Positionality of Native People of Nepal from Indigeneity to Modernity

Abstract

Nepal’s indigenous people’s social, cultural, and political status is complex and constantly changing. This study aims to investigate how modernization has influenced the lives of native Nepalese people in areas such as culture, politics, education, customary laws, and lifestyles. Using an interpretive research design based on modernization theory, information was gathered from Barghars (Tharu village chiefs) through in-depth interviews and secondary sources. Westernization and globalization have considerably impacted indigenous Nepalese communities, affecting their cultural traditions and battles for land rights. Despite these influences, indigenous communities in Nepal and elsewhere have shown resilience and creativity in preserving their heritage while adapting to modernity. Collaboration between policymakers, researchers, and community leaders can lead to comprehensive strategies that respect indigenous knowledge, protect rights, and promote the growth and well-being of communities.

1. Introduction

Indigenous people’s social, cultural, and political status in Nepal is complex and evolving. As they transition from traditional ways of life to modernity, their identities, land rights, and representation in governance structures are deeply affected. Nepal’s indigenous population is composed of over 125 distinct ethnic groups, according to the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) [1]. These communities, including the Tharu, Tamang, Gurung, and Magar, are at a crossroads between preserving their unique cultural heritage and participating in a rapidly changing society. Their diverse languages, practices, and worldviews contribute to their distinct positionality within Nepal.

This positionality is significantly shaped by their struggle for land and resource rights. The United Nations has released a report titled “Report on the situation of indigenous peoples in Nepal” [2]. The report highlights the historical marginalization and displacement of indigenous communities in Nepal as a result of land seizures and unequal distribution of resources. These communities are now striving to reclaim control over their ancestral lands and implement resource management practices that align with their traditions. This process of transformation is reshaping their position within Nepalese society.

Additionally, the representation of indigenous people in politics is extremely important. Nepal’s 2015 Constitution acknowledges the necessity for proportional representation of indigenous groups in different levels of government [3]. This recognition of their unique identity and contribution to the country’s diversity shapes their involvement in decision-making processes and policy creation. In summary, the situation of indigenous people in Nepal involves a constant balancing act between preserving their culture, securing land rights, gaining political representation, and adapting to modern changes. Their ability to maintain their identity while engaging with society demonstrates their resilience and desire for a respected place in a changing Nepal. This issue is multifaceted and influenced by various factors such as history, culture, politics, and socioeconomic circumstances.

2. Native people of Nepal

In Nepal, the Adivasi Janajati groups are referred to as “indigenous peoples” or “nationalities” by both the government and the groups themselves when interacting with national and international entities. These groups are recognized as distinct from the rest of the population. The term Adivasi in Sanskrit refers to the first or earliest settlers, while Janajati pertains to population groups that do not belong to the Hindu varna (caste) system. Adivasi Janajati is a classification used to distinguish culturally unique groups. These groups’ ancestors inhabited regions of present-day Nepal before the arrival of the Hindus centuries ago. These groups have been marginalized from the dominant social and religious hierarchy.

As per the National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) Act of 2002, Adivasi Janajati, which refers to indigenous peoples or nationalities, are characterized as ethnic groups or communities possessing “their own mother tongue and traditional customs, unique cultural identity, distinct social structure and written or oral history of their own” [4].

According to official records, the Government of Nepal recognizes 59 groups as Adivasi Janajati. These groups, which make up an estimated 35.81–50% of the population, are considered indigenous peoples of Nepal. Despite being a significant portion of the population, they have faced marginalization throughout history in terms of language, culture, politics, and economic opportunities. Among the indigenous peoples, the Magar, Tharu, Tamang, Newar, Rai, Gurung, and Limbu are the largest groups.

As per Article 1 (1.b) of the ILO Convention 169, indigenous peoples are defined as those who reside in independent countries and are considered indigenous based on their ancestry from the populations that inhabited the country or geographical region during conquest, colonization, or the establishment of present state boundaries [5]. These people retain their own social, economic, cultural, and political institutions regardless of their legal status. This definition is highly relevant to Nepal since the Hindus fled to Nepal from India in the 11th century and have governed the country’s political economy since the 18th century. Scholars from Nepal believe that the term “indigenous” is determined by the factors of “place” and “time.” Whoever is the first to settle in a particular location is considered the “indigenous” group. In Nepal, the majority of the nationalities are considered indigenous and are referred to as “indigenous nationalities.” As per the Indigenous/Nationalities Act of 2002, “indigenous nationalities” are defined as those ethnic groups or communities listed in Figure 1, who possess their own unique mother tongue, customs, cultural identity, social structure, and either written or oral history [6]. The 59 indigenous nationalities are listed as follows:

Figure 1.

Indigenous nationalities of Nepal.

2.1 Historical positionality of native people in Nepal

The position of indigenous communities is closely connected to historical land ownership systems, where traditional ways of life coexisted with the land in harmony. These systems, which are rooted in indigenous perspectives, highlight the strong connection between indigenous people and their ancestral territories. Nepal’s rich history has been shaped by both Hinduism and Buddhism, which continue to significantly impact the country’s culture, spirituality, and social norms [7]. These religious beliefs have added depth to the local experience and cultural heritage. Essentially, Nepal’s past provides a foundation for understanding the complexity of indigenous identity. It showcases the resilience and adaptability of these communities as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of modern life while maintaining their unique identities, cultural heritage, and aspirations for peaceful coexistence in a rapidly evolving world.

2.1.1 Understanding pre-modern indigenous societies in Nepal

Nepal’s indigenous societies before modern times were complex ecosystems that incorporated culture, community, and governance with the Himalayan landscapes. They respected nature, spirituality, and shared values and were known for their communal living, rich traditions, and unique governance systems. The Kathmandu Valley’s Newar community showcased their cultural diversity through their grand festivals such as Indra Jatra, which highlighted their profound spiritual connections [7]. Social stability was established through their kinship networks, which influenced the roles and relationships within their communities. Meanwhile, their economic livelihoods were based on agriculture, livestock rearing, and craftsmanship. In ancient times, village councils or “panchayats” were responsible for making collective decisions and resolving conflicts. These councils were an integral part of the governance structure. The people of these societies had a deep respect for the natural world and showed reverence for local deities through animism and shamanism. They lived their daily lives deeply rooted in tradition and interconnectedness, showcasing the harmonious integration of culture, spirituality, and governance within their intricate tapestries. In the past, village councils called “panchayats” made decisions and settled disputes. They respected nature and local deities through animism and shamanism; their culture, spirituality, and governance were intertwined.

2.1.2 Indigenous participation in Nepalese politics and governance

The involvement of indigenous communities in Nepalese politics and governance is a significant step toward addressing historical marginalization and promoting inclusive representation. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 recognizes the rights of indigenous communities and aims to ensure their active participation in decision-making processes at various levels. In the recent General Election for the Elected House of Representatives, which had taken place on November 20, 2022, out of the total number of elected parliamentarians, 54% (267) were from the dominant Khas Arya caste group, 25% (41) were from Indigenous Peoples, 27% (28) were Madhesi, 0.6% (1) were from Dalit, and none were from Muslim. It is worth noting that out of the 41 elected Indigenous Peoples, nine were Newar, six were Tharu, five were Magar, five were Rai, five were Gurung, and four were Tamang. However, despite being Indigenous by birth, the elected members do not represent Indigenous Peoples but only the political parties they are affiliated with. Unfortunately, no political party in Nepal is currently advocating for the rights of Indigenous Peoples.

2.2 Influence of external forces on indigenous communities

The impact of external forces, such as colonization and globalization, has deeply affected the indigenous communities in Nepal. These forces, influenced by both historical events and modern trends, have significantly altered the cultural, social, economic, and political aspects of these communities’ existence. This extensive study examines the complex effects of colonization and globalization on indigenous communities.

Nepal’s indigenous communities were affected by colonialism, despite the country itself never being colonized. The neighboring regions that underwent colonization brought with them colonial ideologies and socioeconomic changes that spread to the border regions of Nepal. Bista’s work in 1967 found that the British colonial rule in India and Tibet’s interactions with foreign powers profoundly impacted trade networks, political dynamics, and cultural exchanges within Nepal’s border regions [8]. This exposure to external influences resulted in changes to traditional trade routes and sociocultural practices of indigenous communities.

The impact of globalization, marked by increased connectivity and the growth of market-driven economies, has brought both opportunities and challenges to the native communities of Nepal. As modern technologies, media, and market-oriented economies have spread, these communities have become part of global advancements. While this has opened doors to greater access to information and economic opportunities, it has also endangered indigenous cultures from losing their uniqueness and vitality [9].

The influences of colonization and globalization on the indigenous lifestyles of Nepal can be categorized as follows:

2.2.1 Cultural transformation and identity

Indigenous cultural identities have been significantly impacted by colonization and globalization. Western education, religion, and languages introduced during colonization disrupted traditional knowledge transmission systems. Moreover, as Maharjan point out, the prevalence of external norms disseminated through mass media and popular culture as a result of globalization can potentially overshadow indigenous cultural practices and diminish localization [10].

2.2.2 Land rights and displacement

The impact of colonization and globalization on the territorial rights of indigenous communities has been significant. Historical treaties and borders established by colonial powers have influenced the use of land and territorial integrity of these communities. Unfortunately, the pursuit of globalization has often resulted in resource extraction and development projects that lead to land grabs and displacement, disproportionately affecting indigenous groups [11].

2.2.3 Economic changes and inequality

Globalization has affected Nepal, bringing economic changes that impact indigenous peoples. Access to global markets can benefit indigenous entrepreneurs but exacerbate economic inequalities and create socioeconomic disparities due to limited resources.

2.2.4 Political representation and rights

Colonization and globalization have influenced indigenous communities’ political representation and rights. Colonization’s legacy left indigenous communities marginalized within national political systems [8]. Globalization’s emphasis on human rights and indigenous rights movements, often triggered by transnational advocacy, has led to increased awareness of indigenous issues and policy changes at national and international levels [12].

2.2.5 Cultural revitalization and resistance

Although colonization and globalization have posed numerous challenges, they have also sparked cultural revitalization and resistance among indigenous communities. By leveraging global platforms, these communities are proudly showcasing their cultural heritage and asserting their rights [13]. In the face of external pressures, there has been a growing momentum toward reviving traditional practices, languages, and governance systems as indigenous communities strive to preserve their culture.

In brief, the impact of colonization and globalization on indigenous communities in Nepal has been considerable, affecting diverse aspects of their existence, such as cultural transformations and land right battles. Nevertheless, despite the obstacles encountered, indigenous communities have shown remarkable resilience and adaptability in navigating a dynamic world while preserving their identities and rights. Striking a balance between reaping the advantages of globalization and preserving indigenous heritage is crucial for their long-term development.

2.3 Interconnectedness of positionality, indigenous, and modernity

In our rapidly evolving society, it is essential to understand the nuances of terms such as “positionality,” “indigenous,” and “modernity” in order to fully grasp the intricate factors that shape individual and collective identities. These words encapsulate complex ideas that are deeply rooted in historical, cultural, and social contexts, impacting our perspectives on diverse societies and their connections.

Understanding the relationship between these terms is of utmost importance in the context of indigenous communities adapting to the modern society. The manner in which indigenous people assimilate into rapidly changing societies is a reflection of their unique identities and experiences as they navigate contemporary influences. By comprehending their positionality, we can gain a better understanding of the intricacies of their challenges and opportunities, such as their struggles for land rights and endeavors to safeguard their cultural heritage.

The relationship between indigenous communities and modernity is complex. Indigenous communities face the difficult task of preserving their cultural heritage while embracing the modern way of life that has become globalized. This transition requires a delicate balance between cultural authenticity and adaptation to modern realities. While modernity brings benefits such as economic growth, education, and political representation, it also poses challenges such as assimilation, loss of land, and the erosion of traditional knowledge, which can threaten their cultural identity [14].

Navigating their place within modern society poses a complex challenge to indigenous communities in Nepal. Their endeavor to uphold their cultural identity involves the use of traditional knowledge and practices while also incorporating modern elements into their lifestyles. Despite modern education and digital platforms, indigenous languages and rituals continue to be crucial to their culture. This interplay highlights the adaptability of indigenous communities to preserve their heritage while actively engaging in a changing society [15].

In conclusion, a comprehensive comprehension of positionality, indigenous identity, and modernity provides valuable insight into the intricate interplay between tradition and change, self-determination, and adaptation. The trials and triumphs of indigenous communities in contemporary environments showcase their resilience and expertise in successfully navigating the complexities of a globalized world while simultaneously upholding their distinct cultural identities.

2.4 Indigenous identity and heritage

Nepal is home to a diverse range of indigenous groups, each with their own unique contribution to the country’s cultural landscape. The National Statistics Office reports that there are over 125 different indigenous communities in Nepal. The Tamang community, with a population of around 1.7 million, primarily resides in the central and northern regions. The Sherpa community, known for its mountaineering legacy, has a population of approximately 150,000 and inhabits the high Himalayas. The Gurung community, with approximately 543,000 members, resides mainly in the Annapurna and Manaslu regions. The Tharu community, with a population of around 1.8 million, is located in the Terai plains and is known for its unique languages and cultural practices. The Newar community, with approximately 1.3 million people, resides in the Kathmandu Valley [16]. These indigenous groups, among others, contribute to Nepal’s diverse cultural tapestry, each preserving their languages, traditions, and heritage while navigating the complexities of modernity.

2.5 Challenges in preserving indigenous identity amid modern influences

Preserving indigenous identity in the face of modern influences is difficult. Globalization, urbanization, and technology can introduce foreign values and practices that threaten traditional ways of life. Indigenous communities in Nepal and elsewhere face these challenges in maintaining their cultural heritage and self-governance.

2.5.1 Cultural erosion and homogenization

One of the major challenges that traditional cultures encounter is the steady erosion of their customs. The widespread exposure to global media and popular culture has led younger generations to adopt mainstream values, disregarding indigenous ceremonies, dialects, and artistic expressions. Furthermore, the transition from spoken traditions to written languages can displace indigenous tongues, resulting in the forfeiture of intricate indigenous [17].

2.5.2 Land dispossession and displacement

Globalization can harm indigenous communities by displacing them from their ancestral lands and erasing their traditional knowledge tied to specific landscapes. This loss can have devastating impacts on their cultural, spiritual, and personal identity.

2.5.3 Empowerment and self-determination

The United Nations recognized in 2007 that the preservation of indigenous identity is intricately tied to the pursuit of self-determination and political representation. Indigenous communities frequently encounter difficulties in asserting their rights in nation-states that prioritize dominant cultures and economic interests. As a result, they face the challenge of securing acknowledgment, independence, and the ability to make choices in accordance with their cultural beliefs.

2.5.4 Resilience and strategies for preservation

Indigenous communities are truly remarkable in their ability to adapt and preserve their rich culture despite facing numerous challenges. Their perseverance shines through initiatives such as language revitalization, cultural education programs, and adaption of traditional practices to modern contexts. It is incredibly inspiring to witness their efforts to use modern technology to preserve their oral histories and traditional knowledge, which are gaining momentum. Their dedication to their heritage is truly commendable, and we are fortunate to learn from their wisdom and experiences. In Nepal, the Tamang Language and Culture Preservation Committee has taken steps to promote their language and traditions through schools and community events. Similarly, the Tharu community’s engagement in ecological research that fuses traditional knowledge with modern conservation strategies regarding agriculture showcases a way to harmonize traditional wisdom with contemporary challenges [18].

Despite modern influences, indigenous communities in Nepal and elsewhere are finding ways to preserve their heritage while adapting to modernity. Their resilience and creativity demonstrate a strong dedication to their distinct identities and cultural traditions in a rapidly changing world.

2.6 Shifting from indigeneity to modernity

Urbanization and globalization have disrupted indigenous communities’ traditional livelihoods and resource management practices. When these communities move from subsistence-based economies to urban environments, their traditional agriculture, hunting, fishing, and craftsmanship practices can be negatively affected. Many young people are attracted to urban wage labor, which can lead to a disconnection between indigenous people and their ancestral lands. This can cause the loss of traditional ecological knowledge related to resource management, as the deep understanding of local ecosystems is not passed down from one generation to another [15]. Globalization can disrupt indigenous resource management practices when communities engage in extractive industries or unsustainable practices to meet external demands. This disruption undermines cultural cohesion and threatens the balance between indigenous communities and their environment, endangering their sustainable resource management systems [19].

The interplay between modern education and indigenous knowledge systems in Nepal is complex, requiring a delicate balance between adopting innovative teaching methods while safeguarding ancient wisdom. As modern education gains ground, there are noticeable shifts in the way indigenous knowledge is viewed, transmitted, and assimilated into contemporary culture.

The perception toward the traditional social organizational system (Barghar System) of Tharu community, the fourth-largest population of Nepal, the selection procedure of the system, and the actors in the system are changed due to the formal education system of Nepal. Most Tharu people are getting education day by day and obtaining the mainstreaming traditions, culture formal school system, as well as social media. Generally, there are Barghars (village chief), Likhandariya (secretary), Guruwa (The Tharu priest), Chirakya (the messenger), Chaukidaar (watchman), Lohra (blacksmith), and Darjiwa (Tailor). The perception toward all the actors of the customary laws has been changed; i.e; mostly male household heads have participated in the system, but nowadays, female household heads can be seen in the Tharu community. Similarly, female village chiefs and other actors are also elected in some Tharu villages. Not only is the selection phenomenon the common consensus of the villagers, but also the voting system is adopted in some villages. The role of the actors is overtaken by the local representatives of the local government. This can be summarized as follows in the Table 1.

Aspects	In ancient time	Present time
Perceptions	Village chief	Village leader
Actors of the system	Barghars (village chief), Likhandariya (secretary), Guruwa (The Tharu priest), Chirakya (the messenger), Chaukidaar (watchman), Lohra (blacksmith), Darjiwa (Tailor).	Vice-Barghar like vice president is included, Chirakya (the messenger) and Chaukidaar (watchman) is combined, Lohra (blacksmith) & Darjiwa (Tailor) are optional.
Role of the actors	Judiciary, leadership, administrative, planning and development, rituals and unity	Domination of local representatives and limited to judiciary, rituals, and unity.

Table 1.

Perceptions of the Barghar system within the Tharu community.

2.7 Impact of modern education on indigenous knowledge systems

In Nepal, modern education can equip indigenous youth with essential skills, literacy, and economic and social growth prospects. Nonetheless, it also presents difficulties in upholding indigenous knowledge due to its emphasis on dominant languages, cultures, and curricula that may contradict traditional practices. Our analysis focuses on the effects of modern education on indigenous knowledge systems in Nepal.

Formal learning settings in modern education differ from indigenous ones. Indigenous knowledge is commonly transmitted through experiential learning, oral traditions, and community engagement, whereas modern education emphasizes classroom-based, text-centric learning. The current change may result in the exclusion of indigenous knowledge and restrict its dissemination. Along with this, modern education predominantly uses dominant languages in instruction, which can lead to language shifts and the erosion of indigenous languages. Modern education may prioritize skills relevant to urban and formal sectors, causing a decline in traditional skills and knowledge related to subsistence agriculture, natural resource management, and craftsmanship.

Bilingual and multilingual education models are being promoted to ensure that indigenous languages remain relevant. These models allow indigenous students to learn in both their mother tongue and the dominant language, fostering a sense of cultural identity while gaining modern education. Thus, the impact of modern education on indigenous knowledge systems in Nepal is a nuanced interplay between adaptation and challenges. While modern education offers opportunities for advancement, it can also lead to the erosion of indigenous languages, practices, and ways of knowing. Efforts to integrate indigenous knowledge into education, promote bilingualism, and empower indigenous communities to shape their education can help balance modernization and cultural preservation.

2.8 Resilience and adaptation among native people

The indigenous communities in Nepal have shown incredible resilience in the face of cultural change. They have adapted to changing circumstances while still preserving their unique identities and traditional practices. These stories of resilience highlight the strength, innovation, and unwavering dedication of Nepal’s indigenous people to maintain their cultural heritage despite modern challenges.

There are many stories of indigenous resilience in Nepal that highlight the impressive determination of these communities to protect their cultural identities amidst cultural shifts. Through asserting their rights, adopting new technologies, and combining traditional practices with contemporary contexts, the indigenous people of Nepal prove that they can flourish while still honoring their heritage. These inspiring stories encourage us to appreciate and support the resilience of indigenous communities, recognizing their valuable contributions to Nepal’s diverse cultural fabric.

2.8.1 Story 1: The Tharu Community’s land rights struggle

The Tharu indigenous community has a strong bond with the forests and rivers of the Terai region. Unfortunately, development projects and encroachment have threatened their way of life and caused their displacement. Tharu activists have taken action to fight for their land rights and the protection of their traditional territories to address this issue. Their unwavering advocacy efforts have resulted in the creation of Tharuhat as an autonomous region, which safeguards their land and cultural practices [20].

2.8.2 Story 2: Indigenous youth promoting traditional music and dance

Indigenous youth from different communities, such as Newar, Gurung, and Magar, are leading the way in preserving and promoting traditional music and dance forms. The Newar musical culture, which was once believed to be a timeless tradition that has lasted for hundreds of years, is now going through major changes in both content and context due to media, migration, and modernization. In a short amount of time, there has been a noticeable rise in female involvement in traditional music, as well as a reduction in caste barriers. Some traditional musicians are also starting to monetize their work. Changes in repertoire, playing style, instrument modifications, and fusion with other musical genres and instruments have transformed the music [21].

2.9 Strategies for preserving core values while adapting to modern circumstances in Nepal

In Nepal, there is a growing realization of the significance of preserving indigenous cultures and wisdom in modern educational frameworks. As a result, there are efforts to incorporate traditional knowledge into formal education systems. These initiatives strive to bridge the gap between traditional practices and contemporary learning, thereby ensuring the continued thriving of indigenous knowledge. Here, we explore notable efforts and their impact.

2.9.1 Curriculum reforms and inclusion

Nepal’s national curriculum for school education 2019 includes provisions for integrating indigenous knowledge, culture, and values into formal education. The framework emphasizes the inclusion of local contexts, languages, and knowledge systems in textbooks and teaching methods [22].

2.9.2 Multilingual education (MLE) programs

MLE programs in Nepal focus on teaching indigenous children in their mother tongue, helping to bridge the gap between their cultural backgrounds and formal education. These programs recognize that learning in one’s own language enhances comprehension and cultural preservation [23].

2.9.3 Cultural resource Centers

Numerous schools in Nepal have established cultural resource centers that serve as hubs for indigenous knowledge. These centers host workshops, exhibitions, and seminars on traditional practices, crafts, and ecological wisdom, enriching the educational experience.

2.9.4 Teacher training and capacity building

Efforts have been made to train teachers in indigenous communities to integrate traditional knowledge into their teaching methodologies. Equipped with both modern pedagogies and indigenous insights, teachers can create culturally relevant learning experiences [23].

2.9.5 Ethnographic documentation and textbooks

Collaborations between researchers, indigenous experts, and educators have resulted in ethnographic documentation and the creation of textbooks that reflect indigenous knowledge. These resources serve as valuable references for students and teachers alike.

2.9.6 Cultural exchange programs

Interactions between indigenous elders and students are organized as part of cultural exchange programs. These programs enable direct engagement with traditional practitioners, fostering experiential learning and a deeper understanding of indigenous knowledge.

2.9.7 Community-driven initiatives

Indigenous communities themselves have initiated efforts to integrate their knowledge into education. Elders and traditional practitioners play active roles in curriculum development, ensuring the accurate transmission of cultural values and practices.

2.9.8 Recognition of informal learning

Efforts are underway to recognize informal learning settings, such as community gatherings and cultural events, as valuable sites of knowledge transmission. This acknowledgment enhances the status of indigenous knowledge within formal education.

The endeavors to incorporate traditional knowledge into formal education systems in Nepal highlight the significance of cultural conservation and inclusiveness. These initiatives encourage native communities to take part in molding their education, ensuring that their knowledge and customs are not only safeguarded but also acknowledged within contemporary learning environments.

2.10 Importance of intergenerational knowledge transfer in Nepal

Intergenerational knowledge transfer is crucial for maintaining traditional practices that are deeply embedded in Nepal’s indigenous cultures. The skills and rituals associated with agriculture, handicrafts, and healing practices are passed down through generations. Indigenous knowledge about climate patterns, local ecosystems, and natural resource management is invaluable for adapting to changing environmental conditions in Nepal. This knowledge is often shared through oral traditions and must be transmitted to younger generations [24]. Intergenerational knowledge transfer empowers young people to engage with their cultural heritage and actively participate in the preservation of their identity. Youth involvement in traditional activities fosters a sense of pride and ownership [23].

2.11 Future prospects for indigenous communities in Nepal

Sustainable Development and Livelihoods: The future for indigenous communities in Nepal hinges on sustainable development that respects their cultural values and traditional knowledge. Integrating indigenous perspectives into development planning can lead to more resilient livelihoods, incorporating modern and traditional practices.

In the future, there will be ongoing efforts to revive and promote indigenous languages, arts, and practices in the education system. Collaborations between community-led initiatives and educational institutions can ensure the integration of indigenous knowledge into curricula while empowering younger generations.

2.12 Recommendations for policymakers, researchers, and community leaders

• Policymakers should involve indigenous communities in policy formulation to align with their values, aspirations, and sustainable development goals.

• Collaborating with indigenous experts, researchers can help preserve traditional knowledge, languages, and practices while respecting ethical and cultural considerations.

• Indigenous institutions safeguard cultural heritage and manage resources. Building their capacity ensures effective representation and voice of indigenous communities.

• Collaborations between indigenous experts, researchers, and practitioners can lead to holistic solutions by integrating indigenous knowledge with modern science.

• Development projects should take into account the cultural sensitivity and needs of indigenous communities while emphasizing the coexistence of modernization and traditional values.

• Advocate for the integration of indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage in formal education to promote cultural pride, empower youth, and preserve traditional wisdom.

• Prioritize active engagement with indigenous communities in development projects, respecting their expertise and insights.

• Collaborate with schools, communities, and language experts to revitalize indigenous languages and preserve cultural identity.

The future of indigenous communities in Nepal relies on sustainable development, preservation of culture, and inclusive policies. Collaboration between policymakers, researchers, and community leaders can lead to comprehensive strategies that respect indigenous knowledge, protect rights, and promote the growth and well-being of communities.

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter comprehensively explores the complex relationship between tradition and modernity in indigenous Nepali communities, revealing key findings and insights. This study delves into the intricate and ever-changing connection between tradition and modernity in Nepalese indigenous communities. By applying a multifaceted approach, many more significant discoveries and perspectives were made. Indigenous people in Nepal have a deep connection to their ancestral lands and a rich cultural diversity. They have demonstrated impressive resilience in the face of cultural changes, adapting traditional practices to modern circumstances while striving to uphold their core values. The transfer of knowledge between generations has become crucial for ensuring cultural continuity and sustainability. Indigenous wisdom, including traditional practices, ecological knowledge, and language, acts as a repository of ancestral heritage that enhances the lives of younger generations. It is vital to preserve indigenous languages, which are often at the brink of extinction, as a fundamental strategy for maintaining cultural identity.

In addition, this chapter discusses how Westernization and globalization have impacted indigenous communities. These external factors have brought about obstacles and chances for change, influencing how indigenous populations interact with modern society. Though traditional ways of life and resource management have been disrupted, these external influences have also allowed indigenous people to become involved in politics and governance. Nepal has a range of indigenous groups, each with their own distinct traditions, languages, and customs. These communities, including the Tharu, Tamang, and Gurung, have developed different methods of preserving their cultural values while also adjusting to modern times.

Language, traditional knowledge, and cultural practices have been emphasized in preserving indigenous identity. Indigenous languages are especially crucial for education, preserving culture, and managing resources sustainably. It is believed that incorporating traditional knowledge into formal education systems is a vital step toward cultural preservation and empowerment. Preserving indigenous identity in the face of urbanization and globalization requires innovative approaches to balance tradition and modernity, as these processes disrupt traditional livelihoods and resource management.

To sum up, the interaction between tradition and modernity in Nepal’s indigenous communities is complex and includes resilience, adaptation, and a strong dedication to preserving their culture. This chapter highlights the need for ongoing discussions and research on how these communities transition in Nepal. Recognizing that these communities are leading global efforts to merge the past and future is important. The dynamic relationship between tradition and modernity is not a simple choice, but a continuum where indigenous communities in Nepal and beyond can continue to chart their path toward a more sustainable and inclusive future. In conclusion, the intricate interplay between tradition and modernity within Nepal’s indigenous communities is multifaceted, encompassing resilience, adaptation, and a steadfast commitment to preserving their cultural heritage.