Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Abstract
Nanophotonics is an emerging field with significant potential for generating energy-efficient technology. Specifically, photonic crystal technology possesses unique optical properties that enable light manipulation at the nanoscale, leading to advancements in energy applications such as photovoltaics, light-emitting diodes, solid-state lighting, solar cells, and energy harvesting. This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of nanophotonics technology for energy applications, including energy harvesting, LED lighting, and energy storage devices, such as Filters in Thermophotovoltaic Systems and Photonic-Crystal-Based Daytime Passive Radiative Coolers. Moreover, the current chapter offers a comprehensive review of current breakthroughs, challenges, opportunities, and prospects in the field of nanophotonic crystals for energy applications. This chapter serves as a valuable resource for academics and engineers interested in developing and implementing nanophotonic crystal technology for energy applications. Finally, the chapter explores prospects of development of energy-efficient technologies.
Keywords
- nanophotonics
- energy applications
- photovoltaics
- light-emitting diodes
- energy harvesting
- thermophotovoltaic systems
- environmental implications
1. Introduction
Nanophotonics is an emerging subject that focuses on the interaction of light and matter at the nanoscale. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines physics, chemistry, materials science, and engineering principles. Its primary objective is to comprehend and regulate light behavior at the nanoscale, which can broadly impact various areas, including energy [1]. Light interacts differently at the nanoscale compared to larger scales due to its dual wave-particle nature, governed by quantum mechanics. At the nanoscale, the interaction of light and matter can produce unique optical properties, including plasmons and photonic crystals (PhCs), which are not apparent at larger sizes. Plasmons are collective oscillations of electrons in a substance [2]. Therefore, when light interacts with materials that have plasmons, it can be strongly absorbed or scattered, leading to enhanced optical properties of the material and unique optical applications such as absorbers, filters, and sensors. However, PhCs are periodic structures that cause certain wavelengths of light to be reflected or transmitted while others are strongly absorbed. This property has diverse applications in areas where certain optical properties are required, such as filters and sensors [3].
Nanophotonics is an interdisciplinary field that combines several innovative areas, including lasers, photovoltaics, biotechnology, photonics, and nanotechnology. The integration of nanotechnology and photonics has recently become a fundamental aspect, challenging basic confinement techniques. The first method involves confining light to nanometer-sized dimensions, significantly smaller than the light’s wavelength, to create nanoscale connections between light and matter. The second approach is to confine matter to a nanometer range, thereby limiting light-matter interactions to nanoscopic scales and exploring the world of nanomaterials. The third technique involves nanoscale confinement of a photoprocess through photochemistry or light-induced phase transitions. This technique is used to fabricate photonic structures and functional units at the nanoscale. One of the methods used to achieve nanoscale light confinement is near-field optical transmission. This technique involves compressing light using a metal-coated, tapered optical fiber and emitting it through a tip with an aperture much smaller than the wavelength of the incident light.
Different techniques are used to limit dimensions and create nanostructures for photonic applications in nanoscale matter confinement. For instance, nanostructures are produced using nanoparticles with exceptional electrical and optical properties. Advances in confinement techniques and fabrication methods have significantly contributed to the progress of nanophotonics, enabling the creation of more efficient and functional nanophotonic devices. Nanoparticles have shown promising results in nanophotonics, especially in the development of ultraviolet (UV) absorbers for sunscreen lotions. Nanoparticles can be made from organic or inorganic materials, including nanometers, polymers, and oligomers [4]. Plasmonics is another field of interest that focuses on metallic nanoparticles, their unique optical reactions, and electromagnetic field improvements [5]. Some nanoparticles can also convert absorbed infrared (IR) photons into visible UV photons or down-convert absorbed vacuum UV photons into two visible UV photons, known as quantum cutters [6].
As shown in Figure 1, the field of nanophotonics has diverse potential energy applications, including solar energy conversion, energy-efficient lighting, energy harvesting, plasmonic, and optical storage. Notably, the field of solar energy conversion is one of the most promising applications of nanophotonics in energy. Traditional solar cells are made of silicon and are limited in their efficiency due to their ability to absorb only a narrow range of light wavelengths. However, nanophotonic materials can be designed to absorb a broader range of wavelengths, thereby increasing the efficiency of solar cells. In addition, these materials can be used to create light-trapping structures within solar cells, increasing the probability that they will be absorbed by the material. This can lead to higher efficiencies and lower costs for solar energy conversion [7].
Figure 1.
Shows the nanophotonic potential applications.
Furthermore, nanophotonic materials can be used to create more energy-efficient lighting. Traditional incandescent light bulbs convert only a small fraction of their electrical energy into visible light, most of which is lost as heat. Therefore, nanophotonic materials are used to investigate light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that convert a much larger fraction of the energy they consume into visible light. Moreover, it can be used to control the directionality of light, allowing it to be directed more efficiently and reducing the amount of energy wasted as heat [8, 9]. In addition, nanophotonic materials can revolutionize energy storage. Traditional batteries rely on chemical reactions to store energy, which can be slow and inefficient. Thus, the principles of plasmonics can be used to store energy. For example, Kominami et al. developed a plasmonic battery that uses gold nanoparticles to store energy. When light is shone on the nanoparticles, they produce plasmons that cause a chemical reaction, releasing the stored energy [10].
Furthermore, nanophotonic materials have introduced new types of electronic devices that are smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient than traditional ones. It can be used to investigate optical interconnects that use light instead of electrons to transmit information. These optical interconnects can be significantly faster than traditional electronic interconnects and consume less power. In addition, nanophotonic materials can be employed to introduce a new type of optical storage device that can store more information in smaller spaces than traditional storage devices based on the polarization of light. These materials can revolutionize the field of data storage by allowing for the creation of smaller and more efficient storage devices [11]. Optical communication technologies, such as fiber optic cables, are widely used for high-speed data transmission, but nanophotonics can further enhance their speed and efficiency. For example, nanophotonic materials can be used to design optical amplifiers and switches that can operate at higher speeds and with lower power consumption [12].
2. Energy applications of nanophotonic crystals energy harvesting
Nanophotonic crystals have gained significant interest in recent years due to their remarkable potential for various applications, including energy harvesting and conversion. One particularly promising application of nanophotonic crystals is their potential to enhance photovoltaic cell performance, which converts sunlight into electrical energy [13]. Researchers can create a material that reflects light of that wavelength, trapping light inside the cell for extended durations through a PhC with a photonic bandgap in the visible or IR spectrum. This increases the likelihood of light absorption, resulting in a higher energy conversion efficiency. Nanophotonic crystals can also improve the efficiency of thermoelectric generators, which transform waste heat into electrical energy. By controlling the propagation of thermal photons through a PhC, researchers can minimize the thermal conductivity of the material while maintaining its electrical conductivity, resulting in a more efficient thermoelectric conversion process. Liang Huaxu et al. designed a SiO2 nanophotonic structure that, when used with a 200 nm-thick perovskite absorber layer, reduces the toxic lead elements of perovskite material by 33% and enhances light absorption across the entire 400–1000 nm band [13]. In addition, Prathap Pathi et al. utilized dielectric PhCs with a flat silicon absorber layer, providing high electronic quality and low carrier recombination. Absorption approaches the Lambertian limit at small thicknesses and is slightly lower at wafer-scale thicknesses. Ultrathin (2 m) silicon cells exhibit 25% parasitic losses, while thicker (>100 m) cells demonstrate 1–2% losses. This architecture has great promise for ultrathin silicon solar panels with reduced material utilization and enhanced light-trapping [14].
Moreover, Ajanta Saha et al. presented a spectra-dependent energy harvesting method that maximizes photon management in an indoor photovoltaic system while taking the deterioration of electrical transport properties brought on by the nano-photonic structures into account. Their results demonstrated that for the test case of a CdTe-based photovoltaic device, despite the incorporation of dielectric-filled nanoholes in the absorber layer being able to increase light absorption by approximately 40%, the optical-to-electrical conversion efficiency of the device is significantly reduced due to the deterioration of the electrical transport characteristics [15].
2.1 Light-emitting diodes
Furthermore, nanophotonic crystals can be utilized to improve the efficiency and performance of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which are extensively used in various applications, including lighting, displays, and communication. One approach to improving LED performance is to control the emission properties of the material using nanophotonic crystals. By incorporating a PhC into the LED design, researchers can produce a material that emits light in a specific direction, decreasing the amount of light lost due to scattering and absorption. This improves the LED’s efficiency, brightness, and color quality of the emitted light. Nanophotonic crystals can also be used to engineer the optical properties of the material, enabling the production of LEDs with customized spectral properties for specific applications such as plant growth lighting and medical treatments.
PhCs are a type of material that uses periodic modulation of the refractive index of a dielectric to alter the way electromagnetic radiation behaves inside or passes through it. Introducing this type of structure to the surface of blue/UV LEDs makes it possible to improve their outcoupling efficiency and directionality [16, 17]. This is done by coupling the guided modes within the LED to the PhC modes. This approach has also been extended to other thin-film technologies that experience significant guided losses, such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) [18].
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the application of nanophotonics in light-emitting diodes. Qianpeng Zhang et al. described the manufacturing of perovskite nanophotonic wire array-based light-emitting diodes in another paper. When compared to planar control devices, nanostructured devices demonstrate a 45% gain in external quantum efficiency and a lifespan that is 3.89 times longer, representing an improved performance and a lifetime with optimal photonic device design [19].
For example, Qianpeng Zhang et al. introduced the use of a PhC structure to increase the outcoupling of light from a Br-based perovskite LED (PLED), as shown in Figure 2a and b. This was achieved by converting guided modes to leaky modes, which helped to improve the outcoupling of generated light in the nanostructured device. Numerical simulations showed that this approach increased the external quantum efficiency (EQE) to 17.5%, representing a significant improvement compared to the 8.2% seen in a reference planar device. The high light extraction efficiency (LEE) in the green was responsible for this improvement, which reached a value of 73.6% [20].
Figure 2.
(a) Schematic diagram of the device. The structures introduced are from top to bottom: Ca/Ag electrode, F8, CH3NH3PbBr3(Br-Pero), PEDOT: PSS, ITO, and anodic alumina membrane (AAM). The channels of AAM are packed or loaded with TiO2. (b) Barrier side SEM image of the free-standing AAM film with nanodome structures. (c) SEM image of the cross-sectional of a P500 AAM device. The scales in (b) and (c) are 1 μm. (d) Plot displaying the distribution of the electric field intensity within a perovskite LED (PLED) device [
2.2 Energy storage devices
Nanophotonic crystals can also enhance the performance of energy storage devices, including batteries and supercapacitors, which are essential for portable and stationary energy applications. By controlling the electrode or electrolyte structure and properties using nanophotonic crystals, researchers can enhance the energy storage and charge–discharge characteristics of the device [21]. For instance, by incorporating a PhC into the electrode material, researchers can increase its surface area and improve its electrical conductivity, resulting in higher energy density and faster charging times [22].
In addition, nanophotonic crystals can be used to develop new energy storage devices, such as solar fuel cells and thermophotovoltaic cells, which rely on light absorption and conversion processes for energy storage [23].
2.3 Solar cells
Moreover, nanophotonic crystals can enhance the efficiency of solar cells by trapping and guiding light, thereby increasing the amount of harvested energy. They can also be used as selective filters to improve the performance of thermophotovoltaic systems by selectively transmitting and reflecting specific wavelengths of light. For instance, Emmanuel et al. investigated an inexpensive method for creating 2D nanophotonic molybdenum crystals that change their optical properties at a specific wavelength. These materials have two purposes: they can absorb sunlight and emit IR radiation selectively. This new approach to low-cost nanostructured materials offers possibilities for capturing solar energy in concentrated solar power, solar thermophotovoltaics, and solar thermoelectrical generators, as well as controlling IR radiation in thermophotovoltaic technologies [23].
When the efficiency of a porous one-dimensional (1D) SiO2/TiO2 photonic-crystal-coupled ZnO-Pt dye-sensitized solar cell was investigated, it was discovered that the required integrated system allows for optimal absorption in the selected spectrum area (i.e., 400–900 nm), resulting in a maximum efficiency of 4.5% for a ZnO-Pt dye-sensitized solar cell with a 1D SiO2/TiO2 photonic crystal [24].
2.4 Filters in thermophotovoltaic systems
Filters play a crucial role in thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems by contributing to their overall performance and efficiency. TPV systems are devices that convert thermal radiation into electricity using photovoltaic cells and typically consist of a thermal emitter that radiates heat and a photovoltaic cell that converts the emitted photons into electrical energy [25].
Designing selective thermal emitters with the use of nanophotonic methods is another approach to increase the power density. Atousa Pirvaram et al. designed an optimal filter structure made up of two stacks of five bilayers of 1D ZrO2/ZrO2, each with a different peak position. At 1800 K, this structure had 46% spectral efficiency, 33% system efficiency, and 8.5 W/cm2 power density; notably, at 1800 K, a TPV system with an optimized filter, emitter, and PV cell achieves 45% spectral efficiency, 25% system efficiency, and 7.8 W/cm2 power density [26].
In addition, Walid Belhadj et al. explored how 1D-PhC filters made of TiO2 and GO can be used as spectrally selective filters in thermophotovoltaic (TPV) applications. The findings showed that by stacking two 1D-PhC filters with suitable periods, a wide omnidirectional stop band with a broad pass band and low absorption losses could be achieved, thus meeting the requirements for high-performance TPV devices. The optimal design presented in the analysis was a double-stack 1D-PhC structure. Utilizing the designed filters in a perfect TPV device with a GaAs PV diode and source in a parallel configuration showed significant improvements in spectral efficiency, power density, and system efficiency, raising it from 32 to 64% [27]. A 1D photonic crystal (1D-PhC) structure was placed in front of the photodiode, as shown in Figure 3a, to allow photons with wavelengths below λg = 1.78 μm to pass through while reflecting all other photons to the blackbody source, as shown in Figure 3a. They calculated the spectral efficiencies of their single- and double-stack 1D-PhC designs and presented the results, as shown in Figure 3b.
Figure 3.
(a) A schematic diagram of the TPV system with a blackbody emitter (BB) and a front side 1D-PhC selective filter positioned in front of the PV diode that extends to infinity. (b) Illustrates the spectral efficiencies of different 1D-PhC filter configurations for GaSb diode with λg = 1.78 μm [
In conclusion, nanophotonics can revolutionize diverse energy applications due to their ability to enhance the performance of energy storage and conversion devices. Nanophotonic materials offer high surface area-to-volume ratios, which can significantly increase energy density and improve the charging and discharging rates of energy storage devices such as supercapacitors and batteries. Additionally, nanophotonic materials can improve the efficiency of energy conversion devices, such as solar and fuel cells, by enhancing light absorption and catalytic activity. Moreover, nanophotonic materials can improve the durability and stability of energy devices, leading to longer cycle life and lower maintenance costs. Therefore, nanophotonics holds great promise for a sustainable energy future by enabling the development of more efficient and cost-effective energy technologies.
2.5 Photonic-crystal-based daytime passive radiative coolers
Daytime passive radiative cooling has recently gained popularity as a replacement for the traditional energy-intensive cooling technique, particularly inside air conditioning systems for buildings, which generates high electricity consumption worldwide [28]. Solar radiation present during the day reduces the device’s effectiveness, however; a structure that exhibits very high reflectivity for the entire solar spectrum (i.e., for the 0.3–2.5 μm wavelength range), and strong infrared emissivity in the air window (i.e., 8–13 μm) is needed to achieve daytime passive radiative cooling [29].
Photonic-crystal-based daytime passive radiative coolers are a technological development to efficiently dissipate heat from various sources using the principles of radiative cooling, a natural process wherein objects emit thermal radiation to their surroundings, thereby reducing their temperature. Radiative cooling becomes less effective during the day, however, when the sun’s radiation dominates the infrared spectrum and raises the ambient temperature. To overcome this limitation, photonic-crystal-based daytime passive radiative coolers employ a design that selectively transmits and reflects specific light wavelengths [30]. These coolers utilize photonic crystals that are specially engineered with a periodic structure that affects the behavior of light. By precisely controlling the optical properties of these crystals, researchers are able to manipulate the transmission, absorption, and reflection of light. The key idea behind photonic crystal-based radiative coolers is to take advantage of a spectral window in the Earth’s atmosphere known as the atmospheric transparency window, which allows certain light wavelengths—particularly in the mid-infrared range—to pass through the atmosphere without being significantly absorbed or scattered. By reflecting the solar spectrum and enhancing the emission in the mid-infrared range, these coolers can even achieve effective radiative cooling during the day [31].
The design of photonic-crystal-based daytime passive radiative coolers typically involves a multilayer structure with alternating layers of highly reflective and highly emissive materials; while the highly reflective layers prevent the absorption of solar radiation by reflecting it to the environment, the highly emissive layers enhance the emission of thermal radiation in the desired spectral range. The unique properties of photonic crystals play a crucial role in controlling the behavior of light within these coolers, thereby allowing researchers to manipulate the photonic density of states governing the thermal emission properties of the device.
By engineering the band structure and photonic density of states, the radiative-cooling performance can be optimized to maximize heat dissipation while minimizing the absorption of solar radiation. Moreover, photonic-crystal-based daytime passive radiative coolers offer several advantages. First, they operate without the need for external power sources or active cooling mechanisms, making them highly energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. Second, because their passive nature makes them easy to integrate into various applications (i.e., building materials, electronic devices, and solar panels), thereby improving their overall performance and longevity. Furthermore, these coolers have the potential to contribute to energy savings by reducing the reliance on conventional air conditioning and refrigeration systems, especially in regions with hot, sunny climates. By effectively dissipating heat, these devices can help reduce energy consumption and lower greenhouse gas emissions associated with cooling processes [32].
2.6 Recent advances and future directions of nanophotonic for energy applications
The field of nanophotonics has witnessed remarkable advances in harnessing light-matter interactions to revolutionize energy-related applications in recent years. These developments have opened up exciting possibilities to improve energy generation, conversion, and harvesting processes. Looking ahead, several promising directions in nanophotonic energy research hold tremendous potential to address energy challenges and shape the future of sustainable energy technologies [33].
One notable recent improvement in nanophotonic energy was the development of efficient solar cells. Nanophotonic structures and materials enable precise control and manipulation of light at the nanoscale, thereby leading to improved light absorption and charge-carrier generation in solar cells; for example, the integration of plasmonic nanoparticles or nanostructured surfaces in solar cell designs enhances light-trapping and results in increased solar absorption and higher power-conversion efficiencies. Moreover, emerging nanomaterials such as perovskites and quantum dots show great promise in overcoming the limitations of traditional solar cell technologies by offering higher efficiency, lower manufacturing costs, and compatibility with flexible and transparent substrates [34].
Another area of focus is nanophotonic energy harvesting from waste heat. Utilizing nanostructured materials with tailored optical properties, researchers have explored strategies to convert low-grade thermal energy into usable electricity through TPV and thermophotonic systems. By coupling thermal radiation with carefully engineered nanophotonic structures, these systems can achieve selective emission and absorption of photons, thereby enabling the generation of electricity from heat sources that were previously considered inefficient or unusable. This technology has the potential to significantly enhance energy efficiency in industrial processes, automotive applications, and household heating systems [35].
Furthermore, nanophotonics is revolutionizing energy storage by enabling high-performance and compact devices; for example, nanoscale materials such as graphene and carbon nanotubes are being explored for supercapacitors and batteries to offer improved energy density, faster charging rates, and longer lifetimes. Nanophotonic approaches also play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of energy storage systems by optimizing light-matter interactions for photoelectrochemical cells, photocatalysis, and electrochemical energy conversion. These advances are promising in the development of efficient and sustainable energy storage solutions to support the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources into the grid [36].
Looking forward, several future directions are being explored in nanophotonic energy research. One important area is the development of nanoscale optoelectronic devices for energy-efficient lighting and displays. Nanophotonics enables the manipulation of light emission and propagation at the nanoscale, leading to enhanced color purity, brightness, and energy efficiency in LEDs and display technologies; this could potentially reduce energy consumption in lighting and electronic devices and contribute to overall energy conservation and sustainability [37].
Nanophotonics has emerged as a promising field of study with numerous applications in various areas such as solar energy conversion, energy-efficient lighting, energy harvesting, plasmonic devices, and optical storage. The use of advanced materials and nanoscale structures allows for efficient absorption, the up- and down-conversion of photon energy, and energy harvesting. This has in turn led to the development of more efficient, cost-effective solar cells, which are vital in the quest for sustainable energy sources. Moreover, nanophotonics has revolutionized the field of energy-efficient lighting and enabled advancements in energy harvesting technologies.
3. Challenges and opportunities
While the potential benefits of nanophotonic technology in energy applications are significant, several challenges and considerations must be addressed. Here are some of the challenges and opportunities of nanophotonic technology in energy:
One of the main challenges facing the widespread adoption of nanophotonic crystals in energy applications is the cost and scalability of the technology. While significant progress has been made in reducing production costs and improving the scalability of nanophotonic crystal fabrication techniques, these factors still represent a barrier to the mass production and deployment of nanophotonic devices [38]. However, as technology continues to mature and more efficient manufacturing techniques are developed, the cost and scalability of nanophotonic crystals will likely continue to improve [39].
Another challenge facing the integration of nanophotonic crystals in energy applications is the need to integrate these new technologies with the existing energy infrastructure [40]. For example, energy harvesting devices based on nanophotonic crystals may require new interfaces or control systems to integrate with existing energy storage systems. Similarly, integrating nanophotonic devices in lighting or display applications may require changes to the underlying architecture or control systems of these systems [37].
As with any new technology, environmental implications are associated with using nanophotonic crystals in energy applications. For example, producing nanophotonic crystals may require using materials or manufacturing processes that have environmental impacts, such as using rare earth metals or toxic chemicals. However, as the technology matures, more environmentally friendly and sustainable production methods are likely to be developed [41].
Despite these challenges, adopting nanophotonic crystals in energy applications presents substantial economic benefits and promising market potential. For example, using nanophotonic crystals in energy harvesting devices could help reduce energy costs and increase energy efficiency while enabling the development of new types of portable or autonomous devices [42, 43]. Similarly, using nanophotonic crystals in lighting or display applications could enable new types of energy-efficient devices with improved performance and functionality. In conclusion, adopting nanophotonic crystals in energy applications presents both challenges and opportunities. While cost, scalability, integration with existing infrastructure, and environmental implications are crucial considerations, the economic benefits and market potential of the technology make it a promising area for continued research and development. As researchers and engineers delve deeper into the properties and applications of nanophotonic crystals, we expect to see further advancements in innovative and transformative nanophotonic technologies in the future.
4. Conclusions
Nanophotonics and photonic crystal technology have significant potential to revolutionize the energy industry by providing more efficient and sustainable energy solutions. The ability to manipulate light at the nanoscale level has opened opportunities for creating devices and materials with unique optical properties, making them highly suitable for various energy applications. Nanophotonic crystals offer various energy applications, including energy harvesting, LED lighting, and energy storage devices. Recent advancements in photonic crystal technology, such as hybrid structures and nanoscale photonic crystals, offer opportunities for improved device performance. However, challenges related to manufacturing cost and scalability, integration with existing infrastructure, and environmental implications need to be addressed through continued investment, research, and the development of sustainable manufacturing and disposal methods. Addressing these challenges will unlock the full potential of nanophotonics and photonic crystal technology in the energy sector. The future of these technologies in energy applications looks promising. In addition, as materials research, fabrication techniques, and device design continue to advance, new and improved energy-efficient devices will emerge. Nanophotonic technology will play an increasingly important role in satisfying the growing need for sustainable energy solutions. By addressing problems and investing in research and development, we can create a more sustainable future for generations to come. Therefore, fully implementing nanophotonics and photonic crystal technologies will significantly contribute to a sustainable future.
Abbreviations
one-dimensional | |
external quantum efficiency | |
light-emitting diodes | |
light extraction efficiency | |
organic Light-emitting diode | |
photonic crystals | |
perovskite LED | |
thermo photo voltaic |
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