore does not need expensive instruments. It is simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and inexpensive. In this chapter, we introduce the principles, methods, and updated applications of DNA strand displacement technology in the detection of infectious diseases. We also discuss how robust, sensitive, and specific nucleic acid detection could be obtained when combined with the novel CRISPR/Cas system.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Omar Mukama, Xuewen Lu, Shilin Cao and Donghai\nLin",authors:null},{id:"63557",title:"Molecular Identification of Genetically Modified Crops for Biosafety and Legitimacy of Transgenes",slug:"molecular-identification-of-genetically-modified-crops-for-biosafety-and-legitimacy-of-transgenes",totalDownloads:1993,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Crops undergo artificially DNA modifications for improvements are considered as genetically modified (GM) crops. These modifications could be in indigenous DNA or by introduction of foreign DNA as transgenes. There are 29 different crops and fruit trees in 42 countries, which have been successfully modified for various traits like herbicide tolerance, insect/pest resistance, disease resistance and quality improvement. GM crops are grown worldwide and its area is significantly increasing every year. Many countries have very strict rules and regulations for GM crops and are also a trade barrier in some situations. Hence, identification and testing of crops for GM contents is important for identity and legitimacy of transgene to simplify the international trade. Normally, molecular identification is performed at three different levels, i.e., DNA, RNA and protein, and each level has its own importance in testing about the nature and type of GM crops. In this chapter, current scenario of GM crops and different molecular testing tools are described in brief.",book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:null},{id:"38872",title:"Repetitive DNA: A Tool to Explore Animal Genomes/Transcriptomes",slug:"repetitive-dna-a-tool-to-explore-animal-genomes-transcriptomes",totalDownloads:4690,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2748",slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Deepali Pathak and Sher Ali",authors:[{id:"33032",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"sher-ali",fullName:"Sher Ali"},{id:"141455",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepali",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"deepali-pathak",fullName:"Deepali Pathak"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"53",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81708",title:"High Throughput Methods to Transfer DNA in Cells and Perspectives",slug:"high-throughput-methods-to-transfer-dna-in-cells-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104542",abstract:"Genome sequencing led to thousands of genes to study and their molecular cloning to provide ORF collection plasmids. The main approach to study their function involves analysis of the biological consequences of their expression or knockdown, in a cellular context. Given that, the starting point of such experiments is the delivery of the exogenous material, including plasmid DNA in cells. During the last decades, efforts were made to develop efficient methods and protocols to achieve this goal. The present chapter will first give a rapid overview of the main DNA transfer methods described so far: physical, chemical, and biological. Secondly, it will focus on the different methods having reached high-throughput nowadays. Finally, it will discuss the perspectives of this field in terms of future enhancements.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Colin Béatrice and Couturier Cyril"},{id:"81720",title:"Genetic Transformation in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",slug:"genetic-transformation-in-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103839",abstract:"Improving the quality and quantity of an organism and its products can be approached by molecular characters enhancement through the insertion of a gene of interest into cells of the desired organism. Genetic transformation of an organism involves isolation, identification, cloning a gene of interest into a vector, and transferring the gene to the target organism. This chapter reviews the process of genetic transformation into the organism’s cell from bacterial (Escherichia coli), yeast, plant (Onion, Tobacco, and Orchids), and mammalian. The discussion will be focused on the introduction of DNA molecules into plant cells and protoplast mediated by polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, and gene gun using particle bombardment. Further discussion on the transient protein expression system of plant-based on protoplast, onion cell, and tobacco will also be covered in this chapter as well. The systems have been proven as a powerful tool for determining subcellular protein localization, protein-protein interactions, identifying gene function, and regulation. Finally, it can be clearly seen, the differences and similarities in the mechanism of genetic transformation both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Endang Semiarti, Yekti Asih Purwestri, Saifur Rohman and Wahyu Aristyaning Putri"},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",slug:"diabetes-and-epigenetics",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",abstract:"As we attempt to understand and treat diseases, the field of epigenetics is receiving increased attention. For example, epigenetic changes may contribute to the etiology of diabetes. Herein, we review the histology of the pancreas, sugar metabolism and insulin signaling, the different types of diabetes, and the potential role of epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, in diabetes etiology. These epigenetic changes occur at differentially-methylated sites or regions and have been previously linked to metabolic diseases such as obesity. In particular, changes in DNA methylation in cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans may be linked to type 2 diabetes (T2D), which in turn is related to peripheral insulin resistance that may increase the severity of the disease. The hypothesis is that changes in the epigenome may provide an underlying molecular mechanism for the cause and deleterious metabolic health outcomes associated with severe obesity or T2D. Conversely, reversing such epigenetic changes may help improve metabolic health after therapeutic interventions.",book:{id:"9672",title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg"},signatures:"Rasha A. Alhazzaa, Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. Csoka"},{id:"81604",title:"Nonribosomal Peptide Synthesis",slug:"nonribosomal-peptide-synthesis",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104722",abstract:"Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are a type of secondary metabolite with a wide range of pharmacological and biological activities including cytostatics, immunosuppressants or anticancer agents, antibiotics, pigments, siderophores, toxins. NRPs, unlike other proteins, are synthesized on huge nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) enzyme complexes that are not dependent on ribosomal machinery. Bacteria and fungi are the most common NRPs producers. Furthermore, the presence of these peptides has been confirmed in marine microbes. Nowadays, many of these peptides are used in the treatments of inflammatory, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious disease for the development of new therapeutic agents. The structure, function, and synthesis of NRPs, as well as producer microorganisms and their several application areas, are covered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takci and Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe"},{id:"81051",title:"CRISPR Technology: Emerging Tools of Genome Editing and Protein Detection",slug:"crispr-technology-emerging-tools-of-genome-editing-and-protein-detection",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102516",abstract:"CRISPR technology has seen rapid development in applications ranging from genomic and epigenetic changes to protein identification throughout the last decade. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein systems have transformed the ability to edit, control the genomic nucleic acid and non-nucleic acid target such as detection of proteins. CRISPR/Cas systems are RNA-guided endonucleases exhibiting distinct cleavage activities deployed in the development of analytical techniques. Apart from genome editing technology, CRISPR/Cas has also been incorporated in amplified detection of proteins, transcriptional modulation, cancer biomarkers, and rapid detection of POC (point of care) diagnostics for various diseases such as Covid-19. Current protein detection methods incorporate sophisticated instrumentation and extensive sensing procedures with less reliable, quantitative, and sensitive detection of proteins. The precision and sensitivity brought in by CRISPR-dependent detection of proteins will ensure the elimination of current impediments. CRISPR-based amplification strategies have been used for accurate estimation of proteins including aptamer-based assay, femtomolar detection of proteins in living cells, immunoassays, and isothermal proximal assay for high throughput. The chapter will provide a comprehensive summary of key developments in emerging tools of genome editing and protein detection deploying CRISPR technology, and its future perspectives will be discussed.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Rita Lakkakul and Pradip Hirapure"},{id:"80374",title:"Viral Vectors in Gene Therapy and Clinical Applications",slug:"viral-vectors-in-gene-therapy-and-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102559",abstract:"Developments in gene therapy, coupled with advances in genome sequencing and a greater understanding of DNA sequences, have given rise to an exciting area of research. The use of viral vectors in gene therapy has become a very promising and fast-emerging technology over the past few decades. Despite previous setbacks, the approval of viral vector therapies worldwide, with many in late-stage clinical trials has led to a significant increase in research in this area of gene therapy. Retroviral, adenoviral, adeno-associated viral, and lentiviral vectors are all key vectors currently being researched and used in clinical trials. There are many challenges with the use of viral vectors that are yet to be overcome including cost of production, the immune response, and the ability to precisely regulate the expression of the transgene. However, with increased numbers of clinical trials showing efficacy, safety, and growing financial investment, the future use of viral vectors in gene therapy is increasingly promising.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra L.G. Mahoney, Najah T. Nassif, Bronwyn A. O’Brien and Ann M. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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