Indigenous Practices by Tribal Communities of Bonai Forest Division, Odisha, India: A Cause of Forest Fire, Experts’ Opinions and Impacts on Bio-Wealth

Abstract

Globally, forest fires are a major cause for concern. In recent decades, forest fires have increased in frequency and severity worldwide, and they are now recognized as a major issue at the interface between the biosphere and atmosphere. The biogeochemical cycle, atmospheric composition, ecosystem structure, animal populations, microbial and insect diversity, and floras are all severely impacted by forest fires. As a result, in the Bonai Forest Division of Odisha, India, an effort has been made to comprehend the loss of biodiversity, gather expert viewpoints and record a tribal habit that also contributes to forest fires. Present observations revealed that there is need of much awareness among the communities regarding causes and impacts of forest fire on ecosystem, tribal life, biodiversity and need to take a step for mitigating the problems with communities.

1. Introduction

It is necessary to address properly the causes to mitigate the issue as per boundary. In this commentary, authors glimpse the relationship between forest tree and mushroom collection, which is a cause of forest fire along other man-made causes. The study recommends that there is need to make a scientific strategy to mitigate the issue along with providing food and livelihood to the community. There are 328 million hectares of forest cover in India, with 68 million hectares of tropical moist and dry deciduous vegetation that is prone to fire. However, there is a scarcity of data on the effects of forest fires on various dimensions. Between autumn and summer, deciduous forest floors are covered in dense leaf litter, providing ideal conditions for human-caused forest fires. Controlled fires replace nutrients to the soil, thereby promoting good regeneration of primary floral species [1]. Odisha saw huge fires across the state in 2021, resulting in wildlife and biodiversity losses as well as forest timber losses [2]. There is still some uncertainty about the actual impact of frequent forest fires on floral and faunal diversity in fire burnt areas. Man-made forest fire, whether intentional or unintentional, is always worse than controlled fire [3]. Therefore, it is vital to determine the influence of these fires on floral and faunal wealth, as well as the regeneration of plant species in the areas where they occurred. With this in mind, a comparative study of floral and faunal wealth was conducted in the seven ranges of the Bonai Forest Division (BFD), Odisha, India, between fire-burned forest areas in 2021 and those areas that were free of forest fire from 2019 to 2021. The study on traditional practice of indigenous communities and how their life got affected due to forest fire was also carried out and presented here.

2. Study areas

Bonai Forest Division (Figure 1) located in Sundargarh district of Odisha state, India, is known by the presence of deciduous vegetation of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau in the Deccan Peninsular Biogeographic Zone. It is situated in the North-Western part of Odisha state in Sundargarh district. It spreads over an area of 2934.21 km². It enjoys the landscape of the Chhota Nagpur plateau of the Deccan Peninsular Biogeographic Zone. Bonai Forest Division has diverse vegetation like Moist peninsular sal forest, Dry peninsular sal forest, Northern dry mixed deciduous forest, dry bamboo brakes and Orissa tropical semi-evergreen forest. Administratively, Bonai Forest Division has seven ranges, namely Barsuan, Bonai, Jarda, Kuliposh, Koira, Sole and Tamra. Among the seven ranges, Koira, Barsuan and Kuliposh come under the mining-impacted areas. Koira and Barsuan ranges have unique bio-wealth [4].

Figure 1.

Diversity and population in quadrants taken in seven ranges of Bonai Forest Division, Odisha, India.

3. Methodology

In the year 2020, only 291 fire points were found in the division, however in the previous year (i.e., in 2019) 1965 fire points were detected, indicating the division’s vulnerability to forest fire. Random quadrants of 20 m × 20 m from each range were taken in fire burnt areas of 2021 and areas where fire had not happened for 3 years from 2019. This was done to explore the association between often occurring forest fire and bio-wealth population. The opinion was taken after discussion with experts in ResearchGate platform and mentioned in the Observations section. The interaction was carried out with indigenous communities of study areas and their opinion on forest fire and Rugda mushroom (Astraeus hygrometricus) collection was recorded and presented in the section of case study [4]. The collected data were analyzed to show that how forest fire is related to the lives of indigenous community of study areas.

4. Observations

The scientific analysis of the field data revealed that the number of tree species with a minimum of 50 cm gbh (girth at breast height) is higher in fire-burned areas in 2021, but lower in places where there has been no fire in 3 years. Authors observed that in fire burnt areas, the growth of trees gained an advantage due to less ecological competition [5, 6]. Alternatively, it could imply that controlled burns are required to counteract the effects of uncontrolled fires and encourage long-term forest growth in regions where herbs, shrubs and leaf litter have entirely dried. Shrub growth and plant population, as well as the population of bird species and insects, are more noticeable in places where there have been no fires for 3 years. Details are listed in Table 1 and Figure 1.

Areas	Tree			Shrub			Herb			Faunal species
	TTS	Dominant tree	NDT	TSS	Dominant shrub	NDS	THS	Dominant herb	NDH	Avian species	Mammals	Reptiles
FO	14	Shorea robusta	13	9	Bauhinia vahlii	30	3	Blumea fistulosa	5	6	1	2
FNO	17	Diospyros malabarica	6	14	Celastrus paniculatus	5	4	Cheilanthes tenuifolia	30	8	1	3
FO	13	Croton roxburghii	40	6	Flemingia chappar	26	15	Desmodium triflorum	50	4	1	1
FNO	15	Diospyros malabarica	5	10	Helicteres isora	9	18	Canscora diffusa	14	6	1	2
FO	16	Shorea robusta	14	15	Flemingia strobilifera	4	8	Hemidesmus indicus	5	2	1	1
FNO	13	Shorea robusta	16	10	Millettia extensa	7	5	Hemidesmus indicus	17	7	1	4
FO	6	Shorea robusta	18	2	Millettia extensa	12	4	Rungia pectinata	40	4	1	1
FNO	11	Shorea robusta	5	15	Pogostemon benghalensis	30	7	Rungia pectinata	70	5	1	2
FO	6	Shorea robusta	15	2	Pogostemon benghalensis	22	7	Hemigraphis latebrosa	12	2	1	1
FNO	15	Shorea robusta	10	10	Clerodendrum infortunatum	30	10	Oplismenus burmannii	9	4	1	1
FO	11	Shorea robusta	21	6	Cipadessa baccifera	5	13	Hemigraphis latebrosa	11	2	1	1
FNO	9	Shorea robusta	5	4	Pogostemon benghalensis	13	11	Justicia diffusa	19	4	1	1
FO	10	Shorea robusta	22	5	Bauhinia vahlii	8	8	Canscora diffusa	6	3	1	1

Table 1.

The floral and faunal diversity of burnt (2021) and unburnt areas (In the last 3 years) in 20 × 20 m of Bonai Forest Division, Odisha, India.

FO, fire occurred; FNO, fire not occurred; TTS, total tree species; NDT, number of dominant trees; TSS, total shrub species; NDS, number of dominant shrubs; THS, total herb species; NDH, number of dominant herbs.

On this important topic of forest fire, a conversation was held on the ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net/) platform involving numerous researchers. The collected opinions are mentioned here, which could throw light on forest fire.

“Changes induced by fire may include alterations to soil properties (N, C, organic matter, pH, etc.), community shifts toward exotic and/or fire resistant and resilient species, tree regeneration failure, and in the most extreme cases an indefinite shift from forest cover to shrub or grassland. Certain forests are adapted to frequent fire, those of the southwestern United States for example. Trees like ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and western larch possess fire-adapted traits such as thick bark and serotinous cones. Still, even for high fire frequency adapted forests a one-year fire return interval over many years would be very stressful, unless the fire was very low intensity. Yearly high intensity fires would likely favor understory species that rely on fire to reproduce and preclude certain trees species. Such a fire regime might move an ecosystem away from forest cover toward grassland” by Matthew Joseph Ruggirello, National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

“If forest fire occurs every year in a particular forest area the negative impacts which can be observed are 1) degradation of the vegetation, 2) destruction of microflora and microfauna, 3) loss of biodiversity, 4) loss of the land nutrients, 5) loss of cultivation land, 6) reduction of the cereals production yields, or 7) (2) reduction of grass yields or biomass” by Azizou EL-HADJ Issa, University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin.

“Surface fires burn only surface litter and duff. It removes low-growing underbrush, cleans the forest floor of debris, opens it up to sunlight, and nourishes the soil. Reducing this competition for nutrients allows established trees to grow stronger and healthier. It may clear the weaker trees and debris and may return health to the forest” by J. C. Tarafdar, Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, India.

“Controlled fire is good for breaking dormancy seeds” by Abdul Nasser S Alborki, University of Benghazi, Benghazi, Libya.

“It has positive effects on seed dormancy and understory competition, as well as enhancing the forest ecosystem dynamics. However, a severe forest fire can negatively affect the species diversity in the forest” by Elmugheira Mohammed, University of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan.

“Forest fires in fire-intolerant ecosystems reduce biodiversity, although some species of fauna and flora may benefit. Objective assessment of losses and benefits as a result of fire is difficult to carry out and depends on the adopted criteria. In general, it should be said that the losses outweigh the benefits, because fire (although being an integral component of the environment) transforms it to a great extent when it appears in the environment” by Jan Kaczmarowski, General Directorate of State Forests, Forest Protection Department, Poland.

Controlled burns, according to the experts’ opinions and survey data, may be useful in reducing the adverse impacts of other types of forest fires while simultaneously fostering good tree development. Furthermore, the study’s findings recommend the following approaches to lessen the impact of forest fire on species diversity in areas where forest fire has occurred. (1) Prior to the fire season, controlled burning with Fireline tracing may be done. (2) In high-risk locations, controlled burning of shrubs, exotic shrubs and herbs may be used to minimize the severity of the fire. (3) It’s possible that regulated surface fire could aid in the germination of specific plants and the maintenance of the diversity and population of floral and faunal wealth, including insects. In this line, hence site-specific control burning may be used. (4) Controlled burning could give good quality of leaves in sustained way for the utilization by the indigenous communities without harming big areas of forest.

5. Forest fire and indigenous communities

Indigenous communities of study areas depend on Minor Forest Products (MFPs) like, fruits, leaves, roots, barks, resin, firewood, etc. [7]. Indigenous communities set fire to get good quality of leaves, more firewood and other MFPs. Therefore, in many locations of study areas, they set the fire. Authors observed this practice and created awareness programmes in different locations of study areas (present study).

6. Rugda mushroom: a food and tribal practices

During working on forest fire in study areas, authors noticed a relationship among a tree, community and a mushroom known as Rugda (Astraeus hygrometricus). Following the pre-monsoon, the communities set fires to obtain food and a means of subsistence in the form of Rugda. Traditional methods for obtaining forest products are primitive and dependent on local climate and topography. While the quantity of forests and their products has decreased over time, the practices have not altered, and they must be preserved to contribute to natural systems that are both sustainable and balanced. Indigenous methods for forest sustainability are used by tribal communities around the world. In India, certain communities in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh gather wild mushrooms to provide a year-round source of income and a staple food during the rainy seasons ([8]; present study). The local tribal communities benefit greatly from the reduction of food insecurity and malnutrition because of the wild mushrooms. There are numerous reports that are available on edible, non-edible and medicinal mushrooms from India and other countries. In the Bonai Forest Division of Odisha, India, authors are studying community conservation, indigenous traditional knowledge, forest fires and the relationship among communities and forest wealth. During the field survey, the authors visited tribal markets to gather knowledge on wild edible food plants and found a mushroom locally known as Rugda that was being sold for between Rs. 400 and Rs. 2000 per kg in local weekly markets of study areas. It was a surprising price in rural and tribal-dominated areas and developed interest to know more about the mushroom in every aspect. Rugda (Astraeus hygrometricus) belongs to the family Diplocystaceae. It is commonly known as Hygroscopic earthstar, Barometer earthstar, False Earthstar and locally known as Phutka, Boda, Potu and Sargi Boda. The young edible mushroom looks like a puffball and on maturity, the outer layer opens in a star-like manner. It is an ectomycorrhizal mushroom that is grown in association with specific tree species. It used to have a cosmopolitan distribution, but it is now widespread in temperate and tropical areas. It is a water-absorbing puff and is left open to maintain humidity. Rays are cracked and irregular but the spore case is pale brown. The gleba is white and turns brown to powder in mature form. This mushroom was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus. In 1885, Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].

The literature review mentioned above significantly increased our interest in learning more about mushrooms directly from residents. Thirty-five respondents who were from the Munda, Kisan, Bhuian, Khadia, Gond and Oram groups participated in the discussion on Rugda and recorded their opinions after a random questionnaire survey was carried out. As per the gathered information, they wait for the monsoon to collect the mushrooms, and following the first round of intense rain and lightning, they go out into the jungle early in the morning to gather them (Figure 2B). It was stated that they believe increased lighting will produce more Rugda. No scientific validations are available for the above claims made by communities (present study).

Figure 2.

Rugda mushroom; causes of forest fire and source of food and livelihood, (A) Rugda near sal tree in burnt areas. (B) Local tribal women collecting them from burnt areas after monsoon. (C) Rugda is being sold in local weekly markets. (D) Authors cooked and consumed it.

They collect these mushrooms and sell in the local markets at an unbelievable rate per kilogram (kg) (Figure 2c). They also consume them as a vegetable. It was noticed that everyone wants to purchase them at any cost and locals believe that they are rich with nutrients, having medicinal values. The taste of Rugda is very delicious and authors also consumed it (Figure 2D; present study).

Authors are now faced with the challenge of how they would know where to obtain the mushrooms in bulk. We conducted interviews with residents and field personnel from the Forest Department to get the answer to this question once more, and the results disappointed us. The villagers set the fires in the study areas from February to May, which causes them to harvest a lot of Rugda easily (Figure 2A; present study) just after the monsoon and provide them with a solid source of income because they can sell it for a high price and use it as a vegetable too. It was noticed that tribal communities also collect them and cook during the celebration of local festivals.

Authors selected the 20 forest patches in three ranges of Bonai Forest Division (Sole, Tamra and Jarda) where no forest fires occurred and the 20 patches where fires occurred (Sole, Tamra, Jarda and Bonai ranges). A survey of these 40 forest patches revealed that local populations were observed to be gathering Rugda mushrooms in the morning and during the day in 17 forest patches where forest fires had occurred. Some communities traveled up to 60 kilometers to the sites were forest fire occurred previously, because they were aware of fire occurrences in these sites. These observations clearly revealed that locals set fire in moist and dry deciduous sal forest to get more quantity of Rugda.

7. Conclusion

The present study clearly shows that to mitigate the negative impacts of forest fire, we need to carry out community work with indigenous people in any forested area where forest fire is a big issue. The results of the present study also revealed that, due to the reduced forest cover and density compared to earlier times, wild plants, shrubs, insects and other animal species are now seriously at risk due to forest fires. Rugda thrives on sal tree-associated phosphorus-rich soil, which makes it a contributing factor in forest fires. The study also indicates that to achieve harmonic balance, it is urgently necessary to enhance this mushroom’s cultural methods sustainably as well as value addition with indigenous communities. It must be determined how to collect these mushrooms scientifically without using fire or harming other flora and fauna. Numerous awareness campaigns are required, and the community’s conservation and mitigation action plan for forest fires must be launched with the help of the local communities.

Acknowledgments

Authors are thankful to the local communities, field staffs and members of the Ambika Prasad Research Foundation. Authors are also thankful to the Bonai Forest Division for providing facilities for the study.