Summary of stochastic heat conduction/thermal stress studies*
1. Introduction
In general, accurately predicting the thermal or mechanical loads acting on structural components is very difficult. There is no question that their material properties are random variables and thus are usually stated in terms of average values with attached uncertainties. Taking these factors into consideration, the
Currently, the application of probabilistic methods to engineering problems, which stems from the random vibration theory, has been broadened to the field of heat transfer. As structures subjected to extreme thermal load currently hold a prominent position in industries, the stochastic analysis of heat conduction and related thermal stresses in solids has drawn attention. In addition, the stochastic analyses of heat conduction in not only homogeneous but also nonhomogeneous bodies are being carried out more frequently because of the fabrication of advanced heat-resistant materials characterized by nonhomogeneity in recent years owing to advances in material manufacturing technology.
This article reviews research achievements for the stochastic analysis of heat conduction and related thermal stresses in solids. The objective of this review is to provide researchers and engineers, mainly in the field of heat transfer and thermoelasticity, with basic information useful for assessing the reliability of high-temperature apparatus. It is beyond the scope of this article to provide basic knowledge about the theory of probability and random processes, which is necessary to describe randomness mathematically. Readers not familiar with this discipline are recommended to refer to textbooks related to stochastic modeling.
2. Overview
Table 1 summarizes existing studies that used probabilistic methods for heat conduction and thermal stress analysis. The existing studies are organized according to the type of parameters considered as stochastic quantities; the classification also distinguishes (i) homogeneity/nonhomogeneity of object materials to be analyzed and (ii) presence/absence of the analysis of thermal stress fields (including displacement fields due to thermal deformation). Note that the analysis of thermal stress fields includes the analysis of heat conduction as a prerequisite. Table 1 indicates that among the studies for homogeneous bodies, many treated heat conduction problems only, but studies that also investigated the effects of random parameters on thermal stresses (or thermal deformation) are limited. Moreover, studies that focused on nonhomogeneous bodies are far fewer than those that targeted homogeneous bodies, although the former have gradually increased since the early 1990s, coupled with the emergence of functionally graded materials (FGMs) [1].
Samuels [2] was the first to conduct a seminal study on heat conduction analysis using probabilistic methods. He analyzed a plate and sphere with randomly fluctuating surface temperature and spatiotemporally random internal heat generation. Parkus [3] was the first to study random thermal stresses; he successfully analyzed the thermoelastic problem of a semi-infinite body using probabilistic methods.
With regard to parameters considered as stochastic quantities, many papers have presented the analysis of problems where the surface temperature of an object or the temperatures of its surrounding media are regarded as stochastic quantities, i.e., random heating problems. This is probably because random heating problems are strongly related to the design of thermal insulating systems for equipment sensitive to temperature changes, for example. Moreover, quite a few studies considered the material properties of analysis objects as stochastic quantities. This is because the fact that any materials show variability in their properties to a greater or lesser extent has become public knowledge. An FGM, which is a typical nonhomogeneous material, includes more factors to produce large variability in the material properties, as compared to other materials. From early on, Poterasu
In the rest of this article, existing papers related to this topic are classified into six groups according to the type of random or uncertain parameters considered in the analysis, and an extensive literature review is presented for each group. The review gives special emphasis to analytical methods used in the respective papers.
Random parameter | Homogeneous bodies | Nonhomogeneous bodies | ||
Heat conduction | Thermal stresses | Heat conduction | Thermal stresses | |
Surface temperature (or ambient temperature) | [2, 5-23] | [3, 24-37] | [38-41] | |
Heat flux | [23] | |||
Initial temperature | [11, 15, 21, 22, 42-47] | [48] | [49] | |
Material properties | [13, 21, 23, 47, 50-68] | [37, 69-74, 127] | [75-77] | [4, 78-84] |
Heat transfer coefficients | [11, 12, 14, 21, 47, 56, 65, 85, 86] | [33, 35, 36, 87-89] | [90] | [91] |
Emissivity | [23, 61, 65] | |||
Heat generation rate | [2, 12, 15, 43, 46, 57, 66, 92-94] | [95] | ||
Geometry | [86, 96] | [70, 73, 97, 98] | [78] |
3. Case of random surface temperature or ambient temperature
Recently, as reliability and safety gain increasing importance in the design phase of high-temperature apparatuses or heat-resistant structures, conventional deterministic thermal stress analysis alone is not sufficient; analysis that considers uncertainties included in the analysis objects themselves and/or thermal environments (e.g., temperature of the surrounding media) is required. In general, accurately predicting the thermal or mechanical loads acting on structural components is very difficult [103]. Representative examples of such situations are random high-cycle temperature fluctuations observed at the upper core structure of fast-breeder reactors [34] and random variations in heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) around the stator vanes of gas turbines [87]. When uncertain factors are involved in thermal environments, the temperature and thermal stresses in objects should be evaluated stochastically.
We focused on existing studies that examined cases of random thermal boundary conditions. Samuels [2] analyzed the temperature field of a plate and sphere whose surface temperature fluctuated randomly; this was a pioneering work on heat conduction analysis using probabilistic methods. He applied the theory of random processes to determine the mean square temperature of bodies under the random heat conditions. Hung [6] analyzed the heat conduction of straight and circular fins whose root temperatures fluctuate randomly, and Yoshimura
Heller [7] derived the frequency response function for the temperature of an infinite plate subjected to random heating, from which the standard deviation of the temperature was estimated. Using a similar method, Heller also addressed the stochastic analysis for two-dimensional non-axisymmetric heat conduction of an infinite multilayered cylinder subjected to random heating at the outer surface [9]. Novichkov
In contrast, studies on thermal stresses for randomly heated bodies originated from Parkus’ work [3] on semi-infinite bodies. Heller [27] analyzed thermal stresses for a steel pipe with a concrete cylinder as a core material for which the surface temperature is expressed as a narrow-band random process. Lenyuk
Amada [32] stochastically analyzed the temperature and thermal stresses in an infinite plate, a solid sphere, and a solid cylinder where the surface temperature was assumed to be a stationary process. Consider an infinite plate of thickness
where
where
If
where < > denotes the expectation operator and
where
where
where
The mean square temperature is obtained by substituting
Tanaka
With regard to nonhomogeneous bodies, Sugano et al. analyzed the stochastic thermal stress problems of a nonhomogeneous plate [38] and disk [39] with randomly fluctuating surface temperature. They derived analytical solutions to the statistics of temperature and thermal stresses, assuming that the material properties of the objects vary in a certain way along one direction. Consider a nonhomogeneous annular disk of inner radius
where the thermal conductivity
where
As a numerical example, Sugano
Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of the mean square temperature for
Chiba
4. Case of random initial temperature
The initial temperature of structures is often uncertain (or random) in a real environment. For example, when space planes or space shuttles reenter the atmosphere, the initial temperature distribution of the fuselages is always uncertain [104]. Moreover, the temperature distribution in high-temperature apparatus, such as gas turbines, at the time of the resumption of operation is an uncertain factor in the design phase because of the time elapsed from shutdown and heat transfer from/to the surrounding media, such as a working fluid [103]. In order to investigate the effects of such randomness included in the initial temperature on the temperature and thermal stresses, stochastic analysis is absolutely imperative.
Thus far, stochastic studies on the heat conduction and thermal stress problems of solids with a random initial temperature have been limited. Ahmadi [42] studied the temperature field of an infinite plate and a semi-infinite body for which the initial temperature is a random field and showed that the randomness in the temperature diminishes over time. Subsequently, Grigorkiv
However, very few existing studies have dealt with the thermal stress problems for a random initial temperature. Chiba
Sugano
5. Case of random material properties
As can be found in Table 1, there are a relatively large number of stochastic studies on the heat conduction and thermal stress problems of objects with random material properties. Some examples of studies that employed analytical (mathematical) methods are as follows: Chen
Examples that employed numerical methods are given below. Nakamura
where
Hien
Aida
With regard to the stochastic analysis of FGMs, which considers the uncertainties of material properties, Poterasu
Hosseini
6. Case of random heat transfer coefficient
In real thermal environments, the HTCs of object surfaces are known to vary both temporally and spatially. For example, in the spinning process of light fiber wires, unsteady gas flow in furnaces has been reported to vary the spatial distribution of the HTCs of the fiber wire surface, which results in the variability of the wire diameter [106]. However, accurately predicting this spatial distribution of the HTCs is very difficult. In addition, the HTCs of turbine disk surfaces are influenced by many factors: the disk rotational speed, the presence or absence of shroud and neighboring disks, the distance from them, the velocity of cooling air, and its flow pattern. To make matters worse, these influences are nonlinear and change rapidly. Thus, accurate prediction of the HTCs is quite difficult. Moreover, there seems to be a measurement uncertainty of over 50% for the overall heat transfer coefficients of heat transfer surfaces of heat exchangers [107]. As long as the predicted values of HTCs include the uncertainties described above, a quantitative evaluation of the statistics of temperature and thermal stresses is needed to maintain an appropriate level of product quality or structure reliability. Hence, the temperature and thermal stresses in objects should be analyzed on the basis of the probability theory.
Stochastic studies on the heat conduction and thermal stress problems that consider spatial or temporal randomness in HTCs are scarce. Using a stochastic boundary element method, Drewniak [56] analyzed the steady-state heat conduction in solids for which the thermal conductivity or HTC is modeled as a random field. Madera [14] and Emery [65] analyzed the stochastic heat conduction problems of a rectangular fin for which they expressed the HTCs of the heat transfer surfaces as Gaussian white noise and a random field, respectively. The former derived partial differential equations for the expected value and covariance of temperature to present analytical solutions to these statistics under steady conditions. The latter used a higher-order perturbation method to analyze the problem and concluded that the use of first-order estimation for the standard deviation of temperature and second-order estimation for the mean response is preferable. Furthermore, the scale of correlation has been shown to have a strong effect on the statistics of the response. Kuznetsov [85] analyzed the stochastic heat conduction problem of an infinite strip for which the HTC is not a random field but is spatially random. Chiba [90] analytically obtained the second-order statistics, i.e., the mean and standard deviation, of the temperature for axisymmetrically heated FGM annular disks for which the surface HTCs are random fields. However, the abovementioned studies did not consider thermal stresses induced by the temperature changes.
In contrast, Mori
Chiba [89] analytically derived the second-order statistics of temperature and thermal stresses by a perturbation method in homogeneous annular disks for which the HTCs of the major surfaces are random fields. He assumed that the disks are subjected to a deterministic axisymmetric heat load. Numerical calculations were performed for the case where the surface HTCs are band-limited white noise random fields. The mean E[
Chiba [91] then analyzed the second-order statistics of the temperature and thermal stresses in FGM annular disks of variable thickness via Monte Carlo simulation; the HTCs of the disk surfaces were considered to be random fields and the disks were subjected to axisymmetric heat loads at the inner and outer radii.
7. Case of random internal heat generation/sink
Samuels [2] obtained analytical solutions of the mean and mean square value of the temperature field in a plate and sphere with randomly fluctuating surface temperature and spatiotemporally random internal heat generation. Becus [43] presented a solution to the heat conduction problem with a random heat source and random initial and boundary conditions. He also conducted a series of analytical studies on random heat conduction [108-111], which contributed greatly to the subsequent growth of this field. Vasseur
8. Case of random geometry
Shvets
Emery
9. Numerical methods for stochastic heat conduction problems
In this section, we present numerical methods proposed thus far for the stochastic analysis of heat conduction. Case
Madera [12, 114] obtained partial differential equations for the expectation and correlation of the stochastic temperature field for a solid subjected to random heating expressed by Gaussian white noise. These equations were solved by analytical methods (e.g., Green’s function method) or numerical methods (e.g., control volume method). Madera [76] also developed a numerical method for determining three-dimensional transient temperature fields described by stochastic heat conduction equations with random coefficients and by stochastic initial and boundary conditions. This method is based on stochastic mathematical model discretization by the FEM or the FDM and on the solution of the Volterra stochastic integral equations.
Nicolai
Liu
Xiu
Saleh
10. Concluding remarks
This article reviewed the historical progress in the stochastic analysis of heat conduction and related thermal stresses. Existing papers related to this topic were classified into six groups according to the type of random or uncertain parameters considered in the analysis, and an extensive literature review was presented for each group. The overview indicates that among the studies for homogeneous bodies, many treated heat conduction problems only, but only a limited number also investigated the effects of random parameters on thermal stresses (or thermal deformation). Studies on nonhomogeneous bodies are far fewer than those targeting homogeneous bodies, although the former are increasing in number. With regard to parameters considered as stochastic quantities, a number of studies have analyzed problems in which the surface temperatures of an object or ambient temperatures are regarded as stochastic quantities, i.e., random heating problems. Furthermore, quite a few studies assumed the material properties of analysis objects to be stochastic quantities.
Some future research directions related to this topic are suggested as follows:
In studies on the heat conduction and thermal stress analysis of bodies subjected to random heating, only stationary random processes have been targeted so far. Thus, when time functions included in thermal boundary conditions are nonstationary random processes, such as earthquake vibration, we need to divide the whole time interval into several intervals, conduct the analysis for a stationary process in each interval, and finally join the analysis results for the respective intervals. In an actual operation environment, structures may often be subjected to heat loads that are difficult to regard as stationary random processes. Therefore, the above analyses treated in the framework of the theory of a stationary random process need to be extended to nonstationary random processes.
Uncertainties included in the material properties of “materials with microstructure,” including particle-dispersed composite materials, are attributed to the variability in the microstructure (or microstructural morphology) as well as the variability in the material properties of the constituents. Hence, stochastic studies based on micromechanics, which consider various parameters at the microscale (e.g., the material properties of constituents and the shape and size of dispersed particles) as stochastic quantities, would be another potential research topic.
All the existing stochastic studies on thermal stresses in solids have focused on the elastic range. Structures in which advanced heat-resistant materials are used are supposed to undergo extremely large temperature gradients; therefore, they may undergo partial plastic deformation. Thus, in order to extend the discussion from the elastic range to the plastic range, the same type of stochastic studies on the thermo-elastic-plastic behavior is another topic remaining to be addressed.
The stochastic analyses of this field lead directly to the reliability evaluation of high-temperature structures that require higher safety, such as space planes, hot gas turbines, and atomic reactors. Because these analyses are required in a variety of fields— e.g., food engineering and geophysical science—, they have wide applicability.
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