Traditional Leadership, Indigenous Knowledge, and Local Governance: Implications for Good Governance and Sustainable Development Agenda

Abstract

The traditional leadership institution had far-reaching and overall commitment to protect the local people within and outside their jurisdiction. It controls the allocation of community land held in their custody and trust; preserves law and order; collects taxes; provides social services; promotes education; adjudicates and makes pronouncement on conflicts through utilization of native intelligence defined by local/indigenous knowledge (IK). This guarantees effective local administration and control are facilitated by faithful adherence to the dictates of traditions, socio-cultural values, and norms entrenched in traditional institutions. Unfortunately, these traditional institution and leadership were neglected by colonialism. This chapter, using qualitative historical data and thematic analysis coupled with twin theories of dependency and cultural revivalism, tries to explore, and determine whether the institution of traditional leadership has any relevance in the modern governmental system and sustainable development in Africa. It found and concluded that fundamental to good governance and sustainable development agenda is the acknowledgement of the traditional institution, IK, and leadership as the custodian of society’s values and norms, the neglect of which good governance and sustainable development will be a dream. The work is significant in its contribution to research on traditional leadership, IK, and their impacts on development.

1. Introduction

For centuries before the advent of colonial rule, governance in different parts of Africa was synonymous with traditional institutions and their rulers. Local administration generally centred on the traditional rulers who were considered as the guardians and symbols of cultural values and religious practices, enforcing laws and adjudication of conflicts, with a few exceptions as in the case of the Tonga in Zambia, the Masai in Kenya and the Igbos in Eastern Nigeria [1, 2]. The traditional leadership institution had far-reaching and overall commitment to protect the local people within and outside their jurisdiction, control over the allocation of community land held in their custody and trust; preserve of law and order; collect taxes, provide, and administer social services; promote education; adjudicate and make pronouncement on conflicts. Recently, they have been significant in the provision of public goods, as facilitator of economic development, elections, and conflict management and resolution [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Their strength in providing these functions lies in their age-long existence and untenured position, their number and the increase population rate of rural inhabitants who are strategically the target of any development and good democratic governance agenda. All these are facilitated especially by their knowledge and strict adherence to the dictates of traditions, socio-cultural values and norms entrenched in traditional institutions. These defined values and norms, have in fact absolutely remained a fundamental quality of all societies in Africa. They are not only seeing as powerful traditional tools for survival, but they also form the bases of human and society’s continued existence in terms of effective and good governance. To be specific, in pre-colonial Africa, these norms and values, even though unwritten, formed and dictates the bases and directions which African traditional rulers undertake governance, exercised power and authority or influence over their jurisdiction and subjects. However, these governance institutions and structures crucial to good governance [8] were distorted during colonial era which brought a new role and changing status of traditional rulers and the institution in governance process [9]. Specifically, the imposed new governance arrangement by the European coloniser over the existing traditional independent authority offered the colonialist the opportunity to easily manipulate, exploit and control African territories. It also made the African cultural values inferior while traditional leaders were reduced to mere adviser in the colonial governmental arrangements [10, 11]. Even, at independence, traditional leaders’ roles are less considered in the modern governmental systems as roles are shared and implemented among the political office holders. This then raises some pertinent questions: What are the main features of indigenous traditional administrative systems in Africa; has the system and institution of traditional leadership have any relevance in the governance process in terms of the provision of public goods and services (law and order/administration of justice; management of common pool resources e.g. public land, forest etc.; infrastructure provision and maintenance); what strategies are being employed to facilitate and ensure effective and good governance at the local level, to what extent has African government utilised indigenous leadership and knowledge to promote the democratic interests of rural communities and what are the impediments to successful integration of this institution and knowledge into modern governmental systems for good governance and sustainable development agenda. Using qualitative historical data and thematic analysis, this paper tries to provide answers to these questions by examining the general role of traditional leadership and institution in the pre and postcolonial epochs with a view to determining the extent to which the postcolonial states in Africa has deviated from this system. It will further allow us the opportunity to explain the currently experienced loss of direction in governance which is the bane of poor governance in Africa as reflected in the various prevalent and persistent political, religious, ethnic, and civil conflicts and warp development at the local and national levels in the continent.

The above is not to suggest that there has not been attempt at highlighting the vigorous contributions of traditional institutions and leadership on development [12, 13, 14], public goods [15, 16], and political violence [17, 18] in Africa. Notwithstanding, the lack of sufficient research on traditional institutions’, indigenous knowledge (IK) and good governance and sustainable development is worrisome. This chapter is presented to fill this gap, among others, in literature.

2. Theoretical framework

This paper adopts qualitative review of literature on twin theories of the dependency and cultural revivalism in its explanation of how the traditional leadership, traditional institutions and their IK were disparaged, relegated, and manipulated in a way that African resources were incapacitated from continuously performing their usual traditional responsibilities of providing good governance for which they were renowned before colonialism. The dependency theory posits that Africa’s socio-economic and political backwardness and indeed the failure of various governance institutions including the traditional institutions have their roots in the forceful integration and incorporation of the continent into the outside edge (periphery) of global capitalist system. The arrangement which only allocated a second fiddle role to the continent in the international capital market. Andrew Gunder Frank, Frank Fanon, Walter Rodney, among other leading proponents are of the opinion that the reason for state failure in Africa is explainable within the context of the activities and motives of the bourgeoisie as depicted in the principles of colonial interventionism and their interest in empire-building. The works of classical Marxist theory, dependency theory can be traced to the works of Lenin and Luxemburg, and which was later developed by American and African scholars like Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Franz Fanon, and Walter Rodney among others [19]. Specifically, as argued by [20], what is being referred to currently as the state of underdevelopment with respect to African countries can only be described within the structure and agenda of the impacts of the interrelationship between production relations and capital formation processes in the supposed developed economies.

On cultural revivalism, the theory ascribes a very significant and powerful influential role to African traditions and cultural heritage. As posited by Gyekye, the main way to successfully deal with contemporary African problems is through renaissance of African indigenous traditions hitherto disparaged and neglected by colonialism [21].

3. Perpetuation of dependency in Africa through foreign ideas

With respect to the traditional rulers, institution, and IK, the colonialists’ occupation in Africa introduces the indirect rule, Christianity, and new commerce. The implementation of all these under African traditional rulers with the appointment of puppets to replace them significantly reduced the traditional powers and influence of African rulers and led to the emergence of serious opposition and development of antagonism to the colonisation of Africa. This activity led to the abolition of Atlantic slave trade. The reason for this African traditional rulers’ opposition was spurred by the feelings that Europeans commercial activities is taking toll on their domains without due respect for African traditions, religions, customs, and culture and for them as the custodians of these values. This is so in that the newly introduced colonial religion disparaged and condemned African religions as inferior, evil, archaic, and outmoded. Traditional rulers and leaders who fought against the European domination and control in Africa were overpowered, dethroned, and extradited to give way to the Europeans control and domination of African commerce. These included Caliph Attahiru I of Sokoto Caliphate, Kosoko of Lagos, Jaja of Opobo and Nana Olomo of Itsekiri in the oil Rivers as well as Satiru Revolt by Satirawa in 1906 in Sokoto Sultanate in Nigeria. Others across Africa include Samory Touré of Mandinka Empire, Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, Zulu Chief Bambatha of South Africa, In East Africa there was the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika by Kinjigitile Ngwale, Priest John Chilembwe of Nyasaland, now Malawi, Abd al-Qadir in Algeria, and the Shona and Ndebele rebellions in Rhodesia, among others. Even after independence, the traditional authorities were incorporated into the newly created local and district government structures except for few countries like post-independence Namibia and Zimbabwe where traditional authorities were formally excluded from local and district government structures [22]. These authorities were not recognised as part of the formal governmental structures, even though they were retained after independence [23, 24]. All these have serious disastrous impact on the development and contributions of traditional institutions, culture, religions, and indigenous resources to governance in Africa.

4. Traditional leadership, indigenous knowledge, and local governance in Africa

In Africa, the formal structures of government have been seen to perform below the expectation of its citizens and as such have become a clog in the wheel of good governance. The import of this claim can be found in the declining quality and quantity of the services provided by these institutions. This unsatisfactory performance has led to the sourcing of another institutional structures for providing essential services to the citizens. These alternatives are found within the purview of private provision or community-based provision usually facilitated by the traditional structures. The efficacy of traditional leaders, institutions, and IK to ensure good governance and guarantee sustainable development has, according to public administration scholars, inspired renewed interest in this area [20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Besides, these institutions have proven to be irrepressible, well institutionalised, and very reliable to the extent that African people are so confident in their capacities to improve their wellbeing through effective provision of required goods and services. These include security, health services, infrastructure - roads, bridges, schools, post offices, administration of justice, mechanisms for conflict resolution, common-pool resources management and credit provision among others than any other institutions or structures [22, 35, 36, 37]. The ability of these institutions to do this is facilitated and made possible through some certain unwritten laws (traditions, cultural values, etc) which have their foundations in the IK of the society passed on through stories, myths and legend, folklore, rituals, or songs from generation to generation and which formed the significant part of the general social structure which in turn bring up order, development, peace and stability in these local areas.

In the area of indigenous administration and governance, the traditional pre-colonial African societies across the continent consist of well institutionalised and recognised indigenous administrative and political systems. Examples of these, even though with variations in their features, include the old Ashanti empire and Ewe speaking people in ancient Ghana, the ancient Dahomey empire, the metropolitan and provincial Ashanti empire and the Hausa/Fulani emirate, Igbo society and Yoruba kingdom in Nigeria. In Nigeria for instance, in the Hausa-Fulani emirate, the administration of law and justice for peaceful settlement of dispute were based on religious teaching of Islam. The Chief Judge was the Khadi or Chief Alkali, appeal to Alikali’s judgement goes to the Khadi as the final court. Peace is maintained by the Madawaki who acted as the commander-in-chief of the calvary (force or arm). Among the Yorubas of the same country, although the Alaafin was very powerful regarding the judicial power, he cannot be despotic and autocratic as there are institutions, the ogboni and the Oyo Mesis that provide control and check on his powers. There exists the age-grades and vigilante groups’ which assist the local police force and involve in peacekeeping and prevention of crime or punish criminals to guarantee effective security in the community [38]. While the Igbo political system had no formal courts for the administration of justice, the Council of elders and the village assembly took part in the administration of justice. Oracle and earth goddess including Igwekala of Umunoha, the Amadioha of Ozuzu, the Agbala of Awka are institutions that are also made use of in the administration of justice for peace and security. Offences such as murder, incest, deliberate destruction of farm crops and the assault of elders were regarded as offences against these gods, Ala in particular [39, 40]. Other deities and goddess that could be likened with these among the Yorubas includes Ogun (god of iron), Sango (god of thunder), Osun (water goddess), Obatala and Ifa. Whoever acted against the laws and orders of the communities and lied must not swear by them otherwise serious calamity will befall such person [39, 40]. The reverence to these deities in the pre-colonial system and as local standard for oath taking has also assisted in ensuring transparency and accountability in governance [38, 41].

In Cameroon for example, conflict between and among persons in the villages is being resolved at the community level [42]. At this level, although leaders are concerned with personal development, the issue of governance and other projects directed at solving society’s challenges are more paramount in their minds [43]. As stressed by [42], in some situations, religious laws are highly respected and considered sacred, an order of the gods in which the elders and priests are the custodian. Social formations and indigenous structures in Central Africa, like in West African societies, are characterised by communitarian, operated and governed on the basis of kinship relationship [44] and reverence to various deities, which fundamentally prevent the type of scandal that often results in excommunication and/or abandonment of family members to their individual destinies as witnessed during colonialism [45, 46]. These pre-colonial societies relied on these institutions/deities for effective administration and governance of their localities.

In the area of infrastructure—roads, bridges, schools, post offices, common-pool of resources management and credit provision among others, there are village/local-based associations, family welfare or age-grade societies formed with significant contributions to rural development in Africa [47, 48]. In Nigeria for instance, most of them, because of the high spirit of communalism and loyalty, embark on various rural development projects like the construction of roads, boreholes, maternity clinics, health centres, Churches, mosques, schools, Post Offices, markets, cultural and recreation centres. In some areas, for rural economic advancement, they organise themselves to cooperative societies where financial resources are pooled together for local trade and commerce. This is often called ‘ajo’ or ‘eesu’ among the Yoruba traditional societies. One question that may be posed here is that: how embezzlement or defaulters can be prevented. The use of IK in oath taking (‘imule’) assist in the prevention of fraud and whoever go against the agreement will incur the wrath of whatever deities that was used in taking the oath.

Related to the above is the issue of corruption prevention. Not oblivious of the existing controversies on the prevalence of corruption in precolonial Africa vis-à-vis the Afrocentric view and that of decolonisation school of thought, this paper subscribes to Afrocentric school that pre-colonial African leaders were responsible and responsive to their subjects and avoided corruption as much as possible [49]. This is so in that their behaviour is guided by their traditional beliefs, culture, and customs. Moreover, upon assumption of office, they swear to oath of allegiance to their ancestors and the belief is that any departure from this and the moral and ethical standards of the society will invite the anger of the ancestors and community gods. This, couple with the communal spirit and love that guided their operation, therefore insulate them from being corrupt.

One of the major age-long African socio-cultural heritage is traditional medicine. Africans and their traditional leaders have been practising and utilising this traditional approach to health [50]. They have equally passed it among generation to solve their health and medical challenges before the advent of conventional or orthodox medicine. This is despite the wrong impression and conception about them. To be specific, the practitioners of traditional and indigenous medicine rely majorly on medicinal plants and herbs for the preparation of healing substances. There is no doubt the fact that present health care systems in Africa is expensive and put African people in serious predicament [51]. The option for African government is either to continue providing a type of health care which cannot be accessed by all in need or reconsider and offer more all-inclusive types of medical care and delivery systems. In this circumstance, given the fact that traditional medicine has been clearly understood and play significant role in African society, its propensities are being investigated and validated and as well supported by the World Health Organisation to complement modern medicine, its practices should be promoted. The promotion and development of African traditional medicine can both foster dignity and self-confidence in communities through self-reliance, while considerably reducing the continent’s drug costs and expenses. It serves as an important focus for international technical cooperation and offers the potential for major breakthroughs in therapeutics and health care delivery. Efforts in modern governance should be taken to keep the practice of traditional medicine alive in Africa.

Regarding the way by which conflict and misunderstandings are being handled and resolved, traditional leaders employ native intelligence and IK to manage and put finality to the resolution of a conflict. In every society in the precolonial Africa, the utmost concern of the community is to ensure an enduring peaceful relationship within and between societies. The philosophy of this worldview is encapsulated in the phrase, kanye ndu bowi, among the Buem-Kator people of the Volta Region of Ghana which translates literally to mean the “ingredients of social harmony” [52]. Among the Yorubas in Nigeria it is referred to as ‘aabo ara eni ni aabo ilu’ meaning ‘an individual’s security amount to the aggregate security of the whole society’. These provide ethical and genuine foundation for every means of communal regulations and is put into use through the levying of essential penalty. This could be psyching rewards received by the people for conformity to the accepted mode of behaviour or the feelings of ethical uneasiness and embarrassment experienced by defaulters [53].

Other traditional and IK techniques and methods employed for conflict settlement/adjudication for peaceful co-existence and harmonious relationships [41], by the traditional rulers in the precolonial African societies is reconciliation. This is often used to amicably settle dispute between and among parties, communities, organisations etc. as in the case of boundary delineation exercises, which is usually accompanied by elaborate ceremonies among the Yorubas of Nigeria have a smack of true reconciliation [54, 55]. This method was also employed by the traditional societies of Pedi, Pondo, Tshwana etc. in South Africa [55, 56, 57, 58].

Final settlement of conflict in Africa is often effectively concluded with oath taking, and at times go with ceremonies intended to celebrate the successful completion of the peace process [40, 59]. In some African societies, the mediator use either indigenous kolanut (cola acuminata) or palmwine, eats or drinks a part thereof where-upon each disputant repeats the act and any refusal to drink therefrom is a registration of disapproval and non-acceptance of the reconciliation [59, 60]. This was witnessed in the event of the settlement of Aguleri-Umuleri-Umuoba Annam war in the Eastern part of Nigeria. Other objects used for oath taking in Africa include the iron object (sacred to the god of iron, apasa (weaving instrument) and iru (chiefly sceptre), royal shrine or religious sanctuaries [41]. The wrath of the gods is invoked for drawing facts of the dispute and gods such as Sango (god of Thunder), Yemoja (goddess of river) and Ayelala (guardian of social morality) are used to ascertain the veracity of the story told by disputants as in the Yoruba ethnic group in Nigeria [61, 62].

In the management of natural disaster in Africa, there are well-preserved traditional IKS in various local communities. This knowledge has been used to observer and forecast weather and climate using acceptable traditional signs disaster prevention and management at the local level. This knowledge has been proven to be useful and effective in predicting occurrence of floods in Swaziland [53, 63]. It has also been seen to be efficacious among the native societies of the Central African region and Northwestern Cameroon [42]. These predictions enhanced by IK, as argued by [38], as simple and cheap compared to modern technologies, have never disappointed the indigenous people. All these mechanisms and strategies are employed by traditional leaders, institutions, and the indigenous societies to ensure effective and good local governance, promote the democratic interests of rural communities and sustainable development at the local level.

Even though modern governance institutions built on some of the existing precolonial structures, the involvement of traditional leaders and the utilisation of (their) IK for ensuring dedication, loyalty and sincerity is totally neglected under the guise of modern religion and civilisation. This is because the colonial interests portray African locals as barbarians without history and regard their indigenous institutions as conservative and archaic [64]. Thus, instead of allocating functional roles and responsibilities to the traditional leaders who have the mastery of administration of their localities, they are given only ceremonial role to perform. This has a lot of implications for democratic governance, its processes, and challenges regarding improvement in the quality of life of the rural poor.

5. Traditional leadership, traditional institutions, and IK: implications for good governance and sustainable African development

To effectively bring into limelight the implications and the propensity of traditional leadership, traditional institutions and IK for good governance and sustainable African development, this paper takes side with the cultural revivalism school of thought settlement. As argued, postcolonial African and its people should implement a more critical transformative freedom agenda capable of completely liberating Africans and that anything short of this in any guise is nothing but continued European cultural domination [65]. Hence, honest, and sincere development that is viable and sustainable in Africa is that which is rooted in African cultural norms. This viewpoint of the paper is without prejudice to the critics of the cultural revival school that the only way out of African continent’s development quagmire is to totally move away from its past to address the critical challenges effectively and urgently according to the exigencies of the present [66].

Consequently, African governments are yet to utilise indigenous leadership and knowledge to promote the democratic interests of rural communities. This can be deciphered from the modern time administration and governance’s lack of focus on citizens’ welfare while leaders have also become very powerful, despotic, irresponsive, and irresponsible in the allocation of society’s socio-economic and political benefits.

One of the most important strengths of indigenous institutions is their general acceptability by all community members and modern government machineries. Others include orderly succession to office in line with customs and traditions. Also, the stable nature of the institutions over time compared to instability that characterises modern/state institutions, and effective checks and balances which largely prevent traditional rulers from being tyrannical or dictatorial. This ensures and guarantee effective system with low governance cost because of the method of oath taken on assumption of office that prevents waste. Rather than taking oath in the African manner, modern political office holders/leaders prefer the use of Bible and Quran which is alien to African faiths and beliefs. This gives them opportunity to perpetrate corrupt practices with impunity as it is witnessed and pronounced in Africa. The political leaders’ preference for western religion stem from Africans sayings particularly among the Yoruba culture in Nigeria that ‘Mo nbo wa Olorun kii ya ni Ogun odun’ (meaning that it is indeterminable when God will come to give judge). It takes time to expose you by God compare with African gods if you committed an offence. With this belief by those at the helms of affair, the legislature, executive and the judiciary therefore put-up lackadaisical attitude towards the performance of their duties, responsibilities, and people’s welfare. Thus, lack of reverence to African gods and deities in the modern-day government as standard for oath taking has been responsible for poor transparency and accountability in governance as well as the provision of infrastructure and basic amenities in the continent. Of import is that indigenous leaders and institutions provide not only resources in terms of cash for development purposes, but it also makes available ideas, initiatives, and influence in support of local level development.

In peacekeeping and maintenance, prevention of crime, total neglect of the role of traditional leaders and traditions have been responsible for the increasing rate of crime and criminality in Africa. For example, it is a taboo to kill a duck among the Yorubas of Southwestern part of Nigeria. Even if this is done by mistake, the killer must put a coin on the duck’s mouth. The belief is to instil fear on the killer not to kill a living thing. Someone with this experience will never dare to kill a fellow human being. Thus, if this had been properly imbibed, the recent spate of killings under whatever reason would not have been happening in the continent. Not only this, the rate at which the life of the members of armed forces are being lost during crises and peace keeping operations in the continent would have been reduced if some of the signs and symbols used for various predictions in the traditional societies have been considered.

It will be interesting to also note that most of the recurring conflicts in the continent would have been permanently resolved if the traditional leaders and institutions were allowed to use their native intelligence and informal conflict resolution mechanisms. The modern adjudication process allows for a victor and a vanquish, a situation that promotes enmity because ‘a kii ti ile ejo de, kia tun se ore’ (one does not become friend after a court litigation) [67]. All these are attestation to the significance and utility of indigenous African traditional institutions to solving societal challenges posed by modern-day representative government and governance process. In other words, it shows African traditional institutions and knowledge constitute a vital resource to democratic governance, citizens welfare and sustainable development agenda and transformation.

Consequently, the question that now arises are: in what way can the norms and values entrenched in traditional institutions be integrated with the modern system of governance; what are the impediments? and how can these be surmounted for harmonious utilisation to ensure good governance and sustainable development agenda in Africa.

Opportunities exist for improving, adopting, and adapting the hitherto neglected traditions. For instance, the aspect of traditional values and norms which emphasise good governance can be revived, harnessed, and promoted by the political elites who are increasingly being appointed into the modern governmental system through award of honorary chieftaincy titles.

Traditional leadership, indigenous institutions and knowledge also offer prospects for building a better system by adapting among others indigenous efforts at decentralisation as found in the various African societies, federal arrangements, and other arrangements that allow and facilitate harmonious relationship among people of different parts. That is, to live together in a community by creating or integrating urban and rural resources and elements for constituting or reforming formal institutions for local level development [35].

Oath taking as one of the norms and values entrenched in traditional institutions can be adopted and integrated with the modern system of governance to promote transparency and accountability in governance. This should be implemented in African ways as there is nobody in Africa, even with the prevalence of orthodox religion, without his or her roots in one of the African traditional religions. If governance is about serving people, any refusal to swear to an oath in African way therefore is a pointer or an indication of intention to rule against the wishes of the people.

All these are benefits or value-addition that the reconciliation will make to modern system of government in the search for good governance and sustainable development in Africa. As noted by [68], society is best managed and significant number of efforts and resources can best expended when policy and its processes are within the context of societal history and culture. To build and or strengthen African states therefore requires sincere recognition of its traditional rulers, its institutions and IK as well as adapting to changing realities in the modern-day democratic government and governance in all ramifications.

The above notwithstanding, process of integrating traditional rulers, its institutions and IK is not without its challenges. For instance, the nature of ascendancy and ascription to indigenous political leadership, institution, and offices, in some communities, are restrictive and this limits leadership innovation and ideas. The tendency is also to concentrate power in a few hands. This type of leadership is not completely open in that the political foundation is entrenched in spirituality, divinity, customs, and tradition, which often time involves high level of secrecy that is incompatible with the ethics of modern government. In addition, the temporary approaches to development projects implementation at the local level is suggestive of the indigenous institutions’ weak financial/capital base, lack effective managerial skills, and deficient entrepreneurial qualities.

On conflict resolution and administration of justice, the lack of separation of powers in some of the traditional societies can give room for hasty and undemocratic sanctions with little or no room for review of cases and appeals. The nature of African traditional societies, indigenous institutions and leadership give room to exclusion of women who forms majority of the population from policy and decision-making in some communities.

Other impediments and threats to indigenous leadership and institutions has to do with challenge from state-based institutions, challenges posed by youths, literate and westernised elites especially in societies that cannot easily detach from its socio-cultural and traditional values; as well as challenges from modernization and monetization which are destroying spirit of communalism by encouraging individualism [35].

Regarding IK, although the existing intellectual property laws and legislations in some African countries, South Africa for instance, does not completely safeguard IK systems [69, 70]. This, in many situations opens the IK to misappropriation, exploited without due recognition and acknowledgement of the guardian of this knowledge. This notwithstanding, intensive efforts on behalf of many developing and less developed countries comprising African countries and Indigenous peoples and communities all over the world have shown the significance of IK as key to their participation in the knowledge economy [71]. Specifically, many African countries have made the crucial effort to formulate their own precise legislation, referred to as the sui generis legislation [72]. In South Africa for example, the Intellectual Property Laws Amendment Act of 2013 extend protection to traditional knowledge referred to as IK. Also, in government gazette, 19 August 2019, in Act No. 6 of 2019 provided for the protection, promotion, development and management of IK through the establishment and functions of the National Indigenous Knowledge Systems Office, among other provisions. In Botswana, Part XII of its industrial property Act provides for Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) to traditional communities and practitioners. In Zimbabwe, even though the burden of legally protecting traditional knowledge lies with the state, the country’s constitution of 2013 provides for the preservation of traditional knowledge [73].

Thus, in greater dimension, African countries have continued to be proactive in their thinking and actions regarding the symmetry between IK and sustainable development. This is evident through the various international and intercontinental efforts directed to champion the fortification and preservation of IK in serious global instruments over the past years [71]. Some of these legal acts or instruments include the Rio 1992 set of international instruments, especially the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (5 June 1992) 1760 UNTS 69 (entered into force 22 December 1993) and the ensuing protocols, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (3 November 2001) 2400 UNTS 303 (entered into force 29 June 2004), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (4–14 June 1992) 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force on 21 March 1994) and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples [74], among other important international human rights treaties and declarations. Other locations include numerous thematic programmes of the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) through its Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) and the WIPO Development Agenda [75]. There are other groups of legal materials and noteworthy policy instruments of continental coverage and those that have regional significance across trade, socio-economic, cultural, environmental, and developmental cooperation in relation to IK. These instruments include the Constitutive Act of the African Union; the African Economic Community (AEC); the statutes of the Pan-African Intellectual Property Organisation (PAIPO), the African Regional Intellectual Property Organisation (ARIPO) and the Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle (OAPI); the Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA); the Charter for African Cultural Renaissance; the Revised African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; the African Model Legislation for the Protection of the Rights of Local Communities, Farmers and Breeders, and for the Regulation of Access to Biological Resources; the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD); the African Union Framework Document on Agenda 2063; Africa’s Science and Technology Consolidated Plan of Action (CPA); and the Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa (STISA). Also included are the instruments establishing three (out of eight) representative African Regional Economic Commissions (RECs)—the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community (EAC)—and the Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Folklore [70, 76].

6. Conclusion

The relevance and significance role of traditional institutions to the transformation of African economies and governance systems cannot be overemphasised. Traditional rulers are the closest to the people, and the custodians of the tradition of the people. Traditional institutions and knowledge constitute crucial resources that have the potentials and opportunity to promote grassroots governance and to facilitate access of rural communities to public services. The goal of transformation is to achieve a speedy increase in social wealth and its driving force is economic development. Traditional rulers in Africa are in a privileged and vantage position to accelerate the achievement of this goal, and as such should not be abandoned. Political and economic development would be better attained when rooted in widely shared institutions and cultural values which traditional authorities represent and any system that downplayed this in governance process does so at its own peril. The neglect of unique cultural norms and values embedded in traditional institutions and knowledge in the modern-day African democracy has been the bane of poor governance and warp development at the local level. What then remains is to properly integrate the institution into the continent’s contemporary local government system for good governance.

7. Setting agenda for good governance and sustainable development in Africa: policy recommendations

As can be deduced from the preceding sections, the development of African continent remains retarded and unremarkable compared to its potentials because of colonialism. However, given the continent’s significant potentials driven by the people’s strength and endurance, what then requires is for Africa to pursue its own socio-political and economic development agenda using its endowments rather than borrowed approach [77]. Setting agenda in this regard, effective leadership demonstrated by traditional leadership appears as the foundation for crossing this hurdle. It is the leadership that derives its power, legitimacy, influence, and authority from the traditions of a particular people. Such leadership entails transparency, accountability, and a profound commitment to community’s traditions, religion, culture, and values for the people’s well-being. The absence of such leadership acts as an impediment to closing the gap between underdevelopment and sustainable development and obstacle to good governance. In this context, the incorporation of indigenous leadership approach appears as a developmental alternative. In African societies, some culture exists with deep leadership ideas embedded in peaceful co-existence, communalism, and sustainable development. Motivation from these indigenous models, which have survived over-time, gives fresh strength and enthusiasm into development engagements.

Indigenous leadership regularly involves community consent and agreement, advancing the elders’ responsibilities, local intelligence, and knowledge, as well as collective or joint decision making. The philosophies of Ubuntu and Ujamaa adopted in many African countries for instance, are concepts that emphasise partnership, collaboration, compassion, communalism, shared support, social justice and equality through community, mutual respect, and brotherhood. This concerted approach echoes with the necessity for joint effort in bridging the gap between underdevelopment and sustainable development and obstacle to good governance. Thus, indigenous leadership models stress complete reasoning, connecting wide range and multivarious factors, reflecting the details of Africa’s development challenges [78]. In this sense, indigenous leadership approach can be utilised to fill the vacuum created in Africa’s development transformation agenda. This is against the backdrop of the fact that creative and futuristic leaders who embrace and infuse indigenous values can exploit shared understanding and transform it into substantial concrete improvement.

Examples abound around Africa where traditional leadership and its accompanying integration of IK has been utilised for solving their challenges. The Gracia system in Rwanda for example has assisted in facilitating settlement process after the outbreak of genocide war. The system is a traditional form of community justice which helped to use community involvement, recovery, restoration, and responsibility to foster unity and recovery [78]. Also in Botswana, the concept of ‘Kgotla’ which highlights negotiation or discussion, compromise, and involvement, is in line with the latest values of good governance. It is traditional community approach to joint decision making involving gathering of people. Among the Igbo people of Eastern Nigeria, there is a ‘Council of Elders’. It consists of highly revered people who plays a very significant role in decision making and in the settlement of conflicts among disputants using native intellect. This is with a view to ensuring and promoting peace and cooperation for harmonious community relations.

It should be stated that leadership is not restricted or limited to individuals only, institutions. It concerns both governmental and non-governmental who have critical responsibility to discharge. By entrenching openness, responsibility, and involvement, they jointly facilitate transformation and close the gap between knowledge and practice. Nonetheless, leadership responsibilities exceed individual and institutional frontiers, it is a joint effort. It involves government officials, community leaders, entrepreneurs, educators, among others, each with a vital role to play. Leadership therefore requires acknowledging that development demands joint effort and cooperation, where all stakeholders participate to physically contribute their quota. To facilitate this process of indigenous leadership approach, there is need for profound acknowledgement of the local perspective, traditions, culture, and values. In this respect, solutions can be made and provided to reflect community’s needs by identifying the details of challenges within the context of IK. However, this is not without its problems. For example, to surmount the problem created by organisation challenge involves inclusive approach. This entails partnership between traditional leadership structures and modern governance systems. In this context, the focus must be on fair distribution of resources, resolving historical discrepancies and guaranteeing that development is enjoyed by all and sundry. When this is upheld and advanced, the continent will be able to take advantage of the combined strengths of different stakeholders for enhanced growth and sustainable development.

To this end, a constitutional reform which will bring an end to the legacy of colonial rule with respect to the power of traditional rulers is required in Africa. This will assist in bringing about the institution and all that it entails their lost glory, dignity, respect and prestige from their subjects and societies. The significant importance of the traditional leadership is attested to by the way former military dictators and successive politicians have relied on and used them as tools to mobilise peoples support for their programmes and electioneering campaigns in most African countries.

Creating an unambiguous constitutional role for traditional rulers with transparent mechanisms for appointment, promotion, discipline, and dismissal of traditional rulers for violating constitutional provisions regarding the institution will reduce unnecessary politicking and political interference and improve the institution’s performance.

In addition to this, the constitution should mandate all tiers of governments to involve traditional rulers more in local government affairs while their welfare should be considered and be accommodated in the appropriate government’s financial plans. This will go a long way to encourage the institution for better performance and insulate it from dabbling into partisan politics and as well preserve and protect its dignity and integrity.

No doubt, indigenous Peoples have struggle for the recognition of their identities, traditions, culture and their right to traditional lands, domains, and natural resources for years, nonetheless records have shown that their rights have always been desecrated. As one of the most deprived and susceptible groups of people in the world, the global community now realises that, given their crucial role in the preservation and transmission of IK, special actions are needed to safeguard their rights and preserve their unique cultures and way of life [79, 80]. This is attested to by their various struggle in the international scene. Despite all these little has been achieved regarding their acknowledgement and acceptance. Given this background and their essential role in the local community as custodians of natural and indigenous resources, and guardians of the lands and areas and collective rights of indigenous peoples globally, much is needed in term of awareness creation through local, national, and international seminars and conferences to further discuss the prospects of IK and the need to preserve them for sustainable development. This can be facilitated through effective collaborations and partnerships with all stakeholders. When this is effectively implemented, it will stabilise them in their conservation role. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, the Bambuti-Babuluko community is at the forefront of the struggle to protect residual zones of primary tropical forest. In Iran provides a good example outside Africa where the semi-nomadic Chahdegal Balouch manage 580,000 ha of fragile scrubland and desert just as Nemonte Nenquimo, leader of Ecuador’s indigenous Waorani people, has over many years protect the Amazon Forest from being depleted by miners, loggers, and oil companies [80].

The role of Non-Government Organisation is in the process of acknowledging the efficacy and prospects of IK for sustainable development significant. Their collaboration with the indigenous people and other stakeholders will facilitate effective dissemination of required information to appropriate institutions and organisations. They can partner with the government in policy formulation with respect to indigenous people and knowledge. This was witnessed in in Indonesia and Peru, where governments and non-profit organisations are collaborating to design suitable forestry policies that give credence and recognition to the land, resource rights, and opinions of indigenous peoples. It also gives communities with land tenure preferences and offers farmers, fishers, and forest-dwellers education in skills and methods to address climate change and forest management [80]. Besides, Non-Government Organisation can work with indigenous people to improve their economic wellbeing. This can be achieved by assisting them to locate new markets for their local products and to expand their source of income to create flexibility and strength for enhance traditional way of life. One important factor in strengthening indigenous peoples is land tenure. Non-Government Organisation are in the best position to fight for this. This can be achieved through securing of Certificates of Customary Land Ownership and its accompanying land tenure system in collaboration with international organisations and development partners.