Summary of masseter toxin injection complications.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7224",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book consists of four technical articles and an introduction that discusses the characteristics of persistent organic pollutant (POP) behavior, covering organic matter in lake sediments, degradation pathways of POPs and specific pesticides, and the adaptation mechanisms of bacteria. The contributing articles are from authors with different backgrounds and specialties from reputable organizations and institutions. The book analyzes the effects of POPs and their characteristic behavior in different environments. Readers will hopefully gain interesting knowledge from this book.",isbn:"978-1-78985-808-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-807-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-120-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74146",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"06c3095a17bf790c56c71013cc5e3ad6",bookSignature:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7224.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3440,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 10th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 28th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 27th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"26196",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen Kudom",middleName:null,surname:"Donyinah",slug:"stephen-kudom-donyinah",fullName:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26196/images/6606_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Stephen Kudom Donyinah holds a PhD in Environmental Science and Engineering (2004), Postgraduate Training in Computer Simulation and Applications to Petroleum Engineering, Geology and Related subjects in the Oil and Gas Industry, (2001), China University of Geosciences, PR China. He also holds a BSc (Hons) in Geological Engineering from KNUST, Kumasi (1990), a MSc in Petroleum Engineering, Oil and Natural Gas Exploration (1996). Dr Donyinah is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Petroleum Engineering, KNUST, Kumasi. In October, 1995, Dr Donyinah was a visiting Scholar to Stanford University, CA, USA. In 2002, he was awarded the “Who is Who Award for Achievement in Science” by International Biographical Center based in Cambridge, England. Dr. Donyinah has also participated in short courses in Petrskills Training in Houston, Texas, USA in 2010, 2012 and 2014 recpetively. He was an Associate Member of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) and member of the Ghana Institution of Engineers (GhIE).\nHe is currently serving as Third Vice Chairman of the Council of Institute of Oil and Gas and Hydrocarbon Studies, Abuja, Nigeria",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"133",title:"Environmental Pollution",slug:"environmental-pollution"}],chapters:[{id:"65151",title:"Introductory Chapter: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82465",slug:"introductory-chapter-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-",totalDownloads:511,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65151",authors:[{id:"26196",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen Kudom",surname:"Donyinah",slug:"stephen-kudom-donyinah",fullName:"Stephen Kudom Donyinah"}],corrections:null},{id:"63658",title:"Dissemination of Endosulfan into the Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81094",slug:"dissemination-of-endosulfan-into-the-environment",totalDownloads:431,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Claudia Rosales Landeros, Carlos Eduardo Barrera Díaz and Bryan\nBilyeu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63658",authors:[{id:"245522",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Barrera-Díaz",slug:"carlos-barrera-diaz",fullName:"Carlos Barrera-Díaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"64537",title:"Degradation Pathways of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79645",slug:"degradation-pathways-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:1143,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"James T. 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\r\n\tEvolutionary and developmental biology is focused on the investigation and the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying embryonic development from one generation to the other. It started quite early with Darwin and Mendel, but soon it became apparent that it is a complicated network of interacting genes after stimuli from molecules, our microbiome, other organisms or species and the environment that we live in. However, in recent years the accumulation of big data in the fields of genomics, medical records and other relevant datasets has rendered the study of evo-devo impossible without the aid from advanced and highly sophisticated computational models, which aim to mine and fuse information from diverse disciplines in the realm of evolution and developmental biology.
\r\n\tThis book aims to address the new developments in the rapidly evolving field of evo-devo in the post genomics era. All recent biological and medical breakthroughs in the evo-devo field are welcomed. Finally, review articles encompassing recent advances, development current and future trends are also more than welcomed.
The conventional energy sources such as oil, natural gas, or nuclear are finite and generate pollution. Alternatively, the renewable energy sources like wind, solar, tidal, fuel cell, etc are clean and abundantly available in nature. Among those the wind energy has the huge potential of becoming a major source of renewable energy for this modern world. In 2008, 27 GW wind power has been installed all over the world, bringing world-wide install capacity to 120.8 GW (GWEC publication, 2009).
The wind energy industry has developed rapidly through the last 20-30 years. The development has been concentrated on grid connected wind turbines (wind farms) and their control strategies. Conventional stall wind turbines are equipped with cage rotor induction generators, in which the speed is almost constant, while the variable speed and variable pitch wind turbines use doubly-fed induction generators or synchronous generators in connection with a power converter (partial rate or full rate). The variable speed wind turbine has a more complicated electrical system than the fixed-speed wind turbine, but it is able to achieve maximum power coefficient over a wide range of wind speeds and about (5-10) % gain in the energy capture can be obtained (Hansen, A.D. et.al, 2001).
In this paper a complete simulation model of a 6 x 2 MW constant-speed wind turbines (wind farm) using cage-rotor induction generators is presented using data from a wind farm installed in Denmark. The purpose of the model is to simulate the dynamical behaviour and the electrical properties of a wind turbine existing in a wind farm. The wind farm model has also been built to simulate the influence on the transient stability of power systems. The model of each wind turbine includes the wind fluctuation model, which will make the model useful also to simulate the power quality and to study control strategies of a wind turbine.
In order to simulate the wind turbine as a part of a distribution system, models have been developed for each element and implemented in the dedicated power system simulation tool DIgSILENT Power Factory.
The purpose of the model is to simulate the dynamical behaviour and the electrical properties of a wind turbine. The modelling of the wind turbine should create a model as simple as possible from a mechanical point of view, but capable of providing a good description of the electrical characteristics of a wind turbine.
The wind turbine model consists of different component models: wind model, aerodynamic model, transmission model and of the electrical components such as induction generator, soft-starter, capacitor bank and transformer model (Mihet-Popa, 2004). Aerodynamics is normally integrated with models for different wind conditions and structural dynamics.
The wind turbine is characterized by the non-dimensional curves of the power coefficient Cp as a function of both tip speed ratio λ, and the blade pitch angle, θpitch. The tip speed ratio is the ratio of linear speed at the tip of blades to the speed of the wind.
As shown in Fig. 1, the wind model generates an equivalent wind speed ueq, which, together with the blade pitch angle θblade and rotor speed ωrot, are input to the aerodynamic block. The output of the aerodynamic model is the aerodynamic torque Trot, which is the input for the transmission system together with the generator speed ωgen. The transmission system has as output the mechanical torque Thss on the high-speed shaft, which is used as an input to the generator model. Finally, the blade angle control block models the active control loop, based on the measured power and the set point.
A simplified block diagram of the wind turbine model is presented in Fig. 1.
The wind models describe the fluctuations in the wind speed, which influence the power quality and control characteristics of the wind farm. Thus, the wind speed model simulates the wind speed fluctuations that influence the fluctuations in the power of the wind turbines. The wind acting on the rotor plane of a wind turbine is very complex and includes both deterministic effects (mean wind, tower shadow) and stochastic variations due to turbulence (Mihet-Popa, 2003).
The block diagram of a simplified model for a constant-speed wind turbine using induction generator.
The simulations shown in Fig. 2 illustrate the effect of the rotational sampling. This hub wind speed is used as input to the rotor wind model to produce an equivalent wind speed (ueq), which accounts for the rotational sampling on each of the blades. The wind speed (wspoint), which influences the power quality, should be filtered to generate a hub wind speed (wsfic).
Figure 2 shows a simulation result for one wind turbine, based on a look-up table, at an average wind speed of 10 m/s.
As expected, both wind speed models fluctuate with three times the rotational frequency (3p).
A wind turbine is essentially a machine that converts the kinetic energy of the moving air (wind) first into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft and then into electrical energy (Heier S., 1998).
Fig. 3 describes the conversion of wind power (PWIND) into mechanical (PMEC) and thereafter into electrical power (PEL).
Rotor wind speed and hub wind speed model.
The interaction of the turbine with the wind is complex but a reasonably simple representation is possible by modelling the aerodynamic torque or the aerodynamic power as described below. Aerodynamic modelling also concerns the design of specific parts of wind turbines, such as rotor-blade geometry and the performance prediction of wind farms.
The force of the wind creates aerodynamic lift and drag forces on the rotor blades, which in turn produce the torque on the wind turbine rotor (Hansen et. al, 2003).
A block diagram of the power conversion in a wind turbine.
The aerodynamic torque is given by:
Where Paero is the aerodynamic power developed on the main shaft of a wind turbine with radius R at a wind speed ueq and air density ρ. It is expressed by:
The air density ρ is depending on the temperature and on the pressure of the air.
The dimensionless power coefficient Cp(λ, θpitch) represents the rotor efficiency of the turbine. It is taken from a look-up table, which contains the specific aerodynamic characteristics for the turbine.
This coefficient depends on the tip speed ratio
The efficiency coefficient (Cp) changes with different negative values of the pitch angle (00, -10, -20, -30) but the best efficiency is obtained for θpitch=00.
The aerodynamic model is based on Cp curves for the given rotor blades.
To describe the impact of the dynamic behaviour of the wind turbine, a simple model is considered, where the tower bending mode and the flap-bending mode of the wind turbine are neglected.
It is assumed that all the torsion movements are concentrated in the low speed shaft, as Tlss. Emphasis is placed on the parts of the dynamic structure of the wind turbine, which contributes to the interaction with the grid, i.e. which influence the power. Therefore only the drive train is considered in the first place because the other parts of the wind turbine structure have less influence on power.
The drive train model is illustrated in Fig. 4.
The rotor is modelled by inertia
It is also assumed that the losses in the gearbox are zero, thus the gear transmits ideally from the low speed to high speed. The output of the model is:
where ngear is ratio of the gear box.
Drive train model of the wind turbine.
The induction machine model is a combined mechanical and electro-magnetic model. The mechanical model includes the inertia of the generator rotor in the generator model.
Induction generators are 4/6 pole single cage machines (2MW/500kW) implemented using their nominal nameplate parameters.
The torque–slip and short-circuit test curves are used as a definition in the built–in DigSILENT asynchronous machine model.
Electrical parameter variations and different cage rotors with rotor current displacement can also be considered (DIgSILENT Power Factory user manual, 2010).
In the simulations presented in the following the induction generator is a single cage machines implemented using their nominal nameplate parameters, as can be seen in Fig. 5.
To wider the range of the output electrical power the generators are with double stator windings (2/0.5MW).
The switching between 4/6 pole operation is made as a function of output power.
In order to reduce the transient current during connection of the induction generator to the grid a soft starter is used. The soft-starter could minimize the impact of machine starting on the electrical network and also could helps to prolong the life of mechanical components.
Induction generator of 2 MW rating power implemented in DIgSILENT simulation tool based on its torque-slip curve and name plate values.
A soft-starter is an ac voltage controller in which the voltage is adjusted through the setting of the thyristors firing angle (Deleroi & Woudstra, 1991).
The soft-starter is designed to meet the industrial requirements of wind generator applications. In DIgSILENT Power Factory the soft starter is a stand-alone element. The commutation devices are 2 thyristors connected in anti-parallel for each phase.
The soft-starter modelling and its control implementation are described in details and a set of simulations are performed using DIgSILENT software simulation tool.
When the wind generator is driven to just bellow synchronous speed (approximately 93 %), under the action of its aerodynamic rotor, the soft starter is connected and using the firing angle control the machine is connected over the grid.
The connection diagram of soft starter fed a 4/6 poles double stator windings induction machine is presented in Fig. 6 a). Figure 6 b) shows the fully controlled topology with a delta-connected load. If thyristors are delta-connected, their control is simplified and their ratings considerably reduced. The delta arrangements generate, in the load, all the odd harmonics, but no triple harmonics. Harmonics of order 5, 7, 11, 13 … remain.
a) Connection diagram of the soft-starter with induction generators and schematic diagram of the soft-starter with delta connected load, b).
To get the controller started, two or three switches must be fired simultaneously to provide the path for current necessary to maintain the on-state. Switching variables may be introduced for 2 thyristors connected in anti-parallel for each phase and defined as equal to 1 when a given thyristor is conducting and equal to 0 otherwise. It can easily be demonstrated that the output voltages of the controller (soft-starter) are given by (6):
Depending on the firing angle, three modes of operation of the soft-starter can be distinguished, with a purely resistive load (Rombaut, et. al, 1987):
Analysis of operation of the controller with RL load is difficult since the extension angle and the so-called limit angle must be known. Mode 2, characterized by rapid changes of the output currents is impossible due to the load inductance. The ranges of the two remaining operation modes are φ ≤ α < αlim for mode 1 and αlim ≤ α < 150° for mode 3. The limit angle can be determined numerically from (7):
The equations for the RMS output voltage, of the fully controlled soft-starter with purely resistive and inductive loads are provided bellow:
Resistive load:
Inductive load
for 90° ≤ α < 120°
for 120° ≤ α < 150°
The envelope of control characteristics given by (8) through (12) is shown in Fig. 7. The relationship between the firing angle and the resulting amplification of the soft starter is highly non-linear and depends additionally on the power factor of the connected element. In the case of a resistive load α can vary between 0 (full on) and 90 (full off) degrees. While in the case of a purely inductive load α varies between 90 (full on) and 180 (full off) degrees. For any power factor in between, it will be somewhere between these limits, as can also be seen in Fig. 7.
In DIgSILENT the control parts (electrical controllers) of the wind turbine system, as the soft-starter control implementation, are written in the dynamic simulation language DSL. DSL implementation includes a complete mathematical description of (time-) continuous linear and nonlinear systems. A DSL model can also be converted into a graphical representation.
Control characteristic, Vout=f(α), for a fully controlled soft-starter (Rombaut, 1987).
Fig. 8 shows the soft-starter composite model implemented in DIgSILENT, in which “Control slot” represents the soft-starter controller while “Soft starter slot” is a block for checking the soft-starter state (working / bypassed).
Soft-starter composite model implemented in DIgSILENT.
The firing angle (α) is calculated according to the amplification factor (Kin) so that if Kin varies from 0 to 1, α will take values starting from a1 down to a2, (Mihet-Popa, L. et.al, 2008).
In witch a1, a2-maximum and minimum angles in degrees and a, b, c-switching variables for thyristors;
Wind turbines are designed to produce electrical energy as cheaply as possible. Therefore there are generally designed so that they yield maximum output power at wind speeds around (12-15) meters per second (Hansen, 2001).
In case of stronger winds it is necessary to waste a part of the excess energy of the wind in order to avoid damaging the wind turbine. All wind turbines are therefore designed with some sort of power control.
There are two different ways of doing this safely on modern wind turbines: pitch control and active stall control, as will be described as follows.
On a pitch controlled wind turbine the electronic controller checks the output power of the turbine several times per second. When the output power becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind whenever the wind drops again. The rotor blades thus have to be able to turn around their longitudinal axis (to pitch). During normal operation the blades will pitch a fraction of a degree at a time - and the rotor will be turning at the same time. Designing a pitch-controlled wind turbine requires some clever engineering to make sure that the rotor blades pitch exactly the amount required. The pitch mechanism is usually operated using hydraulics or electric stepper motors (Heier, 1998 & Muljadi, 1999).
As with pitch control it is largely an economic question whether it is worthwhile to pay for the added complexity of the machine, when the blade pitch mechanism is added.
Stall controlled (passive stall controlled) wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The geometry of the rotor blade profile however has been aerodynamically designed to ensure that the moment when the wind speed becomes too high ; it creates turbulence on the side of the rotor blade which is not facing the wind. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor. As the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of attack of the rotor blade will increase, until at some point it starts to stall. If you look closely at a rotor blade for a stall controlled wind turbine you will notice that the blade is twisted slightly as you move along its longitudinal axis. This is partly done in order to ensure that the rotor blade stalls gradually rather than abruptly when the wind speed reaches its critical value. The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself, and a complex control system (Mihet-Popa, L., 2003).
A normal passive-stall controlled wind turbine will usually have a drop in the electrical power output for higher wind speeds, as the rotor blades go into deeper stall. On the other hand, stall control represents a very complex aerodynamic design problem, and related design challenges in the structural dynamics of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-induced vibrations.
An increasing number of larger wind turbines (1 MW and more) are developed with an active stall power control mechanism. Technically the active stall turbines resemble pitch-controlled turbines, since they have pitch able blades. In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind speeds, the wind turbines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch controlled wind turbine at low wind speeds. Often they use only a few fixed steps depending upon the wind speed.
When the turbine reaches its rated power, however, it will notice an important difference from the pitch controlled wind turbines: If the generator is about to be overloaded, the turbine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction from what a pitch-controlled wind turbine does. In other words, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in order to make the blades go into a deeper stall, thus wasting the excess energy in the wind.
One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the active power more accurately than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the turbine at the beginning of a gust of wind. Another advantage is that the wind generator can be run almost exactly at the rated power of the machine at all high wind speeds.
The output power of wind turbines varies with wind speed, but is not proportional to it, as the energy that the wind contains increases with the cube of the wind speed. At low wind speeds (1-3 m/s), wind turbines are shut down, as they would be able to generate little or no power (Fig. 9).
Wind turbines only start-up at wind speeds between 2.5 and 5 m/s, known as the “cut-in” wind speed. “Nominal” or “rated” wind speed, at which nominal output power is reached, is normally between 12 and 15 m/s. The precise value depends on the ratio of generator capacity to rotor surface area, and is a design variable. Finally, any wind turbine has a “cut-out wind speed”: this is the wind speed at which the turbine is shut down to avoid structural overload. Its value is around 25 m/s for IEC Wind class I and II turbines. For IEC Wind Class III turbines, which generate maximum output power at lower wind speeds, the cut-out value is in the range of 17-20 m/s. Wind turbines are shut down if the 10-minute average of the wind speed is above this design value. Below nominal wind speed, the aim is to maximize rotor efficiency (Fig. 9).
The rotor efficiency depends on the ratio of the rotor blade tip speed and wind speed, known as the “tip speed ratio” (λ), described by:
The tip speed ratio of a fixed speed wind turbine cannot be controlled, as the rotor speed (and thus the blade tip speed) is fixed. Nevertheless, the tip speed ratio varies with wind speed, and thus reaches the optimum value at one wind speed only in case of fixed speed designs (or at two speeds if the wind turbine can operate at two different, but constant, rotor speeds).
With a variable speed wind turbine, the tip speed ratio varies, and depends both on wind speed and rotor speed. For maximum rotor efficiency, the tip speed ratio must be maintained at the value that corresponds to optimum rotor efficiency (usually 6-9) at all times. This is achieved by controlling the rotor speed accordingly. The higher aerodynamic efficiency that is thus achieved explains why a variable speed turbine generates more energy for the same wind speed regime.
At wind speeds below nominal, the aim is to extract energy from the wind as efficiently as possible; however, this ceases to apply above nominal wind speed, as this would overload the generator and/or the converter system. Above nominal wind speed, therefore, the mechanical power extracted from the wind must remain constant. To achieve this, the aerodynamic rotor efficiency must be reduced when the wind speed increases, as can also be seen in Fig. 9.
Typical power curves and operation areas of a stall (dashed line) and pitch controlled (solid line) wind turbines.
In a stall controlled wind turbine, the blades are designed such that the rotor efficiency “collapses” at high wind speeds. Due to the blade design, this behaviour is intrinsic, and no active control systems are required to achieve the aerodynamic efficiency reduction. In a pitch controlled wind turbine, the blades are gradually turned out of the wind, so the wind impact angle changes and the aerodynamic efficiency is reduced. In this case active stall control is applied, by means of hydraulics or an electric drive system. The input variable for the pitch controller is the rotor speed, as it is depicted in Fig. 10.
The higher the rotor speed, the more the blades are turned out of the wind. The blades are turned back into the wind when the rotor speed falls. In general, fixed speed turbines use stall control for technical reasons, while variable speed turbines are usually equipped with pitch control.
Rotor speed control principle for wind speeds above nominal.
The active-stall concept is similar to normal stall power limitation, except that the whole blade can be rotated backwards (in the opposite direction as is the case with pitch control) by a few (3-5) degrees at the nominal speed range in order to give better rotor control. The application of this concept is more or less restricted to fixed speed turbines.
Typical active-stall representatives are the Danish manufacturers Bonus (1 MW and over) and NEG Micon (now Vestas) (1.5, 2 MW and over).
The difference from active pitch control is not only that the range of blade angle variation is less, but also that the direction of the variation is opposite.
A common control concept for megawatt-size wind turbines/wind farms without power electronic converters is the active stall regulation. An active stall wind turbine is a stall controlled turbine with variable pitch angle. At high wind speeds, the pitch angle is adjusted to obtain the desired rated power level. When connecting the wind generator to the grid, the pitch angle is also adjusted in order to obtain a smooth connection. The use of active stall control also facilitates the emergency stopping of the turbine.
The control strategy called active-stall constant-speed involves the combined interaction between wind model, pitch control and the aerodynamics of the wind turbine, as can be seen in Fig. 11.
The blade angle control block models the active-stall control of the wind turbine based on the measured power and the reference one (Sorensen, P. et.al, 2001).
The most used electrical generator of an active-stall constant-speed turbine is a cage rotor induction generator connected to the grid through a soft-starter, as it is shown in Fig. 11.
A clear difference between stall and active stall controlled wind turbines is a pitch actuator system for variable pitch angles, as can be seen in Fig. 12, which allows the stall effect to be controlled.
The model of the pitch control system is based on the measured generator power (Pm) and the aerodynamic power (Paero) of wind turbine as a function of measured wind speed (vwind) at different pitch angles (θ).
Block diagram of an active-stall controlled wind turbine with constant speed using a cage-rotor induction generator
The block diagram of blade pitch angle control system.
The measured power is compared with its reference (Pref) and the error signal (Perr) multiplied by pitch angle of power control (f1(vav)) is sent to the PI-controller producing the pitch angle demand (θdp), which together with maximum pitch angle-upper limit (θmax) are sent to the pitch limitation non-linear block producing the reference value of the pitch angle (θref). The reference value is in the range between the optimised pitch (θdp) and the maximal pitch angle (θmax=900). The maximum value is defined as a function of average wind speed (f2(vav)). The reference value is, further, compared to the actual pitch angle (θpitch) and the error signal (θe2) is corrected by the pitch hydraulics.
This control strategy takes its origin in the power coefficient curves Cp(θ, u), typical for a 2 MW constant speed wind turbine, as it is depicted in Fig. 13.
Cp represents the rotor (aerodynamic) efficiency of the wind turbine and depends on the pitch angle θ and on the tip speed ratio λ. In order to achieve maximum power yield for each wind speed the maximal Cp and the corresponding θ has to be found.
Power coefficient (Cp) of a 2MW wind turbine versus wind speed (a), and the tip speed ration (λ), (b) at different pitch angles.
In order to achieve maximum power yield for each wind speed the maximal Cp and the corresponding θ has to be found. In fact, the control strategy is characterised by two terms: the optimal region and the power limiting region. In the optimal region (between start-up wind speed and nominal wind speed), the output power is designed to fulfil the criterion of maximal Cp, which corresponds to the optimal energy capture, by keeping the tip speed ration (λ) constant. In the power limiting region (between nominal wind speed and cut-out wind speed), the output power is kept constant, while the wind turbine will pitch the blades a few degrees every time when the wind changes in order to keep the rotor blades at the optimum angle. When the wind turbine reaches its rated power, and the generator is about to be overloaded, the turbine will pitch its blades in the opposite direction. In this way, it will increase the angle of attack of the rotor blades in order to make the blades go into a deeper stall, thus wasting the excess energy in the wind.
The wind farm contains 6 wind turbines of 2 MW each of them. The model of wind turbine, presented before, was implemented for each wind turbine.
The layout of the active-stall wind farm is shown in Fig. 14 and a load flow simulation for one wind turbine in Fig. 15. Each wind turbine is connected to a 10 kV bus bar. The induction generators, soft-starters, capacitor banks for reactive power compensation and the step-up transformers are all palaces in nacelle and thus the transformer is considered part of the wind turbine.
The control of active and reactive power is based on measured reactive power at the point of common coupling. The wind turbine controller must be able to adjust the wind turbine production to the power reference computed in the wind farm control system, according to the demands imposed by the system operator. In case of normal operation conditions the wind turbine has to produce maximum power. In power limitation operation mode the wind turbine has to limit its production to the power reference received from the wind farm controller.
The Fig. 14 contains the grid representation from 50 kV double bus-bar systems down to the wind turbines. Two 16 MVA 50/10kV transformers are included, one is connected to the wind farm and one supplies some custom loads.
10 kV cables make the connection between the 10 kV substation and the wind turbines.
As the turbines are placed in groups of 3, a backup cable is also represented on the scheme. The wind turbine contains also the tower cable making the connection between the 0.96 kV/10 kV transformer and the 10 kV cable at the bottom of the tower. The 10 kV cables are modelled using the existing DIgSILENT model toolbox.
The power factor compensation units are represented by a capacitor bank on this scheme and a Static VAR System (SVS) unit. The switching of capacitors is done as a function of average value of measured reactive power. In order to limit the starting current transients during the 2 MW generator connections to the grid, a soft starter start-up is used. The generators are connected when the generator speed is higher than the synchronous speed. The generators are full load compensated.
MW wind farm diagram implemented in Digsilent.
In Fig. 15 is depicted a case of load flow simulation when the wind turbines are work at nominal conditions (2MW) and full power factor compensation is used.
To evaluate the performance of wind turbine control system a set of simulations are performed using a power system analysis software-DIgSILENT Power Factory, which provides the ability to simulate load flow, RMS fluctuations and transient events in the same software environment. This makes the developed models useful for the power quality studies as well as for the grid fault studies. The RMS simulations are based on
Power-flow simulation for a wind turbine working at nominal conditions.
electro-mechanical transient models, which are simplified models than those used in EMT simulations. They are more appropriate for the most studies of power quality and control issues. They are much faster than the instantaneous value simulation compared to the period, which is simulated. The EMT simulations, as they are based on detailed electromagnetic transient models, are appropriate for studies of the behaviour during grid faults.
To simulate the wind turbines, models have been developed for each element and implemented in the dedicated power system simulation tool DIgSILENT (DIgSILENT Power Factory user manual, 2010). The DIgSILENT simulation tool has a dedicated model for many components, such as induction generators, which take into account the current displacements in the rotor, the torque–slip and short circuit test curves. Also models of synchronous machines, transformers, bus bars, grid models, static converters etc are provided.
The aerodynamic torque (torque_rot-Trot) accelerates the wind turbine rotor, with the generator disconnected from the grid, until the rotor speed (omega_rot-ωrot) is close to its nominal value. Then the generator is connected to the grid as seen in Fig. 16. The basic idea is to control the rotational speed using only measurement of the power (or torque), as it is depicted in Fig. 1 and by equations (1) and (2) as well.
Transmission model during start-up. Aerodynamic torque (torque_rot), mechanical torque (torque_mec), generator speed (omega_gen) and rotor speed (omega_rot) of wind turbine system.
The control strategy of active stall constant speed wind turbine contains three modes of operation: acceleration control (speed control), power control (power limiting region) and direct pitch control (blade angle control).
The acceleration and pitch control modes are used during start-up, shut down and emergency conditions, while the power control mode is only used during normal operations.
Figure 17 shows how a 2 MW wind turbine with constant speed works during different operation conditions, such as sudden changes in wind speed (wind gusts) with a turbulence intensity of 12 %, at high wind speed.
Simulation results during sudden changes in wind speed for a 2MW active stall constant-speed wind turbine using CRIG.
In Fig. 18 the 2 MW induction generator was connected to the grid through a soft-starter (in order to reduce the transient current), at t=73 seconds and then the soft-starter was by-passed at t=77 seconds.
In the same time the power factor compensation unit started to work using capacitor switching, as a function of average value of measured reactive power.
The mean wind speed was 12 m/s. At t=100 seconds the mean wind speed was modified to 18 (m/s) and at t=170 seconds mean wind speed was modified again at 11 (m/s) to simulate sudden changes in wind speed and to test the system performance and implemented control strategy, as it is also shown in Fig. 17.
The active and reactive powers have been able to follow these changes in all situations. It is concluded that the wind turbine absorbed the transients very fast and the control strategy offers a good stability of the system during transition of dynamic changes.
Reactive power compensation with capacitors connected in steps (on top) and the soft-starter by-passed controller (SS_controller: KIN).
The comparison between simulations and measurements will be done to validate the developed model. It is performed for the case of continuous operation, and is based on power quality measurements for a 2 MW wind turbine from an existing wind farm in Denmark. The wind speed measurement was provided by the anemometer of the control system placed on the top of the nacelle and the power quality measurements were performed as sampling of instantaneous values of three-phase currents and voltages with a sampling frequency of 3.2 kHz, as shown in Fig. 19a).
Fig. 19 presents a comparison between measured (Fig. 19a) and simulated (Fig. 19b) of wind speed, pitch angle and active power of a 2 MW WT under power control mode. The power control mode is used during normal operations. It is clear that at high wind speed (around 18 m/s), using the active stall regulation, the pitch angle is continuously adjusted to obtain the desired rated power level (2 MW).
Power control mode of a 2 MW active-stall constant speed WT. Measured wind speed and active power under pitch control regulated during 170 minutes (a) and simulation of wind speed, active power and pitch angle versus time (b).
In this paper simulation of a 6 x 2 MW wind turbine plant (wind farm) has been presented.
A wind farm model has been built to simulate the influence on the transient stability of power systems. The model of each wind turbine includes the wind fluctuation model, which will make the model useful also to simulate the power quality and to study control strategies of a wind turbine.
The control scheme has been developed for each wind turbine control including soft starter start-up, and power factor compensation.
The above presented model can be a useful tool for wind power industry to study the behaviour and influence of big wind turbines (wind farm) in the distribution network.
The computer simulations prove to be a valuable tool in predicting the system behaviour. Especially in wind power applications, DIgSILENT Power Factory has become the de-facto standard tool, as all required models and simulation algorithms are providing unmet accuracy and performance.
One future research step is to investigate and enhance the controller’s capabilities to handle grid faults. Another interesting issue is to explore the present controllers in the design of a whole wind farm and the connection of the wind farm at different types of grid and storage systems.
This work was carried out with the support of Aalborg University-Denmark. I would like to thanks Professor Frede Blaabjerg for his suggestions and useful discussions.
Global consensus on facial beauty in different races shares certain common features, including an oval facial shape and a V-shaped chin and jawline [1, 2]. One of the characteristic features of an Asian face is a square-shaped lower face caused by masseter muscle hypertrophy, making this a popular request for esthetic treatment [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Since the first report on treating masseter hypertrophy with botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) was published in 1994 [8], BoNT injections for masseter hypertrophy have become quite popular not just among Asian patients but among Caucasian patients as well [9, 10], despite being an off-label indication.
Generally, the treatment of masseter muscle hypertrophy with BoNT-A is very effective and quite safe, though the possibilities of side effects still exist and are prevalent enough to warrant attention [3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Recently, our group reported the collective data on 680 masseter hypertrophy patients receiving 2036 BoNT-A treatments over a 6-year period [13]. The causes of side effects after masseter toxin injection treatment were organized into four groups and summarized in Table 1. Each complication will be discussed separately below.
Category | Etiology/cause | Prevention/treatment | Incidence |
---|---|---|---|
Nonmuscular origin | |||
Bruising | Damaged vessels | Compression after inj. | 2.5% [13] |
Hematoma (rare) | Trauma to the arteriole or vein | Compression after inj. | N/A |
Dizziness | Unknown | Rest | 0.9% [12] |
Headache | Unknown | Rest | 0.58% [13] |
Toxin effect-related | |||
Chewing weakness | Transient muscle weakness | Abates within a week | 30% [13] |
Temporalis m. hypertrophy | Compensatory m. overactivity | Injection over temporalis m. | N/A |
Dosage-level-related | |||
Poor or no effect | Insufficient dosage/overly superficial inj. | Good inj. Dose/depth/toxin resistance | No effect (0.1%) [13] |
Asymmetricity | Same dose on different sizes of hypertrophy m. | Adjust dose according to muscular size | N/A |
Jowling/sagging | High dosage in elderly patient | Reduce dose, multiple ℞, inj. lower face depressors (platysma) | 0.20% [13] |
Paradoxical bulging (muscle bulging during mastication) | Superficial masseter m. fiber overactivity | Inj. over superficial masseter if not abated after 1–2 weeks Prevent inj. deep and superficial m. fibers | 0.49% [13] |
Injection site-related | |||
Sunken temporal fossa | Atrophy of the temporalis m. and downward displacement of the temporal and cheek fat pads | Prevent inj. too high Filler injection over temporal area | 0.05% [14] |
Loss of full smile/asymmetric smile | Inj. too high or anterior, effect on zygomatic major or risorius m. | Inj. in the injection safe zone, and ideally keep 0.5–1 cm from each border of the safe zone Most complications resolve spontaneously after some time | 0.15% [13] |
Sunken lateral cheeks (infrazygomatic hollow) | Inj. too high, excess dose | 0.44% [13] | |
Difficulty in mouth opening | Inj. too high, effect on lateral pterygoid m. | 0.9% [12] | |
Xerostomia | Inj. too posterior, effect on parotid gland function | 6.3% [14] | |
Neuropraxia (very rare) | Inj. too inferior, damage to marginal mandibular nerve | One case report [15] |
Summary of masseter toxin injection complications.
This includes bruising, hematoma, headaches, and dizziness.
Injury of small vessels during injection may cause bruising. Bruising is one of the most common but least severe side effects and usually dissipates in 5–7 days without sequelae. Our study reported a bruising incidence rate of 2.5%.
The masseter muscle is a relatively thick and strong muscle and is well vascularized. There are four major arteries that supply the upper, middle, lower, and medial parts of the masseter: the external carotid artery, the facial artery, the maxillary artery, and branches of the superficial temporal artery [16]. Needle penetration of these arteries and subsequent failure to apply compression may result in hematomas.
Headaches after treatment is of unknown etiology and is also quite rare, with literature usually reporting below 1% (our study reported 0.58%). It may be linked to individual physiological differences, and the same individuals who have suffered from posttreatment headaches are likely to encounter headaches again in the future treatment. Headaches may occur immediately after injection and take about 2–4 days to recover.
This includes chewing weakness and temporalis muscle compensatory hypertrophy.
Decreased masticatory force is the most commonly encountered side effect of masseter toxin injection: our study reported a prevalence of 30%. This side effect is caused by BoNT physiology and is perhaps unavoidable in cases where higher dosages are required. Reduction of mastication force starts at around 1–4 weeks after treatment and gradually improves in the following weeks. Mastication force generally returns to pretreatment levels by the 12th week of postinjection [17, 18].
Since chewing weakness is the most commonly encountered side effect, it is theoretically possible, though not yet reported, for patients to develop compensatory overactivity and hypertrophy of another mastication muscle such as the temporalis muscle.
This includes poor effect, asymmetricality, jowling, sagging, and paradoxical bulging.
Poor effect of treatment is mostly due to insufficient dosage or a superficial placement of the toxin. However, it is also possible (though extremely rare; only one case was reported by our study) for a patient to exhibit a complete lack of response to treatment. The etiology of this may be due to individual immunity to the toxin.
Asymmetry may occur if the physician fails to recognize the size differences between the left and right masseters before treatment. In many patients, unilateral preference in chewing will result in a bilateral discrepancy in masseter size. It is crucial to keep this in mind when doing pretreatment evaluations, which then allows the physician to adjust the dosage according to the patient’s underlying asymmetry.
Worsened jowls is likely due to overly rapid posttreatment masseter atrophy, which results in volume reduction and sagging of the overlying soft tissue envelope [9]. The incidence of this complication is around 0.2% as reported by our study and usually occurs in patients over 40. To prevent this side effect, physicians should reduce the dose and separate treatment into multiple sessions, which will slow down the speed of muscular atrophy and provide enough time for the overlying skin to contract. Additional toxin injection into the platysma muscle may mitigate facial depressor action, making sagging less likely.
Paradoxical bulging, or masseter bulging during mastication [19], has an incidence rate around 0.49% as reported by our study. Excessive compensation of the untreated superficial layer of the masseter muscle may be a possible explanation for this complication. A recent published study [20] discovered a tendinous structure (deep inferior tendon (DIT)) located in the deeper part of the superficial masseter muscle layer in all cadaver specimens examined. The DIT may block toxin diffusion from the deep layer to the superficial layer; therefore, the superficial layer may be unaffected and prone to overcompensation in the event of masseter weakness [20]. The onset of paradoxical bulging is usually within 24 hours of treatment, and recovery is within 10 days [9]. If recovery has not been achieved within 10–14 days, a booster BoNT injection of about 5–10 units to the untreated superficial layer can usually correct this side effect. Injecting both deep and superficial muscle fibers should prevent this side effect [20].
This includes the loss of the full smile, asymmetrical smile, sunken lateral cheeks, difficulty in opening of the mouth, xerostomia, and neuropraxia.
Also called smile limitation, our study reported incidence rates of about 0.15%. Smile limitation may be due to toxin diffusion into the risorius muscle; in a cadaver study, the risorius attaches to the anterior or middle part of the masseter in more than 97% of cases [21]. Smile limitation usually takes around 1–3 months to recover [9]. Thorough knowledge of muscular anatomy is important to prevent this complication, and the physician should set an injection safe zone at least 1 cm from the anterior border of the masseter and keep to a deep injection level.
An asymmetric smile may be caused by paralysis of the zygomatic major muscle. This may occur if the physician injects in a position which is too high and too anterior. Keep the injections to the lower, more posterior part of the masseter muscle to avoid this complication.
The sunken lateral cheek, or concave below the zygomatic arch, is caused by over hollowing of the infrazygomatic region resulting from volume loss over the upper parts of the masseter muscle. Our study reports an incidence rate of about 0.44%. Sunken lateral cheeks may be due to a high position of injection and simply keep the injection sites over the lower part of the masseter to prevent it.
Difficulty in opening of the mouth is a rare complication; according to one report, the incidence was 2 out of 220 treated patients [12]. This complication is caused by toxin paralysis of the lateral pterygoid muscles, possibly arising from an injection site that is high and deep enough to reach past the coronoid notch and affect the pterygoid muscle. Another possible etiology may be abnormal activity of the temporomandibular joint. For prevention, the physician should only inject the lower part of masseter muscle and keep at least a centimeter below the upper safety margin of masseter injection.
Sunken temporal fossa is a rare side effect with an incidence of about 0.05%, as reported by a Chinese study in 2017 [22]. This complication is likely from a combination of two etiologies: atrophy of the temporalis muscle as a result of drug dispersion and downward displacement of the temporal and cheek fat pads as a result of masseter relaxation [22]. This side effect appears about 1 month after treatment.
Xerostomia is a complication due to toxin effect on the parotid gland. The reported incidence rate for xerostomia is around 6.3% [14]. Keeping the injection site 1 cm away from the posterior margin of the masseter (thus avoiding the usual location of the parotid gland) can be helpful for the prevention of xerostomia.
Neuropraxia [11] is a very rare complication caused by paralysis of the marginal mandibular nerve. There has only been one case report in which the patient experienced temporary marginal mandibular nerve paralysis. Symptoms improved within 2 weeks [15].
In one cadaver study, the marginal mandibular nerve runs about 0.1–1.0 cm from the mandibular border [23]. Physicians should therefore keep the injection site 1 cm from the lower margin of the masseter.
Neurapraxia is an exceedingly rare complication and is caused by paralysis of the marginal mandibular nerve. There were no cases in the author’s two decades of experience with masseter toxin injections.
A range of other possible adverse effects may occur but are usually only reported in single case reports. These include speech disturbance, altered gustatory sensation, incidental aggravation of venous malformation, madarosis, facial alopecia, and acute visual loss [4, 5, 6, 24, 25, 26, 27].
If the anterior to posterior width of the masseter is less than 3–5 cm, inject 20–30 units of onabotulinum toxin per side [28]. This amount may vary slightly by case depending on muscle size and individual needs. Repeated injection could be done every 3–6 months for optimized cosmetic outcome.
Before injection, physician should mark the anterior, posterior, inferior, and superior borders of the “injection safe zone.” The anterior and posterior borders of the safe zone are the anterior and posterior edges of the masseter muscle, and the inferior border is the inferior edge of the mandible. The upper border of safe zone runs from the mouth corner to the earlobe. Keep injections inside the safe zone and ideally in 3–4 different locations at least 0.5–1 cm from each border (Figure 1).
The recommended safety zone for masseter toxin injections is a quadrilateral with its upper border running from mouth corner to earlobe, its anterior and posterior borders the anterior and posterior edges of the masseter muscle, respectively, and its inferior border the inferior edge of the mandible. Injection safe zone, marked in lighter blue, and the ideal injection safe zone of 1cm away from each border, marked in darker blue. The mandible angle marked with large red circle. Suggested injection points mark with small red dot, with 3 points (A) or 4 points injection (B).
BoNT-A masseter injections can achieve satisfactory results with mostly mild and infrequent complications. However, adverse effects can still impact patient satisfaction, so an understanding of the regional muscular anatomy, appropriate dosing, injection location, and injection depth are all important aspects to consider when planning and performing treatment. In particular, the injection safety zone should be clearly demarcated by the physician before injection by identification of its four borders: upper border running from the mouth corner to the earlobe, anterior and posterior borders of the anterior and posterior edges of the masseter muscle, respectively, and inferior border of the inferior edge of the mandible. Keeping injections inside the safe zone, and ideally in 3–4 different locations at least 1 cm from any border, is crucial for the prevention of common side effects mentioned above (Figure 1A and B). Physicians should also know about the different characteristics of various complications, their etiological origin, their management, and their prevention.
Nothing to disclose for this report.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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